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53-664: The title Sifre debe Rav (lit. "the books of the school of Abba Arikha ") is used by Chananel ben Chushiel , Isaac Alfasi , and Rashi ; it occurs likewise in Makkot 9b. The 8th century author of Halachot Gedolot names four "exegetical books belonging to the Scribes" (Heb. Midrash sofrim ) and which, in all appearances, seem to refer to "Sifre debe Rav" and which comprised the following compositions: 1) Genesis Rabbah 2) Mekhilta of Rabbi Shimon ben Yochai (on Exodus ), 3) Sifrei (on Numbers) and 4) Sifrei (on Deuteronomy). Regarding

106-537: Is accorded the right, rarely conceded to one who is only an amora , of disputing the opinion of a tanna . Rav was a descendant of a distinguished Babylonian family which claimed to trace its origin to Shimei , brother of King David . His father, Aibo, was a brother of Hiyya the Great who lived in Palestine , and was a highly esteemed scholar in the collegiate circle of the patriarch Judah haNasi. From his associations in

159-424: Is his title, just as Moses and Abraham have no titles before their names. (An addition is sometimes given after a name to denote significance or to differentiate between two people with the same name. Examples include Avraham Avinu (Abraham our father) and Moshe Rabbeinu (Moses our teacher). Similarly, Hillel is often referred to as Hillel Hazaken (Hillel the elder). Starting with Rabbi Judah haNasi (Judah

212-507: Is referred to as the son of noblemen, but it is not clear if this is an affectionate term or a true description of his status. Rashi does tell us that he is being described as the son of great men. He was highly respected by the Gentiles as well as by the Jews of Babylonia, as shown by the friendship which existed between him and the last Parthian emperor , Artabanus IV . He was deeply affected by

265-452: Is the root word of Mishnah . The verb shanah means "to repeat [what one was taught]" and is used to mean "to learn". The Mishnaic period is commonly divided into five periods according to generations. There are approximately 120 known Tannaim. The Tannaim lived in several areas of the Land of Israel . The spiritual center of Judaism at that time was Jerusalem , but after the destruction of

318-534: Is the only one of them whose aggadic utterances approach in number and contents those of the Palestinian haggadists. The Jerusalem Talmud has preserved a large number of his halakhic and aggadic utterances; and the Palestinian Midrashim also contain many of his aggadot . Rav delivered homiletic discourses, both in the beit midrash and in the synagogues. He especially loved to discuss in his homilies

371-490: The baraita in the sense of the prescribed halakha . But the baraita must in fact be interpreted in the opposite sense, namely, as following the view of Rabbi Ishmael, who, because עד always implies "two," as appears from Jerusalem Talmud Soṭah 20d, demands also in the case of a woman charged with adultery two witnesses of the alleged crime. The passage introduced by the phrase סתם ספרי ‎ (Sifre 161) = "an anonymous Sifre," likewise echoes Rabbi Ishmael's views; and

424-680: The Euphrates , where he established a school of his own, which soon became the intellectual center of the Babylonian Jews. As a renowned teacher of the Law and with hosts of disciples, who came from all sections of the Jewish world, Rav lived and worked in Sura until his death. Samuel of Nehardea , another disciple of Judah haNasi, at the same time brought to the academy at Nehardea a high degree of prosperity; in fact, it

477-615: The Houses of Hillel and Shammai came to represent two distinct perspectives on Jewish law , and disagreements between the two schools of thought are found throughout the Mishnah . The Tannaim , as teachers of the Oral Law , are said to be direct transmitters of an oral tradition passed from teacher to student that was written and codified as the basis for the Mishnah, Tosefta , and tannaitic teachings of

530-631: The Lekach Tov quote from the Sifre passages which are no longer extant. While the middle, halakhic portion of the Sifre to Deuteronomy belongs to Akiva 's school, the aggadic portions preceding and following it seem to come from works of R. Ishmael 's school. This appears clearly in the first part, which shows many formal and material similarities with the Mekhilta . In regard to the latter portion, it may be said that Sifre, Deut. 344 reproduces R. Ishmael's view on

583-457: The Mekhilta le-Sefer Devarim (Mekhilta to Deuteronomy). Those frequently mentioned in the latter (Rabbi Josiah, Rabbi Jonathan, Nathan the Babylonian, and Rabbi Isaac) are mentioned rarely in the Sifre; and even then their names are evidently later additions. Many passages quoted as being anonymous correspond with Rabbi Akiva 's views. Similarly, some halakhic differences between the Sifre and

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636-705: The Mishnah as a foundational text, led to the compilation of the Talmud . With him began the long period of ascendancy of the prestigious Talmudic academies in Babylonia around the year 220. In the Talmud, he is frequently associated with Samuel of Nehardea , a fellow amora with whom he debated many issues. His surname, Arikha (English: the Tall ), he owed to his height, which exceeded that of his contemporaries. Others, reading Arekha , consider it an honorary title, "Lecturer". In

689-697: The Sanhedrin . Rabban was a higher title than Rabbi , and it was given to the Nasi starting with Rabban Gamaliel Hazaken (Gamaliel the Elder). The title Rabban was limited to the descendants of Hillel, the sole exception being Rabban Yochanan ben Zakai , the leader in Jerusalem during the siege , who safeguarded the future of the Jewish people after the Great Revolt by pleading with Vespasian . Rabbi Eleazar ben Azariah , who

742-496: The Talmud . According to rabbinic tradition, the Tannaim were the last generation in a long sequence of oral teachers that began with Moses . Early rabbinic Bible exegesis was preserved in tannaitic texts compiled in the second century CE or later, but is likely to contain much earlier material. It certainly contains some interpretations that can be traced back explicitly to the first century CE because of parallels with motifs found in

795-713: The rabbinic sages whose views are recorded in the Mishnah , from approximately 10–220 CE. The period of the Tannaim, also referred to as the Mishnaic period, lasted about 210 years. It came after the period of the Zugot "Pairs" and was immediately followed by the period of the Amoraim "Interpreters". The root tanna ( תנא ) is the Aramaic equivalent of the Hebrew root shanah ( שנה ), which also

848-461: The King, and the reward of the righteous from the first Adam, on whom was laid only one commandment of a prohibitive character, and he transgressed it. See how many deaths were appointed on him, and on his generations, and on the generations of his generations to the end of all generations. But which attribute is the greater - the attribute of goodness or the attribute of punishment (retribution)? He answered,

901-552: The Mekhilta may be pointed out. All these points indicate that the Sifre to Deuteronomy originated in Rabbi Akiva's school; and, as several anonymous passages may be cited to express the views of Shimon bar Yochai, this midrash may with a fair degree of certainty be ascribed to him. Such anonymous passages are found in Sifre 72–74, several sections of which Makkot 17a identifies as Shimon bar Yochai's interpretations. The same appears to be

954-413: The Mekhilta. The aggadic portions likewise contain many parallel passages. It is especially noteworthy that the explanation in Sifre of the sotah law corresponds with a view expressed by Rabbi Ishmael (and also with the prescribed halakha ), that one witness being sufficient to convict, the ordeal of the bitter water is not necessary. The explanation given in the Sifre to Numbers thus contradicts

1007-651: The Rosh Hashana mussaf service as a prologue to the Kingship portion of the Amidah . For that reason some attribute to Rav the authorship, or at least the revising, of Aleinu. In this noble prayer are evinced profound religious feeling and exalted thought, as well as ability to use the Hebrew language in a natural, expressive, and classical manner. The many homiletic and ethical sayings recorded of him show similar ability. The greatest aggadist among Babylonian Amoraim , he

1060-570: The Sifre is that of Venice , 1545. Other editions are: Hamburg , 1789; Sulzbach , 1802; with commentary by David Pardo , Salonica , 1804; with commentary by Abraham Lichtstein (זרא אברהם), part i., Dyhernfurth , 1811; part ii., Radwill , 1820; ed. Friedmann, Vienna, 1864. A Latin translation of the Sifre is found in Biagio Ugolini , Thesaurus, vol. xv. A modern English translation is that of Jacob Neusner , Sifre to Numbers (1986) and Sifre to Deuteronomy (1987). Reuven Hammer translated

1113-446: The Sifre must have been undertaken in the time of the Amoraim , since some of them, e.g., Rabbai Bannai and Rabbi Jose ben Ḥanina , are mentioned therein. Both the Sifre to Numbers and that to Deuteronomy are divided into sections. It may be said in general of the Sifre to Numbers and also of that to Deuteronomy that they are defective in many passages, and that the Amoraim probably possessed more trustworthy copies. Even Rashi and

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1166-576: The Sifre now extant; for this work is certainly not identical with the Talmudic Sifre; and, on closer investigation, it is found to be not a uniform work, but one composed of parts which did not originally belong together. Zecharias Frankel drew attention to the difference between that portion of the Sifre which refers to Numbers and that which refers to Deuteronomy, although, curiously enough, he misunderstood this difference and consequently arrived at false conclusions. David Hoffmann has correctly defined

1219-459: The Sifre to Deuteronomy represents Shimon bar Yochai's midrash in its original form, these few exceptions prove nothing. The editor certainly drew upon other midrashic works besides Shimon bar Yochai's midrash, especially upon that of Rabbi Ishmael, as appears from a comparison with the Mekhilta to Deuteronomy, as well as from the fact that several passages introduced by תנא [דבי] ר"י occur in the Sifre. Sifre 107, however, by no means corresponds with

1272-401: The Talmud, the most distinguished being the eldest, Chiyya. Chiyya did not, however, succeed his father as head of the academy: this post fell to Rav's disciple Rav Huna . Two of his grandsons occupied in succession the office of exilarch . Rav died at an advanced age, deeply mourned by numerous disciples and the entire Babylonian Jewry, which he had raised from comparative insignificance to

1325-405: The assumption that the editor in addition borrowed much from Shimon bar Yochai 's midrash and other less-known midrashim. Among the tannaim appearing in the Sifre to Numbers are: The Sifre to Deuteronomy is of an entirely different nature. The main portion (Nos. 53-303), halakhic in character, is preceded and followed by aggadic parts, and it has all the characteristics of a midrash from

1378-439: The attribute of goodness is the greater, and the attribute of punishment the less. And Messiah the King, who was chastened and suffered for the transgressors, as it is said, “He was wounded for our transgressions,” and so on, how much more shall he justify (make righteous, by his merit) all generations; and this is what is meant when it is written, “And Jehovah made to meet upon him the sin of us all." The earliest extant edition of

1431-494: The case in Sifre 94, compared with Sanhedrin 112a; ib. 103 with Kiddushin 57a; ib. 121 with Sanhedrin 46b. Sifre 166, and perhaps also 165, likewise correspond with Shimon bar Yochai's views; while in Sifre 303 the explanation of לא בערתי ממנו בטמא, and the omission of בכורים, also imply an agreement therewith. There are, however, some exceptions to the rule. Sifre 230 likewise contradicts Shimon bar Yochai's view, according to Kil'ayim 7:7. But, since it has not been claimed that

1484-634: The city and the Second Temple , Yohanan ben Zakkai and his students founded a new Council of Jamnia . Other places of learning were founded by his students in Lod and in Bnei Brak . Some Tannaim worked as laborers (e.g., charcoal burners, cobblers) in addition to their positions as teachers and legislators. They were also leaders of the people and negotiators with the Roman Empire . The Tannaim operated under

1537-568: The death of Artaban in 226 and the downfall of the Parthian rulers, and does not appear to have sought the friendship of Ardashir I , founder of the Sasanian Empire , although Samuel of Nehardea probably did so. Rav became closely related, through the marriage of one of his daughters, to the family of the exilarch. Her sons, Mar Ukban and Nehemiah, were considered types of the highest aristocracy. Rav had many sons, several of whom are mentioned in

1590-628: The events and personages of Biblical history; and many beautiful and genuinely poetic embellishments of the Biblical record, which have become common possession of the aggadah , are his creations. His aggadah is particularly rich in thoughts concerning the moral life and the relations of human beings to one another. A few of these teachings may be quoted here: Rav loved the Book of Ecclesiasticus ( Sirach ), and warned his disciple Hamnuna Saba against unjustifiable asceticism by quoting its advice that considering

1643-538: The explanation in Soṭah 31a and in Sifre, Deut. 188. The view expressed in the Babylonian Talmud is curious, for it cites the explanation of the Sifre to Numbers, and adds thereto: ואמר רחמנא תרי לית בה אלא חד והיא לא נתפשה אסורה ‎, whereas the deduction should read to the contrary, תרי לית בה אלא חד היתה שותה ‎. The Babylonian Talmud, which evidently does not know Rabbi Ishmael's view, tries to interpret

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1696-463: The following bibliography: Abba Arikha Rav Abba bar Aybo ( Aramaic : רַב אַבָּא בַּר אִיבּוֹ ; 175–247 CE), commonly known as Abba Arikha ( אַבָּא אריכא ) or simply as Rav ( רַב ), was a Jewish amora of the 3rd century. He was born and lived in Kafri , Asoristan , in the Sasanian Empire . In Sura , Arikha established the systematic study of the rabbinic traditions , which, using

1749-450: The halachic midrashim, and Seder 'olam Rabba was redacted between roughly 70 CE to 250 CE. Research has demonstrated that Hebrew was spoken in Israel until about 200 CE, and it is generally agreed that tannaitic literature reflects the language and speech used in various regions of Israel during that time period. The Nasi (plural Nesi'im ) was the highest-ranking member and presided over

1802-411: The house of his uncle, and later as his uncle's disciple and as a member of the academy at Sepphoris , Rav acquired such knowledge of the tradition as to make him its foremost exponent in Babylonia. While Judah haNasi was still living, Rav, having been ordained as teacher (with certain restrictions ), returned to Asoristan, referred to as "Babylonia" in Jewish writings, where he at once began a career that

1855-580: The leading position in Judaism. The method of treatment of the traditional material to which the Talmud owes its origin was established in Babylonia by Rav. That method takes the Mishnah of Judah haNasi as a text or foundation, adding to it the other tannaitic traditions, and deriving from all of them the theoretical explanations and practical applications of the religious Law. The legal and ritual opinions recorded in Rav's name and his disputes with Samuel constitute

1908-511: The main body of the Babylonian Talmud . His numerous disciples—some of whom were very influential and who, for the most part, were also disciples of Samuel—amplified and, in their capacity as instructors and by their discussions, continued the work of Rav. In the Babylonian schools, Rav was rightly referred to as "our great master." Rav also exercised a great influence for good upon the moral and religious conditions of his native land, not only indirectly through his disciples, but directly by reason of

1961-679: The occupation of the Roman Empire . During this time, the Kohanim (priests) of the Temple became increasingly corrupt and were seen by the Jews as collaborators with the Romans, whose mismanagement of Iudaea province (composed of Samaria , Idumea and Judea proper ) led to riots, revolts and general resentment. Until the days of Hillel and Shammai , the last generation of the Zugot, there were few disagreements among Rabbinic scholars. After this period, though,

2014-547: The passage תני ר"י in Jerusalem Talmud Eruvin 20c, but rather expresses the opposite view. Sifre, Deut. 171, s.v. ד"א, corresponds perhaps with Megillah 25a, s.v. תנא דבי ר"י ; and Sifre 104 with the view of Rabbi Ishmael in Mek. , Mishpaṭim , 201, according to the correct reading of Yalkut Shimoni , which has ר"י instead of ר"ש. It thus appears that the editor introduces the midrashim from Rabbi Ishmael's midrash with

2067-547: The phrase ד"א. David Hoffmann concludes from Pesachim 68a and 71a that the editors of the Babylonian Talmud possessed the Sifre in another edition than the present one, which he takes to be a Palestinian edition. But the former passage indicates merely that the Amoraim occasionally had not memorized the baraitot perfectly, an instance of inaccuracy with regard to the Sifre being evident in Hullin 74a. The final redaction of

2120-419: The question at issue. As for the halakhic midrash , it may be said that, in contradistinction to the aggadic part, the collector used, aside from R. Ishmael 's midrash, that of R. Simeon . The Christian polemicist Raymundus Martini in the 13th century claimed in his Pugio Fidei that Sifre contained the following passage, which is however not present in any modern copy: Go and learn the merit of Messiah

2173-573: The radiance of the Divine Presence. Rav also devoted much attention to mystical and transcendental speculations regarding Maaseh Bereshit, Maaseh Merkabah , and the Divine Name . Many of his important utterances testify to his tendency in this direction. Tannaim Tannaim ( Amoraic Hebrew : Hebrew : תנאים [tannɔʔim] "repeaters", "teachers", singular tanna תנא [tanˈnɔː] , borrowed from Aramaic ) were

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2226-467: The reference in Sanhedrin 86a to the Sifre of Rabbi Simeon, see Mekhilta of Rabbi Shimon ben Yochai ; the question has likewise been raised whether, given the well-known close relation that existed between the school of Shimon bar Yochai and that of Rabbi Ishmael , the words וכלהו אליבא דר"ע apply to Rabbi Simeon's Sifre in the same degree as to the other works mentioned in this Talmudic passage. Such questions, however, are unimportant in reference to

2279-490: The relation between the two in his Zur Einleitung in die Halachischen Midraschim. The Sifre to Numbers is evidently a midrash which originated in Rabbi Ishmael's school, and which has all the characteristics of such a work. It follows the same principles of exposition as does the Mekhilta ; the same group of tannaim appears, and the same technical terms are employed. There are also many material points of similarity with

2332-461: The same is true of Sifre 21 as compared with Sifre 7. The beginning of Sifre 7 appears to be, strangely enough, an anonymous halakha expressing the opposite opinion, though this also may at need be harmonized with Rabbi Ishmael's view. Sifre 39 likewise follows Rabbi Ishmael's view, according to Hullin 49a. These and other less cogent reasons seem to indicate that the Sifre to Numbers originated in Rabbi Ishmael's school, although this does not exclude

2385-461: The school of Rabbi Akiva. The principles underlying the exposition are the same as those in Sifra . The term mufneh in the application of the principle gezerah shavah occurs only once, and is to be regarded as a later addition. The technical terms are largely the same in both midrashim, different terms being found only here and there in the Sifre. Moreover, the group of tannaim is different from that of

2438-481: The sections related to Deutoronomy in "Sifre: A Tannaitic Commentary on the Book of Deuteronomy" (1987). A recent English translation was published by Marty Jaffee, and can be read online. [REDACTED]  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain :  Singer, Isidore ; et al., eds. (1901–1906). "SIFRE" . The Jewish Encyclopedia . New York: Funk & Wagnalls. It has

2491-457: The strictness with which he repressed abuses in matters of marriage and divorce, and denounced ignorance and negligence in matters of ritual observance. Rav, says tradition, found an open, neglected field and fenced it in. He gave special attention to the liturgy of the synagogue . The Aleinu prayer first appeared in the manuscript of the Rosh Hashana liturgy by Rav. He included it in

2544-455: The traditional literature he is referred to almost exclusively as Rav , "the Master", (both his contemporaries and posterity recognizing in him a master), just as his teacher, Judah HaNasi , was known simply as Rabbi . He is called Rabbi Abba only in the tannaitic literature, where a number of his sayings are preserved. He occupies a middle position between the Tannaim and the Amoraim , and

2597-424: The transitoriness of human life, one should not despise the good things of this world. To the celestial joys of the future he was accustomed to refer in the following poetic words: Nothing on earth compares with the future life. In the world to come there shall be neither eating nor drinking, neither trading nor toil, neither hatred nor envy; but the righteous shall sit with crowns upon their heads, and rejoice in

2650-602: The writings of Josephus or Philo , such as the legend of the extraordinary beauty of Moses as a child. The language in which the Tannaim of Israel and Babylonia wrote is referred to as Mishnaic Hebrew (MH), or in Hebrew Lešon hakhamim , meaning the language of the Sages. Texts were written in MH between roughly 70 CE and 500 CE. Tannaitic literature, which includes the Mishnah, the Tosefta,

2703-516: Was also Nasi , was not given the title Rabban , perhaps because he only held the position of Nasi for a short while and it eventually reverted to the descendants of Hillel. Prior to Rabban Gamliel Hazaken, no titles were used before someone's name, which gave rise to the Talmudic adage " Gadol miRabban shmo " ("Greater than the title Rabban is a person's own name"). This is seen as the reason that Hillel has no title before his name: his name in itself

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2756-422: Was at the school of Rav that Jewish learning in Babylonia found its permanent home and center. Rav's activity made Babylonia independent of Palestine, and gave it that predominant position which it was destined to occupy for several centuries. Little is known of Rav's personal life. That he was rich seems probable; for he appears to have occupied himself for a time with commerce and afterward with agriculture. He

2809-668: Was destined to mark an epoch in the development of Babylonian Judaism. In the annals of the Babylonian schools, the year of his arrival is recorded as the starting-point in the chronology of the Talmudic age. It was the 530th year of the Seleucid era and the 219th year of the Common Era . As the scene of his activity, Rav first chose Nehardea , where the exilarch appointed him agoranomos , or market-master, and Rabbi Shela made him lecturer ( amora ) of his college. Then he moved to Sura , on

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