86-521: Shubuta is a town in Clarke County , Mississippi , United States, which is located on the eastern border of the state. The population was 441 as of the 2010 census , down from 651 at the 2000 census. Developed around an early 19th-century trading post on the Chickasawhay River , it was built near a Choctaw town. Shubuta is a Choctaw word meaning "smokey water". East of the town is a bridge over
172-960: A Race and Within Our Gates , African American–directed films that presented more positive images of blacks. While the frequency of lynching dropped in the 1930s, there was a spike in 1930 during the Great Depression. For example, in North Texas and southern Oklahoma alone, four people were lynched in separate incidents in less than a month. A spike in lynchings occurred after World War II , as tensions arose after veterans returned home. White people tried to re-impose white supremacy over returning Black veterans. The last documented mass lynching occurred in Walton County, Georgia , in 1946, when local white landowners killed two war veterans and their wives. Soviet media frequently covered racial discrimination in
258-605: A few to thousands. Lynching steadily increased after the Civil War, peaking in 1892. Lynchings remained common into the early 1900s, accelerating with the emergence of the Second Ku Klux Klan . Lynchings declined considerably by the time of the Great Depression . The 1955 lynching of Emmett Till , a 14-year-old African-American boy, galvanized the civil rights movement and marked the last classical lynching (as recorded by
344-480: A railroad bridge in Shubuta. They were brothers, Major (age 20) and Andrew (age 16) Clark, along with two black sisters, Alma (age 16) and Maggie House (age 20) (their surname was sometimes spelled as "Howze"), allegedly for the murder of Dr. H. L. Johnston, a married white dentist who was living at his father's farm, where the four younger people all worked. Both sisters were pregnant: Maggie was six months pregnant and Alma
430-480: A recognized lynching, a definition which became generally accepted by other compilers of the era: 1. There must be legal evidence that a person was killed. 2. That person must have met death illegally. 3. A group of three or more persons must have participated in the killing. 4. The group must have acted under the pretext of service to justice, race, or tradition. Statistics for lynchings have traditionally come from three sources primarily, none of which covered
516-502: A relation to the concentration of Blacks in parts of the Deep South: where the Black population was concentrated, lynching rates were higher. Such areas also had a particular mix of socioeconomic conditions, with a high dependence on cotton cultivation. Henry Smith , an African American handyman accused of murdering a policeman's daughter, was a noted lynching victim because of the ferocity of
602-567: A stagecoach line from Columbus, Mississippi to Winchester, Wayne County, Mississippi. The settlers of Clarke County would have to travel to Winchester, 25 miles away to receive their mail. Ten black people were lynched in Clarke County, as documented in The Hanging Bridge by Jason Morgan Ward. According to the U.S. Census Bureau , the county has a total area of 694 square miles (1,800 km ), of which 692 square miles (1,790 km )
688-404: A thirteen-year-old white girl whom they knew from the area. Accounts vary as to what took place. One or more whites who saw the three youths together while driving by reported the incident to Martin's father. Another account said that the incident was "attempted rape" after Dorothy told her parents about it. The boys were arrested by Clarke County Sheriff Lloyd McNeal, and appeared before justice of
774-523: A total of 4,733 persons had died by lynching since 1882. The last lynching recorded by the Tuskegee Institute was that of Emmett Till in 1955. In the 65 years leading up to 1947, at least one lynching was reported every year. The period from 1882 to 1901 saw the height of lynchings, with an average of over 150 each year. 1892 saw the most number of lynchings in a year: 231 or 3.25 per one million people. After 1924 cases steadily declined, with less than 30
860-426: A variety of other ways: being shot, burned alive, thrown off a bridge, dragged behind a car, etc. Occasionally, the body parts of the victims were removed and sold as souvenirs. Lynchings were not always fatal; "mock" lynchings, which involved putting a rope around the neck of someone who was suspected of concealing information, was sometimes used to compel people to make "confessions". Lynch mobs varied in size from just
946-519: A white man, as did others in town. The lynching was documented as premeditated and coordinated, as many such events were. It was a year of white on black violence: in 1918 there had been 62 lynchings in the United States since January 1, seven of them in Mississippi. Deputy County Sheriff Crane colluded with the mob to provide access to the victims at the jail, claiming that he had been overpowered by
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#17330861312111032-527: A white woman and were jailed pending a grand jury hearing. A physician's subsequent examination of the woman found no evidence of rape or assault. In 1903, the St. Louis Post-Dispatch reported a new, popular make-believe children's game: "The Game of Lynching". "Imaginary mayor gives order not to harm imaginary mob, and an imaginary hanging follows. Fire contributes realistic touch." "It has crowded out baseball", and if it continues, "may deprive of some of its prestige
1118-522: A white woman. The mob responded by putting the noose around the officer's neck as a way of scaring him, and completed killing the other man. Although at the inquest the officer identified eight people who had participated in the lynching, including the former chief of police, the jury determined that the murder had been carried out "by person or persons unknown". In Duluth, Minnesota , on June 15, 1920, three young African American traveling circus workers were lynched after having been accused of having raped
1204-752: A year. The decreasing rate of yearly lynchings was faster outside the South and for white victims of lynching. Lynching became more of a Southern phenomenon and a racial one that overwhelmingly affected Black victims. There were measurable variations in lynching rates between and within states. According to the Tuskegee Institute, 38% of victims of lynching were accused of murder, 16% of rape, 7% for attempted rape, 6% were accused of felonious assault, 7% for theft, 2% for insult to white people, and 24% were accused of miscellaneous offenses or no offense. In 1940, sociologist Arthur F. Raper investigated one hundred lynchings after 1929 and estimated that approximately one-third of
1290-527: Is land and 2.0 square miles (5.2 km ) (0.3%) is water. The Chickasawhay River flows north to south through the eastern portion of the county; it eventually meets the Pascagoula River. As of the 2020 United States census , there were 15,615 people, 6,237 households, and 4,397 families residing in the county. As of 2017 the largest self-identified ancestry groups/ethnic groups in Clarke County, Mississippi were: There are two school districts in
1376-533: Is listed on the National Register of Historic Places for its significance in state and national history. A total of 10 blacks were lynched in Clarke County from 1877 to 1950. Located along the Chickasawhay River , the small town of Shubuta was incorporated in 1865. It had started in the 1830s as a trading post community, located near the Choctaw village of Yowani . During the period of Indian Removal , under
1462-643: Is part of the Meridian , MS Micropolitan Statistical Area . Before Europeans first arrived, the Choctaw Indians inhabited the land that would later be known as the Clarke County, Mississippi. Clarke County is only a portion of what was known as Okla Hannali or Six Town District of the Choctaws. Okla Hannali or Six Towns District existed at the time of the Dancing Rabbit Treaty in 1830. David Gage, who came to
1548-658: The American Civil War , southern Whites struggled to maintain their dominance. Secret vigilante and terrorist groups such as the Ku Klux Klan (KKK) instigated extrajudicial assaults and killings in order to discourage freedmen from voting, working, and getting educated. They also sometimes attacked Northerners, teachers, and agents of the Freedmen's Bureau . The magnitude of the extralegal violence which occurred during election campaigns reached epidemic proportions, leading
1634-507: The NAACP and other civil rights groups. On November 25, 1915, a group of men led by William J. Simmons burned a cross on top of Stone Mountain , inaugurating the revival of the Ku Klux Klan. The event was attended by 15 charter members and a few aging former members of the original Klan. The Klan and their use of lynching was supported by some public officials like John Trotwood Moore ,
1720-487: The National Register of Historic Places . These are listed in National Register of Historic Places listings in Clarke County, Mississippi , which provides a map link locating them all. The county had 10 documented lynchings in the period from 1877 to 1950; most took place in the 20th century. In late December 1918, five weeks after the armistice was signed in the Great War, four black farmworkers were lynched and hanged from
1806-492: The State Librarian and Archivist of Tennessee from 1919 to 1929. Moore "became one of the South's more strident advocates of lynching". 1919 was one of the worst years for lynching with at least seventy-six people killed in mob or vigilante related violence. Of these, more than eleven African American veterans who had served in the recently completed war were lynched in that year . White supremacist violence culminated in
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#17330861312111892-759: The Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek , the Choctaw people ceded most of their lands to the United States. Under the Indian Removal Act , they were given land in exchange in Indian Territory (now Oklahoma), and most of the people were forced to relocate west of the Mississippi River. Their traditional homelands in the Southeast were sold or made available by lotteries to European Americans for settlement. The first record of
1978-621: The Tuskegee Institute recorded 1,297 lynchings of white people and 3,446 lynchings of Black people. Lynchings were concentrated in the Cotton Belt ( Mississippi , Georgia , Alabama , Texas , and Louisiana ). However, lynchings of Mexicans were under-counted in the Tuskegee Institute's records, and some of the largest mass lynchings in American history were the Chinese massacre of 1871 and
2064-458: The Tuskegee Institute ). The overwhelming majority of lynching perpetrators never faced justice. White supremacy and all-white juries ensured that perpetrators, even if tried, would not be convicted. Campaigns against lynching gained momentum in the early 20th century, championed by groups such as the NAACP . Some 200 anti-lynching bills were introduced in Congress between the end of the Civil War and
2150-410: The civil rights movement in the 1950s and 1960s, and continued until 1981. Although the victims of lynchings were members of various ethnicities, after roughly 4 million enslaved African Americans were emancipated, they became the primary targets of white Southerners . Lynchings in the U.S. reached their height from the 1890s to the 1920s, and they primarily victimized ethnic minorities . Most of
2236-615: The lynching of eleven Italian immigrants in 1891 in New Orleans . During the California Gold Rush , White resentment towards more successful Mexican and Chilean miners resulted in the lynching of at least 160 Mexicans between 1848 and 1860. Members of mobs that participated in lynchings often took photographs of what they had done to their victims in order to spread awareness and fear of their power. Souvenir taking, such as pieces of rope, clothing, branches, and sometimes body parts
2322-412: The " due process " of the U.S. judicial system. He links the decline in lynchings in the early 20th century to "the advent of the modern death penalty", and argues that "legislators renovated the death penalty...out of direct concern for the alternative of mob violence". Between 1901 and 1964, Georgia hanged and electrocuted 609 people. Eighty-two percent of those executed were Black men, even though Georgia
2408-723: The 17th century, in the context of the Wars of the Three Kingdoms in the British Isles and unsettled social and political conditions in the American colonies, lynchings became a frequent form of "mob justice" when the authorities were perceived as untrustworthy. In the United States, during the decades after the Civil War , African Americans were the main victims of racial lynching, but in the American Southwest , Mexican Americans were also
2494-506: The 1840s. In the Spring of 1834, Joel Nail, a quadroon Indian, began moving the Choctaw Indians to Muskalresha, an old town in Neshoba County, Mississippi. These journeys continued through 1838 for all that would go. Some of the Choctaw Indians returned to their homes in Clarke County after arriving at Muskalresha. In the 1830s there were no postal routes in Clarke County. However, there was
2580-465: The 1850s after being connected to other communities by the railroad. At one time the largest town between Meridian, Mississippi , and Mobile, Shubuta attracted people from 40 miles (64 km) around to shop at its many mercantile businesses. The first newspaper in the area was the Mississippi Messenger , established in 1879 by Judge Charles A. Stovall. Six houses within Shubuta are listed on
2666-449: The 1921 Tulsa race massacre in which the majority-Black Greenwood District was razed to the ground. The NAACP mounted a strong nationwide campaign of protests and public education against The Birth of a Nation . As a result, some city governments prohibited the release of the film. In addition, the NAACP publicized production and helped create audiences for the 1919 releases, The Birth of
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2752-799: The 1960s. However, in 2021 there were claims that racist lynchings still happen in the United States, being covered up as suicides. Opponents of legislation often said lynchings prevented murder and rape. As documented by Ida B. Wells , the most prevalent accusation against lynching victims was murder or attempted murder. Rape charges or rumors were present in less than one-third of the lynchings; such charges were often pretexts for lynching Blacks who violated Jim Crow etiquette or engaged in economic competition with Whites. Other common reasons given included arson, theft, assault, and robbery; sexual transgressions ( miscegenation , adultery, cohabitation); "race prejudice", "race hatred", "racial disturbance"; informing on others; "threats against whites"; and violations of
2838-533: The 19th century, as well as financial depression in the 1890s. In the Mississippi bottomlands, for instance, lynchings rose when crops and accounts were supposed to be settled. The late 1800s and early 1900s in the Mississippi Delta showed both frontier influence and actions directed at repressing African Americans. After the Civil War, 90% of the Delta was still undeveloped. Both Whites and Blacks migrated there for
2924-896: The American South, and were often perpetrated to enforce white supremacy and intimidate ethnic minorities along with other acts of racial terrorism. A significant number of lynching victims were accused of murder or attempted murder . Rape , attempted rape, or other forms of sexual assault were the second most common accusation; these accusations were often used as a pretext for lynching African Americans who were accused of violating Jim Crow era etiquette or engaged in economic competition with Whites . One study found that there were "4,467 total victims of lynching from 1883 to 1941. Of these victims, 4,027 were men, 99 were women, and 341 were of unidentified gender (although likely male); 3,265 were Black, 1,082 were white, 71 were Mexican or of Mexican descent, 38 were American Indian, 10 were Chinese, and 1
3010-832: The Carolinas, paramilitary chapters of Red Shirts conducted overt violence and disruption of elections. In Louisiana, the White League had numerous chapters; they carried out goals of the Democratic Party to suppress Black voting. Grant's desire to keep Ohio in the Republican aisle and his attorney general's maneuvers led to a failure to support the Mississippi governor with Federal troops. The campaign of terror worked. In Yazoo County, Mississippi , for instance, with an African American population of 12,000, only seven votes were cast for Republicans in 1874. In 1875, Democrats swept into power in
3096-607: The Civil Rights movement, but none passed. Finally, in 2022, 67 years after Emmett Till's killing and the end of the lynching era, the United States Congress passed anti-lynching legislation in the form of the Emmett Till Antilynching Act . Collective violence was a familiar aspect of the early American legal landscape, with group violence in colonial America being usually nonlethal in intention and result. In
3182-731: The Mississippi state legislature. Lynching attacks on African Americans, especially in the South , increased dramatically in the aftermath of Reconstruction. The peak of lynchings occurred in 1892, after White Southern Democrats had regained control of state legislatures. Many incidents were related to economic troubles and competition. At the turn of the 20th century, southern states passed new constitutions or legislation which effectively disenfranchised most Black people and many Poor Whites , established segregation of public facilities by race, and separated Black people from common public life and facilities through Jim Crow laws . The rate of lynchings in
3268-618: The Second World War. In the 1930s, a number of African-American residents from the Shubata area followed Reverend Louis W. Parson to Albany, New York to escape the violence and in a search for industrial jobs and better opportunities. They created a community to the west of the city, building houses along Rapp Road within what was one land parcel purchased by Parson. Now known as the Rapp Road Community Historic District ,
3354-578: The South before 1930. Conclusions of numerous studies since the mid-20th century have found the following variables affecting the rate of lynchings in the South: "lynchings were more numerous where the African American population was relatively large, the agricultural economy was based predominantly on cotton, the white population was economically stressed, the Democratic Party was stronger, and multiple religious organizations competed for congregants." After
3440-458: The South has been strongly associated with economic strains, although the causal nature of this link is unclear. Low cotton prices, inflation , and economic stress are associated with higher frequencies of lynching. Georgia led the nation in lynchings from 1900 to 1931, with 302 incidents, according to The Tuskegee Institute . However, Florida led the nation in lynchings per capita from 1900 to 1930. Lynchings peaked in many areas when it
3526-557: The Southwest, Latinos . Of the 468 lynching victims in Texas between 1885 and 1942, 339 were Black, 77 white, 53 Hispanic, and 1 Native American. There were also Black-on-Black lynchings, with 125 recorded between 1882 and 1903, and there were four incidences of Whites being killed by Black mobs. The rate of Black-on-Black lynchings rose and fell in similar pattern of overall lynchings. There were also over 200 cases of white-on-white lynchings in
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3612-566: The U.S. Deeming American criticism of Soviet Union human rights abuses at this time as hypocrisy, the Russians responded with " And you are lynching Negroes ". In Cold War Civil Rights: Race and the Image of American Democracy (2001), the historian Mary L. Dudziak wrote that Soviet communist criticism of racial discrimination and violence in the United States influenced the federal government to support civil rights legislation. Most lynchings ceased by
3698-405: The abandoned bridge still stands at the end of East Street but is blocked off from access by a barricade. At the end of the 19th and early 20th centuries, Mississippi disenfranchised most black voters through passing a new constitution that raised barriers to voter registration. In Shubuta whites had also suppressed black voting by destroying ballots, imposing poll tests such as correctly guessing
3784-421: The age of 18 living with them, 40.2% were married couples living together, 23.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 32.0% were non-families. 28.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 16.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.67 and the average family size was 3.35. In the town, the population was spread out, with 32.3% under
3870-460: The age of 18, 9.8% from 18 to 24, 26.1% from 25 to 44, 19.7% from 45 to 64, and 12.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 33 years. For every 100 females, there were 83.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 75.7 males. The median income for a household in the town was $ 18,438, and the median income for a family was $ 21,719. Males had a median income of $ 24,688 versus $ 17,813 for females. The per capita income for
3956-527: The area in about 1820, was a Presbyterian minister. Traveling with him was Moses Jewel and Miss Skinner, who were both teachers. He settled at a place called Eewennans in the Choctaw Nation. David Gage, Moses Jewel, and Miss Skinner came to the territory for the purpose of educating the Indians some domestic habits. At the beginning of 1832, settlers began to appear in what was known as the “New Purchase”. One of
4042-541: The area is listed on the NRHP . Shubuta is located near the southern border of Clarke County at 31°51′39″N 88°42′2″W / 31.86083°N 88.70056°W / 31.86083; -88.70056 (31.860939, -88.700690), on the west side of the Chickasawhay River . U.S. Route 45 bypasses the town on the west, leading north 13 miles (21 km) to Quitman , the county seat , and south 14 miles (23 km) to Waynesboro . Mississippi Highway 145 , which leads through
4128-646: The attack against him and the huge crowd that gathered. He was lynched at Paris, Texas , in 1893 for killing Myrtle Vance, the three-year-old daughter of a Texas policeman, after the policeman had assaulted Smith. Smith was not tried in a court of law. A large crowd followed the lynching, as was common then in the style of public executions. Henry Smith was fastened to a wooden platform, tortured for 50 minutes by red-hot iron brands, and burned alive while more than 10,000 spectators cheered. Fewer than one percent of lynch mob participants were ever convicted by local courts and they were seldom prosecuted or brought to trial. By
4214-423: The bridge a second time, she again grabbed a railing. The mob hauled her up a third time, and were finally successful in throwing her over and hanging her. When the victims were buried the next day, witnesses reported seeing Alma House's unborn baby moving in the womb. In 1942 during World War II, Ernest Green, a fourteen-year-old black boy, along with Charlie Lang, aged fifteen, were seen speaking to Dorothy Martin,
4300-493: The center of Shubuta, follows the old alignment of US 45. According to the United States Census Bureau , the town has a total area of 1,500 acres (6.2 km), all land. As of the 2020 United States census , there were 406 people, 144 households, and 101 families residing in the town. As of the census of 2000, there were 651 people, 244 households, and 165 families residing in the town. The population density
4386-434: The color line ("attending white girl", "proposals to white woman"). Although the rhetoric which surrounded lynchings frequently suggested that they were carried out in order to protect the virtue and safety of white women, the actions basically arose out of white attempts to maintain domination in a rapidly changing society and their fears of social change. Mobs usually alleged crimes for which they lynched Black people. In
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#17330861312114472-537: The county: Quitman School District and Enterprise School District . The county is in the zone for Jones College . 32°02′N 88°41′W / 32.04°N 88.69°W / 32.04; -88.69 Lynching in the United States Lynching was the widespread occurrence of extrajudicial killings which began in the United States ' pre–Civil War South in the 1830s, slowed during
4558-718: The definitions which are given to specific incidents by those sources. The Tuskegee Institute has recorded the lynchings of 3,446 Blacks and the lynchings of 1,297 Whites, all of which occurred between 1882 and 1968, with the peak occurring in the 1890s, at a time of economic stress in the South and increasing political suppression of Blacks. A six-year study published in 2017 by the Equal Justice Initiative found that 4,084 Black men, women, and children fell victim to "racial terror lynchings" in twelve Southern states between 1877 and 1950, besides 300 that took place in other states. During this period, Mississippi's 654 lynchings led
4644-497: The early 1970s. Shubuta is served by the Quitman School District . The county is in the zone for Jones College . Clarke County, Mississippi Clarke County is a county located in the U.S. state of Mississippi . As of the 2020 census , the population was 15,615. Its county seat is Quitman . Clarke County is named for Joshua G. Clarke , the first Mississippi state chancellor and judge. The county
4730-584: The entire historical time period of lynching in the United States. Before 1882, no contemporaneous statistics were assembled on a national level. In 1882, the Chicago Tribune began to systematically tabulate lynchings nationally. In 1908, the Tuskegee Institute began a systematic collection of lynching reports under the direction of Monroe Work at its Department of Records, drawn primarily from newspaper reports. Monroe Work published his first independent tabulations in 1910, although his report also went back to
4816-916: The first families to arrive was Jehu and Sarah Pagaus Evans, who arrived in February 1832, and settled east of Buckatunna Swamp. By the fall of 1832, the “New Purchase” began to fill up quickly with arrivals. Among the early settlers were George Evans, Richard Wagster, Henry Hailes, Alex Hailes, Michael McCarty, James Bankston, Calvin M. Ludlow, John Williford, William Williford, James Risher, J. A. Fontain, John Gunn, Robert Fleming, John Fleming, Hiram Fleming, Norman Martin, Stephen Grice, Thomas F. Hicks, Alex McLendon, Roland B. Crosby, Cameron Grayson, Jesse C. Mott, David Neely, David B. Thompson, Dabney Edwards, Jacob Slack, John Johnston, Alex Trotter, Richard N. Hough, Robert McLaughlin, L. D. Phillips, Samuel Lee, Jesse Sumrall, Jeremiah Crane, Howell Sumrall, William Goleman, Thomas Goleman, Samuel K. Lewis and Thomas Watts. The county
4902-475: The focus of violence in Louisiana when they started arriving in greater numbers, their deaths were not tabulated separately from Whites. In earlier years, Whites who were subject to lynching were often targeted because of suspected political activities or support of freedmen, but they were generally considered members of the community in a way new immigrants were not. Other victims included white immigrants, and, in
4988-480: The game of football". D. W. Griffith 's 1915 film, The Birth of a Nation , glorified the original Ku Klux Klan as protecting white southern women during Reconstruction, which he portrayed as a time of violence and corruption , following the Dunning School 's interpretation of history. The film aroused great controversy. It was popular among Whites nationwide, but it was protested against by Black activists,
5074-514: The historian William Gillette to label it " guerrilla warfare ", and historian Thomas E. Smith to understand it as a form of " colonial violence". The lynchers sometimes murdered their victims, but sometimes whipped or physically assaulted them to remind them of their former status as slaves. Often night-time raids of African American homes were made in order to confiscate firearms. Lynchings to prevent freedmen and their allies from voting and bearing arms were extralegal ways of trying to enforce
5160-546: The house. Johnston was said to have sexually assaulted and impregnated each of the House sisters. After the Clark brothers started working on the farm, Major Clark and Maggie House developed a romantic relationship. Johnston the son had jealously threatened Clark, saying he would kill the young black man unless he ended his relationship with House. Johnston apparently had affairs with white women, too, and his father believed he had been shot by
5246-458: The late 19th century, however, journalist Ida B. Wells showed that many presumed crimes were either exaggerated or had not even occurred. The ideology behind lynching, directly connected to the denial of political and social equality, was stated forthrightly in 1900 by United States Senator Benjamin Tillman , who was previously governor of South Carolina : We of the South have never recognized
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#17330861312115332-532: The late 19th century, trial juries in most of the southern United States were all white because African Americans had been disenfranchised, and only registered voters could serve as jurors. Often juries never let the matter go past the inquest. Such cases happened in the North as well. In 1892, a police officer in Port Jervis, New York , tried to stop the lynching of a Black man who had been wrongfully accused of assaulting
5418-576: The lynchings occurred in the American South , as the majority of African Americans lived there, but racially motivated lynchings also occurred in the Midwest and border states . In 1891, the largest single mass lynching in American history was perpetrated in New Orleans against Italian immigrants . Lynchings followed African Americans with the Great Migration ( c. 1916–1970 ) out of
5504-454: The lynchings which occurred in all of the Southern states. The records of Tuskegee Institute remain the single most complete source of statistics and records on this crime since 1882 for all states, although modern research has illuminated new incidents in studies focused on specific states in isolation. As of 1959, which was the last time that Tuskegee Institute's annual report was published,
5590-581: The mid-1870s onward, violence rose as insurgent paramilitary groups in the Deep South worked to suppress Black voting and turn Republicans out of office. In Louisiana, the Carolinas, and Florida especially, the Democratic Party relied on paramilitary "White Line" groups, such as the White Camelia , White League and Red Shirts to terrorize, intimidate and assassinate African-American and white Republicans in an organized drive to regain power. In Mississippi and
5676-402: The mob. In addition, men cut off power to the town from the main station, perhaps to support witnesses' later claims of being unable to identify members of the mob. The four young people were brutally treated. Maggie was smashed in the face with a wrench. All four were thrown from the bridge, but Maggie caught on to the bridge and survived the initial attempt on her life. When she was thrown from
5762-475: The murders of Green and Lang. Governor Paul Johnson declared that the lynchings were murders, there was nothing he could do about it, and criticized first lady Eleanor Roosevelt for discussing the matter in the national media. Because of its own history and connection to the white lynchings of thousands of blacks in the South, the bridge was added to the National List of Historic Places in 1988. As of 2016,
5848-510: The new social order which was constructed under Jim Crow; Whites acted together, reinforcing their collective identity along with the unequal status of Blacks through these group acts of violence. Lynchings were also (in part) intended as a voter suppression tool. A 2019 study found that lynchings occurred more frequently in proximity to elections, in particular in areas where the Democratic Party faced challenges. Tuskegee Institute, now Tuskegee University , defined conditions that constituted
5934-415: The number of jellybeans in a jar, and intimidation by the Ku Klux Klan. Following the 1918 lynchings, many black workers left Clarke County, leaving cotton to rot in the fields. The town's population dropped by 21% (See table below) and the county population dropped 17% from 1910 to 1920. (See Demographics, Clarke County, Mississippi ) The first wave of the Great Migration from the rural South continued to
6020-429: The peace W.E. Eddins, perhaps in a hearing at his residence, where they allegedly confessed to attempted rape. By October 10 the boys were held in the jail at the county seat of Quitman . On October 12, Quitman Town Marshall G.F. Dabbs handed the boys over to several white men, who took the boys away. The men took the boys to the Shubuta railroad bridge, where they mutilated them by cutting off their genitals, and hanged
6106-760: The previous system of social dominance and the Black Codes , which had been invalidated by the 14th and 15th Amendments in 1868 and 1870. Journalist, educator, and civil rights leader, Ida B. Wells commented in an 1892 pamphlet she published called Southern Horrors: Lynch Law in All Its Phases that, "The only times an Afro-American who was assaulted got away has been when he had a gun and used it in self-defense." A study published in August 2022 by researchers from Clemson University has stated that, "...rates of Black lynching decreased with greater Black firearm access..." From
6192-537: The right of the negro to govern white men, and we never will. We have never believed him to be the equal of the white man, and we will not submit to his gratifying his lust on our wives and daughters without lynching him. Lynchings declined briefly after White supremacists, the so-called " Redeemers ", took over the governments of the southern states in the 1870s. By the end of the 19th century, with struggles over labor and disenfranchisement, and continuing agricultural depression, lynchings rose again. Between 1882 and 1968,
6278-460: The river; it is known as the "Hanging Bridge". It was the site of the 20th-century lynch murders of four young blacks in 1918, two of whom were pregnant women, and two male youths in 1942. National newspapers covered the lynchings, and the NAACP conducted investigations in both cases. No one was prosecuted for the murders. In addition to recognition of historic houses in town, the Shubuta Bridge
6364-550: The starting year 1882. Finally, in 1912, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People started an independent record of lynchings. The numbers of lynchings from each source vary slightly, with the Tuskegee Institute's figures being considered "conservative" by some historians. Based on the source, the numbers vary depending on the sources which are cited, the years which are considered by those sources, and
6450-479: The targets of lynching as well. At the first recorded lynching, in St. Louis in 1835, a Black man named McIntosh (who killed a deputy sheriff while being taken to jail) was captured, chained to a tree, and burned to death on a corner lot downtown in front of a crowd of over 1,000 people. According to historian Michael J. Pfeifer, the prevalence of lynchings in post–Civil War America reflected people's lack of confidence in
6536-494: The town was $ 9,094. About 38.5% of families and 44.8% of the population were below the poverty line , including 59.4% of those under age 18 and 35.9% of those age 65 or over. Shubuta was the second home of Hanson Scale Company, a bathroom scale manufacturer. It was later owned by the Sunbeam Corporation . Shubuta is the home of Mississippi Laminators. Producing laminated beams, the company has been in business here since
6622-524: The victims were falsely accused. Tuskegee Institute's method of categorizing most lynching victims as either Black or white in publications and data summaries meant that the murders of some minority and immigrant groups were obscured. In the West, for instance, Mexican, Native Americans, and Chinese were more frequent targets of lynchings than were African Americans, but their deaths were included among those of other Whites. Similarly, although Italian immigrants were
6708-524: The word "Shubuta" appears on Bernard Roman's "Map of 1772", a copy of which appears in Riley's History of Mississippi . The name was spelled as " Chobuta ", which means "smoky water" in the Choctaw language . It became a market town for an area developed for cotton plantations, which depended on the labor of enslaved African Americans. Cotton was shipped downriver from Shubata to Mobile, Alabama , and then to other major ports. The town started growing more rapidly in
6794-459: The youths from the bridge. The sheriff told the Pittsburgh Courier that the local people respected law and order, but that "Them niggers is gettin’ uppity, you know.” Walter Atkins, a black journalist, asserted in 1942 that the “rickety old span is a symbol of the South as much as magnolia blossoms or mint julep colonels.” Sherriff McNeal was said to have expressed remorse on his deathbed for
6880-405: Was 271.0 inhabitants per square mile (104.6/km). There were 270 housing units at an average density of 112.4 per square mile (43.4/km). The racial makeup of the town was 25.50% White , 73.89% African American , 0.15% from other races , and 0.46% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.38% of the population. There were 244 households, out of which 38.1% had children under
6966-402: Was Japanese." A common perception of lynchings in the U.S. is that they were only hangings , due to the public visibility of the location, which made it easier for photographers to photograph the victims. Some lynchings were professionally photographed and then the photos were sold as postcards , which became popular souvenirs in parts of the United States. Lynching victims were also killed in
7052-405: Was due in two weeks. When the NAACP asked for a state investigation, their representative was told by Mississippi Governor Theodore Bilbo to "go to hell". The NAACP contracted with Robert Church, a white detective from Memphis, Tennessee, to investigate the four lynchings. He learned that Johnston was fatally shot while milking on December 10, 1918. Major Clark had found him and carried him into
7138-447: Was founded in 1833. Quitman , named for General John A. Quitman . After the organization of Clarke County, the first school was built close to the old Tennessee Trace. Mr. Hennessy was the teacher and he came from Kinsale, Ireland. Religious services were held in the pioneer families’ home and on days of good weather, outside. The first actual church built was Cedar Creek Church, a Methodist church, and Elim Baptist Church followed in
7224-703: Was majority white. Pfeifer also cited "the modern, racialized excesses of urban police forces in the twentieth century and after" as bearing characteristics of lynchings. A major motive for lynchings, particularly in the South, was white society's efforts to maintain white supremacy after the emancipation of enslaved people following the American Civil War . Lynchings punished perceived violations of customs, later institutionalized as Jim Crow laws , which mandated racial segregation of Whites and Blacks, and second-class status for Blacks. A 2017 paper found that more racially segregated counties were more likely to be places where Whites conducted lynchings. Lynchings emphasized
7310-539: Was not uncommon. Some of those photographs were published and sold as postcards. In 2000, James Allen published a collection of 145 lynching photos in book form as well as online, with written words and video to accompany the images. The murders reflected the tensions of labor and social changes, as the Whites imposed Jim Crow rules, legal segregation and white supremacy. The lynchings were also an indicator of long economic stress due to falling cotton prices through much of
7396-430: Was time for landowners to settle accounts with sharecroppers . The frequency of lynchings rose during years of poor economy and low prices for cotton, demonstrating that more than social tensions generated the catalysts for mob action against the underclass. Researchers have studied various models to determine what motivated lynchings. One study of lynching rates of Blacks in Southern counties between 1889 and 1931 found
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