Misplaced Pages

#222777

134-491: The district has one school that serves students in grades kindergarten through twelve. As of 2007, the Texas State Energy Conservation Office awards Sierra Blanca ISD money due to the colonias served by the district. The mascot is the vaquero . W. L. Moore served as principal until 1917, and at that point Hardee Wyatt became the principal. One school building opened in 1925. In 1942 enrollment

268-458: A 2009 study by R. Gottlieb, food issues "are particularly pronounced in low-income communities where lack of access to fresh, affordable healthy food has direct health and nutritional consequences". He explains that core land-use factors such as housing, transportation, and commercial space are issues of food justice and environmental justice , and that addressing these issues can help reduce health disparities among border residents. Education in

402-720: A U.S.–Mexico border shutdown could be expected following the COVID-19 public health emergency. According to HRW, the new rule introduced by the CDC overlooks the fact that the U.S. is obligated to protect refugees from return to conditions threatening prosecution, as per treaties. President Joe Biden's border executive plan as the COVID-19 restrictions – known as Title 42 – expired in May 2023. Under Title 42, which had been in effect since March 2020, many border crossers have been quickly deported to Mexico without

536-592: A basis for safe and sanitary housing to alleviate the existing health risks. These standards are necessary for economic development in colonias because unsafe infrastructures and lack of education and jobs inhibit their growth. As of 2007, Texas had the largest concentration of colonia residents in the U.S., with approximately 400,000 living in over 2,000 colonias. New Mexico had the second largest, followed by Arizona and California. However, as remote location and stealthy development characterize many colonias, exact counts are difficult and figures can quickly change. Despite

670-490: A check for VEE. APHIS imposes similar testing and certification requirements on horses from other parts of the world but without the quarantine for VEE. These horses are held in quarantine—usually three days—or until tests are completed. Because the disease equine piroplasmosis (equine babesiosis ) is endemic in Mexico but not established in the U.S., transportation of horses from Mexico to the U.S. requires evaluation of horses for

804-563: A colonia. Independent historical accounts should be considered by state. Around the 1950s, developers began creating subdivisions along the Mexico–U.S. border on agriculturally poor properties, divided land in small parcels, and provided few services; the development of the properties, intended for low-income buyers, was the beginning of the Texas colonias. By 1995, the state passed laws against developing subdivisions without services. From 1995 and 2011,

938-443: A foreclosure period or buyer's protection, any property that was not paid in full could be repossessed and resold by the sellers, who retained title for the land and were allowed to keep all payments the buyer had made. As more dwellings appeared with minimal infrastructure, the value of the land decreased and ultimately became more affordable as a living option for low-income families on the border. Colonia communities grew rapidly in

1072-501: A forum for environmental-law enforcement disputes to be resolved. Scholars generally agree that the NAAEC's diction is ambiguous and does not clearly define the authority that the organization has; it is also unclear whether violators are obligated to respond to inquiries made by the CEC, and thus few parties have actually been investigated and punished for failing to cooperate. The charter creating

1206-500: A housing shortage for these workers. The overlap of four variables attributed to the development of colonias: high demand from a population of low-income wage earners meeting a low supply of affordable housing, a supply of low-cost and fruitless land, the absence of regulations on the subdivision of that land, and a legal way for that land to be sold to individuals. Land developers began purchasing low-value land in peri-urban areas where strict enforcement of housing and environmental laws

1340-459: A locked and crowded detention center cell in northern Mexico, with motives ranging from pending deportation to overcrowding and lack of access to drinking water. The border separating Mexico and the U.S. is the most frequently crossed international boundary in the world, with approximately 350 million legal crossings taking place annually. Border crossings take place by roads, pedestrian walkways, railroads and ferries. From west to east, below

1474-458: A million people. Similarly, the U.S. Department of Agriculture limits its colonias to settlements of no more than 20,000 residents, disqualifying the majority of communities seeking funding in California. The EPA's definition of colonias derives from NAFTA, which limits these colonias to a 62-mile (100 km) distance from the border. This limits all designated colonias in California to roughly

SECTION 10

#1732869906223

1608-452: A negative image. There are around 11.5 million undocumented workers in the U.S. today, and 87% of undocumented immigrants have been living in the U.S. for more than 7 years. Local economies that develop on the Mexican side capitalize not only on available skills but also on available, usually discarded, materials. Small businesses trade in clothes that are purchased by the pound and cardboard from

1742-426: A negative test for EIA. Horses from Mexico must have a health certificate; pass negative tests for EIA, dourine, glanders, and EP at a USDA import center; and undergo precautionary treatments for external parasites at the port of entry. Horses from other Western Hemisphere countries must have the same tests as those from Mexico and, except for horses from Argentina , must be held in quarantine for at least seven days as

1876-556: A non-tap source. Because they do not qualify for financing, Colonia residents buy their land on a contract for deed , in which land ownership stays with the seller until the entire purchase is paid. This land eventually ends up to be worthless as the market for colonia housing is very low. Most houses cannot pass inspections to qualify for repairs and further improvements. The housing situation in Cameron County, Texas lacks certain infrastructure and requires $ 44 million to upgrade all of

2010-531: A point 32 km (20 mi) south of the Gila River confluence. The border then follows a series of lines and parallels totaling 859 km (534 mi). First, it follows a straight line from the Colorado River to the intersection of the 31° 20′ parallel north and the 111th meridian west . It then proceeds eastwards along the 31° 20′ parallel north up to a meridian 161 km (100 mi) west of

2144-584: A random survey by the Texas Department of State Health Services , it was found that half of the families have incomes of less than $ 834 a month. About 70% of colonia residents have not graduated from high school and many lack English-language skills, which hampers their job mobility, suppresses wages, and the ability to seek assistance. The unemployment rate for families in colonias is 18%, compared to 11% in neighboring cities. Residents of colonias pay, on average, 58% of their income on housing. In comparison,

2278-450: A report that claims there is enough data in the historical record to demonstrate a direct correlation between abated health outcomes, health disparities, and premature morbidity and mortality with one's zip code. Researchers have determined that, for people of color or low income, this can predetermine their life expectancy. In a 2009 study, a participatory model of one hundred Mexican-origin colonia residents showed that participants who met

2412-496: A result, the effect funneled more immigrants to their death even with the assistance of coyotes (smugglers). Not only has this approach caused fatalities throughout the U.S.–Mexico border, but it has even stirred up a nuisance for documented immigrants and American citizens. There has been general concern about the Border Patrol and other agencies abusing their authority by racial profiling and conducting unwarranted searches outside

2546-831: A school district in Texas is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Colonia (border settlement) In the United States , a colonia is a type of unincorporated , low-income, slum area located along the Mexico–United States border region that emerged with the advent of shanty towns . The colonias consist of peri-urban subdivisions of substandard housing lacking in basic services such as potable water, electricity, paved roads, proper drainage, and waste management. Often situated in geographically inferior locations, such as former agricultural floodplains, colonias suffer from associated issues like flooding. Furthermore, urbanization practices have amplified

2680-597: A settlement qualifies. Under the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD), funds designated within the Community Development Block Grant (CDBG) were to benefit colonias along the Mexico–U.S. border, defined by various numeric values. However, colonias such as those in Riverside and San Diego counties are disqualified from the CBDG for being within metropolitan statistical areas (MSAs) with over

2814-690: A two-bedroom apartment in Albuquerque, New Mexico costs $ 830, only 20% of the average income in the U.S. Colonia housing costs too much relative to the resident earnings and the living conditions are significantly worse. Colonias may be lacking in all types of essential physical infrastructure and public services, such as clean water, sanitary sewage, and adequate roads. Most colonia housing does not meet construction standards and building codes. Houses are often built little by little, starting as shabby tents of wood and cardboard. Only 54% of colonia residents in Texas have sewer service and about 50% drink water from

SECTION 20

#1732869906223

2948-474: A valid Merchant Mariner Document when traveling in conjunction with official maritime business; or a valid U.S. military identification card when traveling on official orders. In August 2015, Mexico began enforcing a rule that all foreign citizens that plan to stay in the country for more than seven days or are travelling on business will have to pay a 330 pesos ($ 21) fee and show their passport. When animals are imported from one country to another, there

3082-462: Is a list of the border city "twinnings"; cross-border municipalities connected by one or more legal border crossings. The total population of the borderlands—defined as those counties and municipios lining the border on either side—stands at some 12 million people. The San Ysidro Port of Entry is located between San Ysidro, California and Tijuana, Baja California . Approximately 50,000 vehicles and 25,000 pedestrians use this entry daily. In

3216-469: Is by the means of "prevention through deterrence". Its primary goal is to completely prevent undocumented immigrants from entering the U.S. from Mexico rather than apprehending the unauthorized who are already in the country. As assertive as it was, "prevention through deterrence" was arguably unsuccessful, with a doubling in size of undocumented immigrants population during the two decades leading up to 2014. In order to effectively enforce border protection,

3350-477: Is contingent on defining a "colonia", and establishing effective criteria for this purpose has proven to be a challenge. The Farm Housing provisions of the United States Code define a colonia as a community that (1) is in the state of Arizona, California, New Mexico, or Texas; (2) is within 150 miles (240 km) of the Mexico–U.S. border (except for any metropolitan area exceeding one million people); (3) on

3484-421: Is controversial and socially divisive. There is also a problem in finding direct-service providers who will educate the children in the colonias. School districts have taken measures to attract teachers to the prospect of working in these areas, though finding qualified teachers has become an increasingly difficult task. Rather than being illegal, colonias are considered "extra-legal", in that they circumnavigate

3618-558: Is not bound by the structures of government regulations within labor, tax, health and safety, land use, environmental, civil rights, and immigration laws. The Spanish word colonia means a 'colony' or 'community'. In Mexican Spanish , it is specifically a 'residential quarter [of a city]', and a colonia proletaria is a shantytown . In Spanglish , the English-Spanish mix, colonia began to be used to refer primarily to Mexican neighborhoods about thirty years ago. A 1977 study uses

3752-484: Is paralleled by U.S. Border Patrol interior checkpoints on major roads generally between 40 and 121 km (25 and 75 mi) from the U.S. side of the border, and garitas generally within 50 km (31 mi) of the border on the Mexican side. There are an estimated half a million illegal entries into the U.S. each year. Border Patrol activity is concentrated around border cities such as San Diego and El Paso which have extensive border fencing. This means that

3886-581: Is recommended. Animals crossing the U.S.–Mexico border may have a country of origin other than the country where they present for inspection. Such animals include those from the U.S. that cross to Mexico and return, and animals from other countries that travel overland through Mexico or the U.S. before crossing the border. APHIS imposes precautions to keep out several equine diseases, including glanders , dourine , equine infectious anemia , equine piroplasmosis , Venezuelan equine encephalitis , and contagious equine metritis . APHIS also checks horses to prevent

4020-526: Is the possibility that diseases and parasites can move with them. Thus, most countries impose animal health regulations on the import of animals. Most animals imported to the U.S. must be accompanied by import permits obtained in advance from the U.S. Department of Agriculture 's Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) and/or health certification papers from the country of origin. Veterinary inspections are often required, and are available only at designated ports; advance contact with port veterinarians

4154-557: Is the tenth-longest border between two countries in the world. The total length of the continental border is 3,145 kilometers (1,954 miles). From the Gulf of Mexico, it follows the course of the Rio Grande (Río Bravo del Norte) to the border crossing at Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua , and El Paso, Texas . Westward from El Paso–Juárez , it crosses vast tracts of the Chihuahuan and Sonoran deserts to

Sierra Blanca Independent School District - Misplaced Pages Continue

4288-545: Is today California , Arizona , New Mexico , Utah , Nevada and parts of what is Colorado , Wyoming , Kansas , and Oklahoma . In addition, all disputes over Texas and the disputed territory between Rio Grande and Rio Nueces were abandoned. Five years later, the Gadsden Purchase completed the creation of the current U.S.–Mexico border. The purchase was initially to accommodate a planned railway right-of-way . These purchases left approximately 300,000 people living in

4422-504: The Border Environment Cooperation Commission (BECC) and North American Development Bank (NADB) was the first multinational agreement to address the problems faced by colonians. These two binational institutions were created to resolve issues that revolve around land contamination and sustainable water/wastewater infrastructure and compensate for CEC's shortcomings. However, BECC/NADB does not explicitly address

4556-574: The Colorado River Delta and San Diego–Tijuana , before reaching the Pacific Ocean. The Mexico–United States border extends 3,145 kilometers (1,954 miles), in addition to the maritime boundaries of 29 km (18 mi) into the Pacific Ocean and 19 km (12 mi) into the Gulf of Mexico . It is the tenth-longest border between two countries in the world. The Mexico–U.S. border begins at

4690-466: The Customs and Border Protection , specifically the Border Patrol, 600 million dollars to implement and improve security. The U.S. government has invested many millions of dollars on border security , although this has not stopped undocumented immigration in the U.S. In June 2018, the U.S. government announced installation of facial recognition system for monitoring immigrant activities. The Border Patrol

4824-561: The Government Accountability Office released a report stating that the U.S. Border Patrol intercepted 61% of individuals illegally crossing the border in 2011, which translates to 208,813 individuals not apprehended. 85,827 of the 208,813 would go on to illegally enter the U.S., while the rest returned to Mexico and other Central American countries. The report also shows that the number of illegal border crossings has dropped. The apprehensions per (fiscal) year are shown in

4958-519: The Initial Point of Boundary Between U.S. and Mexico , which is set one marine league (three nautical miles ) south of the southernmost point of San Diego Bay . The border then proceeds for 227 km (141 mi) in a straight line towards the confluence of the Colorado River and Gila River . The border continues southwards along the Colorado River for 39 km (24 mi), until it reaches

5092-602: The Rio Grande or the Gulf of Mexico . More than 2,000 colonias are identified within the U.S. The highest concentration is in the Rio Grande Valley , Texas, with others in New Mexico, Arizona, and California. Evidence suggests that there are more than 1,800 designated colonias in Texas, around 138 in New Mexico, 77 in Arizona, and 32 in California. These settlements are part of an informal sector or informal economy that

5226-534: The Texas Education Agency (TEA) asked the district to make changes at the school. In 1973 the TEA stated that the school's accreditation would be revoked unless it wrote a new school policy, which was last modified in 1953, get new school building created, and establish a community-oriented program to avoid a repeat of the 1968 protest. Alumna Evelyn Loeffler became the superintendent some time after 2014. In 2018

5360-516: The 1990s described them as a " third world " within the United States. While poor living standards do persist in these areas, a positive side does exist for colonias and is often disregarded by media and policymakers. For the border region's poor, colonias provide affordable housing and the opportunity to obtain the American Dream of owning a home. Some scholars have praised colonians for seeking

5494-596: The 1990s when the number of residents almost doubled from 1990 to 1996. This can be subject to the effects of globalization and the passage of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) in 1994, which industrialized the Mexico–United States border , created many jobs, and encouraged migration. People shifted from traditional agricultural labor to work in transportation, construction, and manufacturing. This led to an increased informality of U.S. housing, with colonias forming and growing because of

Sierra Blanca Independent School District - Misplaced Pages Continue

5628-633: The Administrator for EPA and the Secretaries of State and Treasury from the U.S., and the Secretaries for the Environment and Natural Resources, Treasury, and External Relations from Mexico, as well as one state representative and non-governmental organization from each country. The BECC certifies projects that meet criteria in order to receive funding from the NADB. Projects can be proposed by anyone; in doing this,

5762-474: The BECC/NADB seek to promote public participation in sustainably developing the Mexico–U.S. border. Though the programs have been praised as revolutionary, critics have said progress is slow with NADB; it failed to fund a single infrastructure project within a year of its creation, despite the approval of several projects by BECC. These programs have been criticized for failing to consider who will pay to maintain

5896-455: The Dell City ISD an area that was not self-sustaining. In 1951 Sierra Blanca ISD's board voted to have Dell City students sent to Sierra Blanca on a 6-1 basis, prompting Dell City parents to state that they will not send their children to Sierra Blanca. The movement to form a Dell City district caused turmoil in board members of Sierra Blanca as they were afraid the loss of population would mean

6030-603: The El Paso-Juarez area, in effect transferring the land to the U.S.. By a treaty negotiated in 1963, Mexico regained most of this land in what became known as the Chamizal dispute and transferred 1.07 km (260 acres) in return to the U.S. Border treaties are jointly administered by the International Boundary and Water Commission (IBWC), which was established in 1889 to maintain the border, allocate river waters between

6164-688: The HUD to make use of its ability to work with the private sector by encouraging private investment in the direct development of the current colonias. Rather than eliminating the colonias, many have proposed to instead have the private sector create better dwellings at low costs within the area while also improving the already-established dwellings. Housing and community advocacy organizations work to alleviate poverty in colonias by promoting self-help housing programs that provide colonia residents with resources to build their own homes, fostering community empowerment and raising public awareness. These groups include

6298-675: The Line in El Paso ; Operation Rio Grande in McAllen ; Operation Safeguard in Tucson ; and the Arizona Border Control Initiative along the Arizona border. According to Vulliamy, one in five Mexican nationals will visit or work in the U.S. at one point in their lifetime. As of 2010, the border is guarded by more than 20,000 Border Patrol agents, more than at any time in its history. The border

6432-405: The Mexican economy overall, 25% of it in the border regions. The U.S. Immigration Act of 1891 authorized the implementation of inspection stations at ports of entry along the Mexican and Canadian borders. The U.S. Immigration Act of 1917 required the passing of a literacy test and a head tax by Mexicans wanting to enter the U.S. legally; however, during World War I , when labor shortages grew,

6566-453: The Rio Grande under the 1905 convention, which occurred on 37 different dates from 1910 to 1976, the transferred land was small (ranging from one to 646 acres) and uninhabited. The Rio Grande Rectification Treaty of 1933 straightened and stabilized the river boundary through the highly developed El Paso-Juárez valley. Numerous parcels of land were transferred between the two countries during

6700-484: The Texas Code. Researchers traced the first colonias in Texas to the 1950s and early 1960s. These appeared as an informal housing solution for low-income predominantly Hispanic wage-earners through a model referred to by scholars as the " incremental approach ". Due to the rise of the maquiladora industry—foreign-owned factories in Mexico creating goods for export—the border population quickly grew and in 1965 created

6834-568: The Texas Low Income Housing Information Service (TxLIHIS), an affordable-housing-advocacy nonprofit organization, and the Colonias Development Council in New Mexico. Mexico%E2%80%93United States border The Mexico–United States border ( Spanish : frontera Estados Unidos–México ) is an international border separating Mexico and the United States , extending from the Pacific Ocean in

SECTION 50

#1732869906223

6968-423: The U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation to monitor suspicious activities and potential violence at the border. Within 10 years, frequent provocations caused border towns to transform into battlefields, which intensified transborder restrictions, brought federal soldiers to patrol the border, and caused the construction of fences and barriers between border towns. When the battles concluded, restrictions for crossing

7102-466: The U.S. Some items, like the used tires found everywhere along the border, are made into certain items that support local economies and define a border. The Secure Fence Act of 2006 was passed providing for the construction of 1,127 km (700 mi) of high-security fencing. Attempts to complete the construction of the Mexico–United States barrier have been challenged by the Mexican government and various U.S.–based organizations. In January 2013,

7236-413: The U.S. and the Mexican government's support for financial investments from the U.S. Railroads were built that connected the northern Mexican states more to the U.S. than to Mexico, and the population grew tremendously. The mining industry also developed, as did the U.S.'s control of it. By the early 20th century companies from the U.S. controlled 81% of the mining industry and had invested US$ 500 million in

7370-614: The U.S. average. By examining Mexican-Americans residing in Hidalgo County, Texas, investigators found that Mexican Americans living in colonias share similar mental health patterns compared to the U.S. average but their physical health was worse. Data collected through a household survey in 2002 and 2003 by the Integrated Health Outreach System Project (IHOS) was analyzed to describe the population in terms of sociodemographic status, HRQL, and other variables. In

7504-558: The U.S. by air: a valid passport ; a passport card ; a state enhanced driver's license or state enhanced non-driver ID card (available in Michigan , New York , Vermont , and Washington ) approved by the Secretary of Homeland Security; a trusted traveler program card ( Global Entry , NEXUS , FAST , or SENTRI ); an enhanced tribal identification card; a Native American Tribal Photo Identification Card; Form I-872 – American Indian Card;

7638-404: The U.S. ceded 6 islands in the Rio Grande to Mexico. At the same time, Mexico ceded 3 islands and 2 bancos to the U.S. This transfer, which had been pending for 20 years, was the first application of Article III of the 1970 Boundary Treaty. On March 27, 2023, at least 38 detained migrants (mostly from Central America) were killed—and dozens more injured—in a fire started in protest inside

7772-401: The U.S. settled all outstanding boundary disputes and uncertainties related to the Rio Grande border. The U.S. states along the border, from west to east, are California , Arizona , New Mexico , and Texas . The Mexican states along the border are Baja California , Sonora , Chihuahua , Coahuila , Nuevo León , and Tamaulipas . Among the U.S. states, Texas has the longest stretch of

7906-429: The U.S. was between 1909 and 1911 in California, the first barrier built by Mexico was likely in 1918; barriers were extended in the 1920s and 1940s. The Banco Convention of 1905 between the U.S. and Mexico allowed, in the event of sudden changes in the course of the Rio Grande (as by flooding), for the border to be altered to follow the new course. The sudden changes often created bancos (land surrounded by bends in

8040-412: The U.S.' policies and regulations have looked to make border crossings more hazardous through the implementation of various operations, one of those being the "funnel effect". The tactic was meant to discourage migration from Mexico into the U.S. by forcing migrants to travel further around barriers where the terrain and weather are more risky, but the strategy was not as successful as initially planned. As

8174-440: The U.S., I-5 crosses directly to Tijuana, and the highway's southern terminus is this crossing. In 2005, more than 17 million vehicles and 50 million people entered the U.S. through San Ysidro . Among those who enter the U.S. through San Ysidro are transfronterizos , American citizens who live in Mexico and attend school in the U.S. It has influenced the every day lifestyle of people that live in these border towns . Along

SECTION 60

#1732869906223

8308-431: The U.S., 90% were from Mexico alone. In addition, there are more than 6 million undocumented Mexican nationals residing in the U.S. The border has a very high rate of documented and undocumented migrant crossings every year. With such a high rate of people crossing annually to the U.S., the country has invested in several distinct security measures. In 2010, President Barack Obama signed an appropriation bill which gave

8442-421: The United States has, the other being the northern Canada–United States border ; Mexico has two other borders: with Belize and with Guatemala . Four American states border Mexico: California , Arizona , New Mexico and Texas . One definition of Northern Mexico includes only the six Mexican states that border the U.S.: Baja California , Chihuahua , Coahuila , Nuevo León , Sonora and Tamaulipas . It

8576-454: The United States, and its interpretation through politics, suggests that places called colonias are not to be perceived as natural or prosperous communities. In many parts of Texas, Spanish-language terms are often used to frame and highlight a class difference. The term colonia is an essential symbol for public policy in the United States, and this Spanish name is a critical component for constructing public and policy attention, underscoring

8710-563: The absence of resources. Conflicts with acceptable water, sewers, and safe and clean housing that the colonias faced brought on the requirement of Section 916 of the National Affordable Housing Act of 1992. In New Mexico, land was sold contract-for-deed; however, before 1990, New Mexicans were allowed to divide their property into four parcels without violating the law. Within a couple of years, landowners were then allowed to split their land into two parcels, but after some time,

8844-510: The age of 18 are United States citizens. The U.S. has viewed border communities as a place of lawlessness, poverty, backwardness, and ethnic difference. Despite economic development, liberalization, intensification of trade, the strategic geographic location of the southern U.S. border region does not stop it from being one of the poorest in the nation. Most cases had shown that its communities formed after landowners illegally sold and subdivided rural lands, often to buyers who did not understand

8978-407: The archetype that exists on the border in Texas. While colonias in Texas are known for being peri-urban settlements with mostly Hispanic dwellers, settlements in California are located in old rural towns with ethnically diverse populations. This has hindered colonia infrastructure development in California. Criteria have also been described as too narrow, relying on numeric values to determine whether

9112-433: The area of Imperial County . The North American Agreement on Environmental Cooperation (NAAEC) is an international environmental-agreement between the governments of Canada, Mexico, and the United States. NAFTA sought to promote economic growth by lowering most of the existing barriers to trade. While many advocates of NAFTA argued that it would indirectly increase the standard of living and thus environmental spending on

9246-486: The basis of objective criteria, lacks adequate sewage systems and lacks decent, safe, and sanitary housing; and (4) existed as a colonia before November 28, 1990. Other definitions are used by specific governmental agencies (e.g.: HUD, USDA, Environmental Protection Agency [EPA], and the Texas Code). Many scholars criticize the existing federal criteria as being too broad in that most definitions of colonias are based on

9380-454: The border every day is causing air pollution in San Ysidro and Tijuana. The emission of carbon monoxide (CO) and other vehicle related air contaminants have been linked to health complications such as cardiovascular disease, lung cancer, birth outcomes, premature death, obesity, asthma and other respiratory diseases. The high levels of traffic collusion and the extended wait times has affected

9514-403: The border region is substandard on both sides. While completion and attainment rates are much higher in the U.S. than in Mexico, they are far below the U.S. average. The low levels of education along the border region are due to lack of proper infrastructure, low property-tax funding for schools, and pressing financial need which sees children contributing to family incomes. The primary problem with

9648-564: The border regions reflected this. As the infrastructure of communities on the U.S. side continued to improve, the Mexican side began to fall behind in the construction and maintenance of important transportation networks and systems necessary to municipal development. Although the Mexican Revolution caused insecurity in Mexico, it also strained U.S.–Mexico relations. With the Mexican Revolution lasting for 10 years, ending in 1920, and World War I simultaneously occurring between 1914 and 1918,

9782-420: The border was reaffirmed in the 1828 Treaty of Limits . Mexico attempted to create a buffer zone at the border that would prevent possible invasion from the north. The Mexican government encouraged thousands of their own citizens to settle in the region that is now known as Texas and even offered inexpensive land to settlers from the U.S. in exchange for populating the area. The influx of people did not provide

9916-483: The border were relaxed and most soldiers were sent home; however, the fences remained as a physical reminder of the division between the two nations. As years passed, more fences and higher barriers were established as attentions focused on the boundary demarcation between the U.S. and Mexico. The first international bridge was the Brownsville & Matamoros International Bridge built in 1910. The first barrier built by

10050-467: The border with Mexico, while California has the shortest. Among the states in Mexico, Chihuahua has the longest border with the U.S., while Nuevo León has the shortest. Along the border are 23 U.S. counties and 39 Mexican municipalities . In the mid-16th century, after the discovery of silver, settlers from various countries and backgrounds began to arrive in the area. This period of sparse settlement included colonizers from different backgrounds. The area

10184-426: The border's strategic location and trade liberalizations. However, due to the lack of financial mobility, colonia residents face significant challenges escaping the colonia bubble. In June 1996, the Texas Department of Housing and Community Affairs successfully obtained a waiver from the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) to set new housing-standards for colonias. The resulting standards provided

10318-405: The border, according to Mexican political scientist Armand Peschard-Sverdrup . The economic development of the border region on the Mexican side of the border depended largely on its proximity to the U.S., because of its remoteness from commercial centers in Mexico. During the years of Mexican President Porfirio Díaz , between 1876 and 1910, the border communities boomed because of close ties to

10452-547: The border, many critics commented on the fact that only a single sentence in the agreement's preamble addressed the environmental impacts of promoting free trade. In order to ensure that NAFTA would pass, the Clinton Administration pushed for NAAEC as a side agreement specifically to aid border environmental issues. From NAAEC came the creation of the Commission on Environmental Cooperation (CEC), an institution providing

10586-541: The coast of Baja California, there are neighborhoods of Americans living in Tijuana, Rosarito Beach , and Ensenada , whose residents commute to the U.S. daily to work. Additionally, many Mexicans also enter the U.S. to commute daily to work. In 1999, 7.6% of the labor force of Tijuana was employed in San Diego. The average wait time to cross into the U.S. is approximately an hour. The thousands of vehicles that transit through

10720-433: The colonias themselves but rather the Mexico–U.S. border, defining the border as areas in the U.S. "within 100 kilometers [62 miles] and the area in Mexico that is within 300 kilometers [190 miles] of the international boundary." BECC/NADB consists of a board comprising members from both the U.S. and Mexican governments, and thus lies equally within the jurisdiction of each nation's government; this includes

10854-535: The colonias. The Act is credited for inspiring other agencies, such as the EPA, to fund programs targeting development on the Mexico–U.S. border. Critics have stated that HUD's focus has been on preventing the development of colonias rather than seeking to provide those of low-income with a larger supply of affordable housing. As is the case with BECC/NADB, critics have also claimed that the projects seeking to improve infrastructure have been underwhelming. Scholars have urged

10988-634: The communities' lifelong health. The legal options available to colonia residents to fight the placement of these facilities are slim. Many are unaware of the public benefits available to them, and applying for benefits can be a struggle when extensive documentation and many visits to state offices are required. Ultimately, immigrants in the border region face language barriers and fear of retaliation against family members without any form of identification. A 2008 pilot study of factors affecting health-related quality of life (HRQL) of Mexican-American adults living in colonias found that colonia residents fall below

11122-441: The completed infrastructure. Because BECC is not a regulatory agency, its decisions are not enforceable. Critics of BECC/NADB have suggested the implementation of punitive measures such as monetary penalties to complement the system of incentives currently in place. The Crantston-Gonzalez National Affordable Housing Act of 1990 was created to help families that did not own homes to make down-payments for purchasing homes, expand on

11256-485: The construction period, 1935–1938. At the end, each nation had ceded an equal area of land to the other. The Boundary Treaty of 1970 transferred an area of Mexican territory to the U.S., near Presidio and Hidalgo, Texas , to build flood control channels. In exchange, the U.S. ceded other land to Mexico, including five parcels near Presidio, the Horcon Tract and Beaver Island near Roma, Texas . On November 24, 2009,

11390-631: The criteria for alcohol dependence showed more symptoms of anxiety and post-traumatic stress than the national average. Investigators found that among Mexican-American immigrants, lifetime prevalence for any anxiety disorder in men was 9% and 18% for women. For Mexican Americans born in the United States, 20% of men and 27% of women met the criteria for anxiety disorders. Mexican Americans living in colonia have considerable health risks due to unsafe living conditions, low educational attainment, high unemployment, comparatively high rates of communicable illness, lack of access to health care, and poverty. Furthermore,

11524-615: The defense that Mexico had hoped for and instead Texas declared its independence in 1836, which lasted until 1845 when the U.S. annexed it. The constant conflicts in the Texas region in the mid-19th century eventually led to the Mexican–American War , which began in 1846 and ended in 1848 with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo . In the terms of the peace treaty, Mexico lost more than 2,500,000 square kilometers (970,000 sq mi) of land, 55% of its territory, including all of what

11658-496: The district lost accreditation from the TEA. Its academic performance began being under state standards in 2014, and it was still under standards in 2018 despite improvements. In 2009, the school district was rated " academically acceptable " by the Texas Education Agency . Beginning circa 2014 the school's academic performance went below Texas standards. In 2015 50% of the students who tested for Texas academic measurement examinations had passed all such examinations. In 2018 there

11792-462: The district would no longer be accredited to teach high school, and the El Paso Times wrote that Sierra Blanca ISD superintendent William F. Wallace "was reported to have resigned because of the controversy." J. Graham became the next superintendent. In 1950 another school building was established. Circa 1968 Billie Jo Brown was the principal. In 1968 there was a protest in which more than 50% of

11926-499: The division between the U.S. and Mexico began to polarize the two nations. Constant battles and raids along the border made both authorities nervous about borderland security. The Zimmerman Telegram , a diplomatic cable sent by Germany but intercepted and decrypted by British intelligence, was meant to bait Mexico into war with the U.S. in order to reconquer what was taken from them during the Mexican-American War. This inspired

12060-399: The education system in colonias is the lack of funding. In Texas, the Texas Education Agency determines education directives while the majority of school funding comes from local property taxes. For the low-income colonias, these directives can present fiscal obstacles which stand in the way of the quality of education. Population growth among the colonias make it so the funding of education

12194-471: The exception of the 40 km (25 mi) border zone, but still within the 161 km (100 mi) border zone. In 2012, Border Patrol agents made over 364,000 arrests of people illegally entering the country. Considerable success has been achieved in restoring integrity and safety to the border, by putting in place a border-control strategy. These include Operation Gatekeeper in San Diego ; Operation Hold

12328-561: The experiences of child food insecurity and seasonal instability within Mexican-origin mother-child dyads living in Mexico–U.S. border colonias. By focusing on food insecurity, which is known to cause health effects across a lifespan, investigators sought to understand the effects of school-based and summertime nutrition programs among women and their children, specifically within Texas-border colonias. An important attribute of this research

12462-421: The flow of illegal immigrants is diverted into rural mountainous and desert areas, leading to several hundred migrant deaths along the Mexico–U.S. border of those attempting to cross into the U.S. from Mexico illegally and vice versa. Undocumented labor contributes $ 395 billion to the economy every year. While the U.S. is in favor of immigration, the increase in undocumented immigration has given border-crossing

12596-497: The government and people towards the common goal of sustainable housing. However, this does not mean that governments do not have obligations once a certain standard is reached. The progressive realization model requires continual progress in a relationship between law and society, which directly corresponds to the choices of those living in colonias. Enhancing the lives of the colonians through policy has proven to be difficult and slow. Funding for infrastructure projects for colonias

12730-429: The graph; they reached a maximum of over 1.643 million in the year 2000. Similar numbers had been reached in 1986 with over 1.615 million. The increase of border security throughout the years has progressively made crossings at the U.S.–Mexico border more dangerous, which has developed a human rights crisis at the border. The number of migrant deaths occurring along the U.S.–Mexico border has dramatically increased since

12864-403: The high count of individuals living in these areas, the severity of the living standards in colonias has yet to become common knowledge for U.S. citizens. Scholars have found that little has been done to remedy the living standards of the colonians, as their situation has become normalized by the public and associated with the "lawlessness" of the Mexico–U.S. border region. Scholars have criticized

12998-446: The homes. Financially, families living in colonias lack the assets to add improvements in order for sustainability. These poor minority communities are also prime targets for hazardous waste facilities because of their inability to file lawsuits. Most such facilities in New Mexico are located within a 10-mile (16 km) radius of a colonia. These include landfills, power plants, and waste facilities which all have negative impacts on

13132-569: The implementation of the funnel effect. Along the Arizona-Mexico border, only seven migrant deaths were recorded in 1996; however, the remains of over 2,000 migrants were discovered from 2001 to 2012. Since the majority of deaths occur in rural areas, where extreme temperatures are common, it is likely the number of recorded deaths are far below the total. Because of the harsh, inaccessible terrain, human remains may not be found for years or ever. The Human Rights Watch cited on April 22, 2020, that

13266-455: The informality of this living system for providing an affordable housing option for those in need, and criticize government action to impose living standards without providing colonians with the resources to sustain them. As of 2010 the housing quality of colonias continues to be unregulated. Informality in housing continues to expand while the social distance between the middle class and lower class expands. Fewer opportunities are available to

13400-479: The introduction of ticks and other parasites. In the Lower Rio Grande Valley, U.S. Department of Agriculture inspectors look for horses and livestock that stray across the border carrying ticks. These animals are often called wetstock, and the inspectors are referred to as tickriders. Per APHIS, horses originating from Canada can enter the U.S. with a Canadian government veterinary health certificate and

13534-465: The issues, such as developers stripping topsoil from the ground to subdivide land, and the resulting plains then become breeding grounds for mosquitoes and disease. Traditional homeownership financing methods are rare among colonia residents and so the areas consist of ramshackle housing units that are built incrementally with found material on expanses of undeveloped land. Colonias have a predominant Latino population, and 85 percent of those Latinos under

13668-406: The law rather than violating it. In response to these systems, scholars are split between egalitarian and libertarian approaches. Those that support the egalitarian approach believe that colonias currently demonstrate a notion of inferiority for those that dwell there; in response, they propose standards of living enforced by government regulation. However, supporters of the libertarian style favor

13802-419: The mental health, stress levels, and aggressive behavior of the people who cross frequently. The San Ysidro border is heavily policed, separated by three walls, border patrol agents and the U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement . Tijuana is the next target for San Diegan developers because of its fast-growing economy, lower cost of living, cheap prices and proximity to San Diego. While this would benefit

13936-449: The naming of these settlements as colonias , stating that the use of the Spanish word not only creates difficulties within the public policy sector of government, but also fosters the notion that these settlements are alien and not a part of the U.S. However, those within the public that do recognize colonias and their living conditions view them as "border slums ", while scholars have since

14070-936: The office of the Texas Attorney General had 87 judgments against developers who created properties without services. The office of the Texas Attorney General said that, by 2011, Texas had about 2,294 colonias and estimates that about 500,000 lived in the colonias. As of 2011 Hidalgo County has the largest number of colonias in Texas, though estimating their population is difficult due to isolation, shared addresses, rapid changes in development, and mistrust of government. In New Mexico, about 150 colonias have qualified for colonia-funding sources such as HUD, U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), etc. In New Mexico, there are two types of colonias: small towns and subdivisions. Although many of New Mexico's colonias consist of rural small towns, they were considered colonias because of

14204-407: The once disputed lands, many of whom were Mexican nationals. Following the establishment of the current border, several towns sprang up along this boundary, and many of the Mexican citizens were given free land in the northern regions of Mexico in exchange for returning and repopulating the area. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo and another treaty in 1884 were the agreements originally responsible for

14338-546: The passage of the Act. According to the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD), the term colonias has a specific meaning within the U.S., referring to a community within the rural Mexico–U.S. border region with marginal conditions related to housing and infrastructure. Other definitions and criteria for a colonia are used by the Environmental Protection Agency, the U.S. Department of Agriculture, and

14472-486: The point where the Rio Grande crosses the 31° 47′ parallel north, It then proceeds northwards along that meridian up to the 31° 47′ parallel north and then eastwards along that parallel until it meets the Rio Grande. According to the International Boundary and Water Commission , the continental border then follows the middle of the Rio Grande—according to the 1848 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo between

14606-462: The poor run the risk of being impacted by the gentrification of Tijuana. In late 2006, the U.S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS) announced a rule regarding new identification requirements for U.S. citizens and international travelers entering the U.S. implemented on January 23, 2007. This final rule and first phase of the WHTI specifies nine forms of identification, one of which is required to enter

14740-536: The presence of this disease. A leading exception to this rule is the special waiver obtained by riders participating in the Cabalgata Binacional Villista (see cavalcade ). Import from the U.S. to Mexico requires evidence within the prior 45 days of freedom from EIA, among other requirements. Data from the U.S. Border Patrol Agency's 2010 annual report shows that among the total number of border crossings without documentation from various countries into

14874-418: The provisions were temporarily suspended. The U.S. Immigration Act of 1924 established the U.S. Border Patrol . The Mexican Revolution , caused at least partially by animosity toward foreign ownership of Mexican properties, began in 1910. The revolution increased the political instability in Mexico but did not significantly slow U.S. investment. It did reduce economic development within Mexico, however, and

15008-464: The realization of this dream through self-help. Because of this, the informed public has begun urging policymakers to make decisions that will not eliminate colonias but instead both enhance the living conditions and promote the incremental approach as a housing strategy, stating that this informal housing option creates opportunity. Divergent state subdivision regulations have influenced the historical development of colonias, and how each state defines

15142-510: The responses to this survey, 81% considered that access to healthcare services was a problem; 62.5% mentioned housing; 76.5% perceived not having enough recreational and cultural activities; 86% perceived social issues; and 41.1% perceived physical environmental problems, specifically polluted air or water. In conclusion, the research provides significant data acknowledging health disparities colonia residents continuously face. In June 2010 The Lawyers' Committee for Civil Rights Under Law released

15276-417: The river that became segregated from either country by a cutoff, often caused by rapid accretion or avulsion of the alluvial channel), especially in the lower Rio Grande Valley. When these bancos are created, the International Boundary and Water Commission investigates if land previously belonging to the U.S. or Mexico is to be considered on the other side of the border. In all cases of these adjustments along

15410-424: The settlement of the international border, both of which specified that the middle of the Rio Grande was the border, irrespective of any alterations in the channels or banks. The Rio Grande shifted south between 1852 and 1868, with the most radical shift in the river occurring after a flood in 1864. By 1873 the moving river-center border had cut off approximately 2.4 square kilometers (590 acres) of Mexican territory in

15544-567: The settlements' differences and labeling them as racialized and distinct places, which has a powerful way of constructing and reinforcing marginality. Section 916 of the Cranston–Gonzalez National Affordable Housing Act (1990) (NAHA) defines colonias as any "identifiable community" determined by objective criteria that include the lack of potable water and adequate sewage systems, the lack of decent, safe, and sanitary housing, and which were in existence before

15678-463: The students refused to show up for school; the Committee for Justice, operated by a group including parents, wanted Brown to leave her position and a Mexican American placed on the school board. There were accusations that three teachers were improperly removed from their duties and of inappropriate physical punishment of students of Mexican origin. From 1966 to 1973 SBISD had six superintendents. In 1969

15812-535: The study found that people living in colonias had the highest rates of binge drinking and alcohol dependence correlated with anxiety, traumatic stress, and hopelessness. In a 2005 study, researchers found that "people with low socioeconomic status have dramatically higher disease risks and shorter life spans" than wealthier people. Therefore, poor people have less access to health care and more incidents of harmful lifestyles associated with drinking, smoking, and obesity. In nutritional research, investigators assessed

15946-418: The subdivision law was amended to close this "loophole utilized by colonia developers". Colonias can be found in each U.S. state on the Mexican border: Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and California. Residents are mostly Hispanic and about 65% of the colonia population were born in the United States. Overall, colonias consist of low-income communities with families that cannot afford goods in a formal economy. In

16080-660: The supply of affordable housing for low-income families, and promote cooperation between all levels of government and the private sector in this expansion. The Act is considered one of the most-important policies relating to U.S. colonias for setting aside funds from the Community Development Block Grant Program (CDBG) to go directly towards enhancing their living standards, and bringing to the public an awareness of colonias in California, Arizona, and New Mexico. These CDBG funds are particularly used to improve potable water, sewer systems, and sanitary housing in

16214-474: The term colonia to describe rural desert settlements with inadequate infrastructure and unsafe housing stock. Since these Hispanic neighborhoods were less affluent, the word also connoted poverty and substandard housing. In the 1990s, colonias became a common American English name for the slums that developed on both sides of the Mexico–United States border. The history of the word colonias in

16348-435: The terms under which this land was being sold. The contract for deed through which plots were offered by land developers often had false promises that utilities would be installed. The majority of the communities have no water infrastructure and lack wastewater or sewage services. Where sewer systems exist, there are no treatment plants in the area, and untreated wastewater is dumped into arroyos and creeks that flow into

16482-422: The total number of teachers had been teaching for under five years each. Loeffler stated that the relative inexperience of the faculty made it more difficult to improve academic performance. In 1973 about 54% of the students had Mexican ancestry. That year, none of the teachers did. Sierra Blanca High School plays six-man football . Volleyball, Basketball, Golf, Track, Cross Country This article about

16616-417: The tourist aspect of the city, it is damaging to low-income residents that will no longer be able to afford the cost of living in Tijuana. Tijuana is home to many deportees from the U.S., many who have lost everything and do not have an income to rely on and are now in a new city in which they have to quickly adapt in order to survive. San Diego developers would bring many benefits to Tijuana, but deportees and

16750-507: The two nations, "along the deepest channel" (also known as the thalweg )—a distance of 2,020 km (1,255 mi) to its mouth at the Gulf of Mexico. The Rio Grande frequently meanders along the Texas–Mexico border. As a result, the U.S. and Mexico have a treaty by which the Rio Grande is maintained as the border, with new cut-offs and islands being transferred to the other nation as necessary. The Boundary Treaty of 1970 between Mexico and

16884-464: The two nations, and provide for flood control and water sanitation. Once viewed as a model of international cooperation, in recent decades the IBWC has been heavily criticized as an institutional anachronism, by-passed by modern social, environmental and political issues. In particular, jurisdictional issues regarding water rights in the Rio Grande Valley have continued to cause tension between farmers along

17018-425: The uneducated and poor. However, legal expert Jane Larson has proposed a policy of progressive realization, which would gradually extend standards in colonias. Incentives such as microcredit programs are being implemented which then allow families to reach acceptable levels of housing quality. The model addresses equality by setting a standard for housing based upon compliance of available resources, and would commit

17152-401: The west to the Gulf of Mexico in the east. The border traverses a variety of terrains, ranging from urban areas to deserts. It is the most frequently crossed border in the world with approximately 350 million documented crossings annually. Illegal crossing of the border to enter the United States has caused the Mexico–United States border crisis . It is one of two international borders that

17286-655: Was 150. In 1947 another school building was established. In 1949 the Sierra Blanca district sent the first teacher to Dell City upon request of the parents there. By January 1950 another teacher took over and the Dell City Independent School District was later established. Sierra Blanca ISD officials wanted to bus Dell City students to Sierra Blanca, something the Dell City residents did not want. Dell City residents also stated that Sierra Blanca offered

17420-415: Was created in 1924 with its primary mission to detect and prevent the illegal entry of immigrants into the U.S. Together with other law enforcement officers, the Border Patrol maintains the U.S.' borderlands—regulating the flow of legal immigration and goods while patrolling for undocumented migrants and trafficking of people and contraband. The present strategy to enforce migration along the U.S.–Mexico border

17554-485: Was either weak or nonexistent. During this period the sale of rural lands without basic housing policies was lawful. Colonias were hidden from view due to physical isolation and properties were divided into small lots, which would be bought by low-income families via contracts for deed . These deals, which sold unimproved lots, included undocumented and thus unenforceable promises to provide basic provisions such as water, sewage, and electricity. Because these deals lacked

17688-400: Was one school building of red brick for all grades. In 2018 the school had 13 teachers and around 120 students. These students, that year, were about 20% of the total number of people in Sierra Blanca. The small number of students means that bad performance in a few could damage Sierra Blanca's academic rankings. In 2018 alternative certification teachers were among the staff, and over 60% of

17822-511: Was part of New Spain . In the early 19th century, the U.S. bought the lands known as the Louisiana Purchase from France and began to expand steadily westward. After the 1803 Louisiana Purchase, the border between the U.S. and New Spain was not clearly defined. The border was established in the 1819 Adams–Onís Treaty between the U.S. and Spain, which specified northern and eastern borders. Mexico gained its independence from Spain, and

17956-787: Was that the study depended on a multi-level analysis, which relied on repeated measurements. It also took into account the perceptions and experiences of children within the research. According to research, food insecurity among Hispanic and Mexican-origin U.S. households exceeds national estimates (Nalty, 2013). Furthermore, in 2011, 26.2% of Hispanic families in the United States were food insecure, and 17.4% households with child-food insecurity were Hispanic. In consultation with local decision-makers, 2013 research of childhood obesity in Mexican-American low-income communities resulted in recommendations addressing related issues within communities like colonias. Four policy ideas came about: According to

#222777