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105-491: The Shockwave Rider is a science fiction novel by John Brunner , originally published in 1975. It is notable for its hero's use of computer hacking skills to escape pursuit in a dystopian future , and for the coining of the word " worm " to describe a program that propagates itself through a computer network . It also introduces the concept of a Delphi pool , perhaps derived from the RAND Corporation 's Delphi method –
210-630: A genetically modified organism in the process. However, some broad definitions of genetic engineering include selective breeding . Cloning and stem cell research, although not considered genetic engineering, are closely related and genetic engineering can be used within them. Synthetic biology is an emerging discipline that takes genetic engineering a step further by introducing artificially synthesised material into an organism. Plants, animals or microorganisms that have been changed through genetic engineering are termed genetically modified organisms or GMOs. If genetic material from another species
315-557: A prediction market on world events which bears close resemblance to DARPA 's controversial and cancelled Policy Analysis Market . The title derives from the futurist work Future Shock by Alvin Toffler . The hero is a survivor in a hypothetical world of quickly changing identities, fashions, and lifestyles, where individuals are still controlled and oppressed by a powerful and secretive state apparatus. His highly developed computer skills enable him to use any public telephone to punch in
420-484: A promoter and terminator region, which initiate and end transcription . A selectable marker gene is added, which in most cases confers antibiotic resistance , so researchers can easily determine which cells have been successfully transformed. The gene can also be modified at this stage for better expression or effectiveness. These manipulations are carried out using recombinant DNA techniques, such as restriction digests , ligations and molecular cloning. There are
525-435: A "phage", cannot be removed without dismantling the entire network. Possibly encouraged by the government, local gangs and tribes raid Precipice, burning down Nick and Kate's house before being overwhelmed by the dogs. Nick, suffering another overload, blames Kate for the incident, since she, following Hearing Aid policy, cut off a call from someone attempting to warn Precipice. He hits her, and then, filled with remorse, leaves
630-449: A Utopian community of a few thousand people. The nearest comparison would be an agrarian, cottage industry community designed by William Morris . Precipice is also the home of Hearing Aid, an anonymous telephone confession service accessible to anyone in the country. Hearing Aid is also known as the "Ten Nines", after the phone number used to call it: 999-999-9999. People call the service, a human operator answers, and they simply talk while
735-425: A biotech company, Advanced Genetic Sciences (AGS) applied for U.S. government authorisation to perform field tests with the ice-minus strain of Pseudomonas syringae to protect crops from frost, but environmental groups and protestors delayed the field tests for four years with legal challenges. In 1987, the ice-minus strain of P. syringae became the first genetically modified organism (GMO) to be released into
840-404: A counter-order to stop the plane just before it reaches the town. The book ends optimistically, with there being no more privileged hiding of information, no more secret conspiracies of the rich and powerful. Spider Robinson gave the novel a mixed review, saying that while "the book reads well ..., [i]ndividual sections are often brilliant, [and] the message is incisive and timely", that "as
945-542: A gene coding for a useful protein, such as an enzyme, so that they will overexpress the desired protein. Mass quantities of the protein can then be manufactured by growing the transformed organism in bioreactor equipment using industrial fermentation , and then purifying the protein. Some genes do not work well in bacteria, so yeast, insect cells or mammalian cells can also be used. These techniques are used to produce medicines such as insulin , human growth hormone , and vaccines , supplements such as tryptophan , aid in
1050-456: A gene is isolated it can be stored inside the bacteria providing an unlimited supply for research. Organisms are genetically engineered to discover the functions of certain genes. This could be the effect on the phenotype of the organism, where the gene is expressed or what other genes it interacts with. These experiments generally involve loss of function, gain of function, tracking and expression. Organisms can have their cells transformed with
1155-598: A genetically modified virus has been used in a research laboratory as a scaffold for assembling a more environmentally friendly lithium-ion battery . Bacteria have also been engineered to function as sensors by expressing a fluorescent protein under certain environmental conditions. One of the best-known and controversial applications of genetic engineering is the creation and use of genetically modified crops or genetically modified livestock to produce genetically modified food . Crops have been developed to increase production, increase tolerance to abiotic stresses , alter
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#17328732384681260-592: A heart attack in Glasgow on 25 August 1995, while attending the World Science Fiction Convention there. At first writing conventional space opera , Brunner later began to experiment with the novel form. His 1968 novel Stand on Zanzibar exploits the fragmented organizational style that American writer John Dos Passos created for his U.S.A. trilogy, but updates it in terms of the theory of media popularised by Canadian academic Marshall McLuhan ,
1365-543: A major cultural figure of the period. The Jagged Orbit (1969) is set in a United States dominated by weapons proliferation and interracial violence . Its 100 numbered chapters vary in length from a single syllable to several pages. The Sheep Look Up (1972) depicts ecological catastrophe in America. Brunner is credited with coining the term " worm " (in computing) and predicting the emergence of computer viruses in his 1975 novel The Shockwave Rider , in which he used
1470-430: A new identity, thus reinventing himself, within hours. As a fugitive, he must do this from time to time to avoid capture. The title is also a metaphor for survival in an uncertain world. The novel shows a dystopian early 21st-century America dominated by computer networks. The hero, Nick Haflinger, is a runaway from Tarnover, a government program intended to find, educate and indoctrinate highly gifted children to further
1575-722: A new social niche with a minimum of inconvenience. Their mobility is, however, a reflection of the failure of the lifestyle to satisfy them, resulting in more moves. In this world of confusion are also companies specialising in psychological intervention. One such is Anti-Trauma Inc. which is hired to "normalise" children in a process akin to deprogramming , the (often violent) attempt to force people to renounce their association with groups perceived as cults . Anti-Trauma does significant harm to its charges, although as so often happens in Brunner's interconnected society, it also spends much money and time covering up its failures. Brunner's concept of
1680-464: A number of techniques used to insert genetic material into the host genome. Some bacteria can naturally take up foreign DNA . This ability can be induced in other bacteria via stress (e.g. thermal or electric shock), which increases the cell membrane's permeability to DNA; up-taken DNA can either integrate with the genome or exist as extrachromosomal DNA . DNA is generally inserted into animal cells using microinjection , where it can be injected through
1785-416: A personal ID code intended for privileged individuals who wish to live their lives without surveillance, and goes on the run. He uses the stolen 4GH computer access code to cover his data trails and create new identities for himself, easily adopting entire new personas. One is the pastor of a popular church, another is a successful computer consultant. In this last role, calling himself Sandy Locke, he becomes
1890-409: A story it limps" and that many characters, including the main antagonists, "are cut from cardboard". The New York Times reviewer Gerald Jonas was even more critical, saying that while Brunner was attempting to write "slice-of-life" fiction about a future society, the result of his arbitrary choices about social details is that "the entire fictional edifice collapses like a house of cards." The novel
1995-595: A variety of venues, particularly fanzines . He also published 13 letters to the New Scientist and an article about the educational relevance of science fiction in Physics Education . Brunner was an active member of the organisation Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament and wrote the words to "The H-Bomb's Thunder", which was sung on the Aldermaston Marches . He was a linguist, translator, and Guest of Honour at
2100-413: A virus was used to insert a healthy gene into the skin cells of a boy suffering from a rare skin disease, epidermolysis bullosa , in order to grow, and then graft healthy skin onto 80 percent of the boy's body which was affected by the illness. Germline gene therapy would result in any change being inheritable, which has raised concerns within the scientific community. In 2015, CRISPR was used to edit
2205-589: A wide range of plants, animals and microorganisms. Bacteria , the first organisms to be genetically modified, can have plasmid DNA inserted containing new genes that code for medicines or enzymes that process food and other substrates . Plants have been modified for insect protection, herbicide resistance , virus resistance, enhanced nutrition, tolerance to environmental pressures and the production of edible vaccines . Most commercialised GMOs are insect resistant or herbicide tolerant crop plants. Genetically modified animals have been used for research, model animals and
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#17328732384682310-515: A year later the company produced a human protein ( somatostatin ) in E. coli . Genentech announced the production of genetically engineered human insulin in 1978. In 1980, the U.S. Supreme Court in the Diamond v. Chakrabarty case ruled that genetically altered life could be patented. The insulin produced by bacteria was approved for release by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 1982. In 1983,
2415-454: Is a perpetual student at the University of Missouri–Kansas City . She is perceptive enough to penetrate Nick's adopted persona, deeply disturbing him even though she fascinates him. He visits her at home, helping her to clean out some of her possessions, and meeting her tame cougar , Bagheera – the product of her late father's genetic research into intelligence. He died shortly after abandoning
2520-534: Is a prominent theme in the book; characters who have access to information which is nominally secret enjoy demonstrable economic advantages over others lacking access to such data. In the novel, data privacy is reserved for corporations and powerful individuals, who may then conceal wrongdoing; by contrast, normal citizens do not enjoy significant privacy. The world described in the book is dystopian, with laissez-faire economics portrayed as leading to disaster as greed trumps long-term planning. The educational system
2625-466: Is a recurrent theme in the novel. In particular, Brunner is concerned with perceptual patterns and how they can both help and mislead. Nick projects patterns of behaviour to assume his personas, but Kate has "natural wisdom" which means that she ignores surface patterns to perceive the truth beneath. When they arrive in Precipice, the couple have to abandon their normal "urban pattern" to see the ways in which
2730-441: Is added to the host, the resulting organism is called transgenic . If genetic material from the same species or a species that can naturally breed with the host is used the resulting organism is called cisgenic . If genetic engineering is used to remove genetic material from the target organism the resulting organism is termed a knockout organism. In Europe genetic modification is synonymous with genetic engineering while within
2835-486: Is an important tool for natural scientists , with the creation of transgenic organisms one of the most important tools for analysis of gene function. Genes and other genetic information from a wide range of organisms can be inserted into bacteria for storage and modification, creating genetically modified bacteria in the process. Bacteria are cheap, easy to grow, clonal , multiply quickly, relatively easy to transform and can be stored at -80 °C almost indefinitely. Once
2940-534: Is designed to destroy all secrecy. (Brunner invented the term worm for this program, as a self-replicating program that propagates across a computer network – the word was later adopted by computer researchers as the name for this type of program.) The worm is eventually activated, and the details of all the government's dark secrets (clandestine genetic experimentation that produces crippled children, bribes and kickbacks from corporations, concealed crimes of high public officials) now become accessible from anywhere on
3045-466: Is dysfunctional, with teachers unable to perform their jobs due to strictures. The only functional educational system seen in the book is portrayed as an enclave, the tightly controlled Tarnover school. Communities are either walled enclaves of privilege or largely lawless areas entirely lacking protection from corrupt civil authorities. Infrastructure has been allowed to crumble, and characters who reside within "paid avoidance zones" receive compensation from
3150-408: Is generated through genetic engineering is considered to be genetically modified (GM) and the resulting entity is a genetically modified organism (GMO). The first GMO was a bacterium generated by Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen in 1973. Rudolf Jaenisch created the first GM animal when he inserted foreign DNA into a mouse in 1974. The first company to focus on genetic engineering, Genentech ,
3255-625: Is like a classical pianist being able to play entire sonatas and concertos from memory. However, Nick also has some personality flaws, amounting almost to a deathwish . These become manifest in exhibitions of his abilities, revealing his identity to his pursuers. The background to the story includes a massive earthquake laying waste to the San Francisco Bay Area in California. Millions die and millions more are left to live on government handouts. The subsequent economic depression, coupled with
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3360-422: Is not necessary. Selectable markers are used to easily differentiate transformed from untransformed cells. These markers are usually present in the transgenic organism, although a number of strategies have been developed that can remove the selectable marker from the mature transgenic plant. Further testing using PCR, Southern hybridization , and DNA sequencing is conducted to confirm that an organism contains
3465-420: Is not what he seems, asking for her help. She conducts him to one of the "paid avoidance areas" in California, where people are paid to do without the full panoply of modern technology, as an alternative to spending billions to rebuild infrastructure after the earthquake. After Nick risks exposure yet again in one of these places, they move to the least known one, a town called Precipice. Precipice turns out to be
3570-704: Is possible to create animal model organisms of human diseases. As well as producing hormones, vaccines and other drugs, genetic engineering has the potential to cure genetic diseases through gene therapy . Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells are used in industrial genetic engineering. Additionally mRNA vaccines are made through genetic engineering to treat viruses such as COVID-19 . The same techniques that are used to produce drugs can also have industrial applications such as producing enzymes for laundry detergent, cheeses and other products. The rise of commercialised genetically modified crops has provided economic benefit to farmers in many different countries, but has also been
3675-563: Is separated by using restriction enzymes to cut the DNA into fragments or polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to amplify up the gene segment. These segments can then be extracted through gel electrophoresis . If the chosen gene or the donor organism's genome has been well studied it may already be accessible from a genetic library . If the DNA sequence is known, but no copies of the gene are available, it can also be artificially synthesised . Once isolated
3780-401: Is the genetic engineering of humans , generally by replacing defective genes with effective ones. Clinical research using somatic gene therapy has been conducted with several diseases, including X-linked SCID , chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL), and Parkinson's disease . In 2012, Alipogene tiparvovec became the first gene therapy treatment to be approved for clinical use. In 2015
3885-422: Is the modification and manipulation of an organism's genes using technology . It is a set of technologies used to change the genetic makeup of cells, including the transfer of genes within and across species boundaries to produce improved or novel organisms . New DNA is obtained by either isolating and copying the genetic material of interest using recombinant DNA methods or by artificially synthesising
3990-560: The American Association for the Advancement of Science say that absent scientific evidence of harm even voluntary labeling is misleading and will falsely alarm consumers. Labeling of GMO products in the marketplace is required in 64 countries. Labeling can be mandatory up to a threshold GM content level (which varies between countries) or voluntary. In Canada and the US labeling of GM food
4095-507: The CRISPR/Cas9 system, a technique which can be used to easily and specifically alter the genome of almost any organism. Creating a GMO is a multi-step process. Genetic engineers must first choose what gene they wish to insert into the organism. This is driven by what the aim is for the resultant organism and is built on earlier research. Genetic screens can be carried out to determine potential genes and further tests then used to identify
4200-411: The computer worm was inspired by analogy with the tapeworm , a digestive parasite. A biological tapeworm consists of a head attached to a long train of reproductive segments, each of which can produce more worms when detached. Brunner's "data-net tapeworm" consists of a head followed by other segments, each being some kind of code which has effects on databases and other systems. Several are unleashed in
4305-579: The host organism or into a cell that is then fused or hybridised with the host. This relies on recombinant nucleic acid techniques to form new combinations of heritable genetic material followed by the incorporation of that material either indirectly through a vector system or directly through micro-injection , macro-injection or micro-encapsulation . Genetic engineering does not normally include traditional breeding, in vitro fertilisation , induction of polyploidy , mutagenesis and cell fusion techniques that do not use recombinant nucleic acids or
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4410-434: The infectious sequences . Genetic engineering is also used to create animal models of human diseases. Genetically modified mice are the most common genetically engineered animal model. They have been used to study and model cancer (the oncomouse ), obesity, heart disease, diabetes, arthritis, substance abuse, anxiety, aging and Parkinson disease. Potential cures can be tested against these mouse models. Gene therapy
4515-452: The "Club of Rome Quartet", named after the Club of Rome , whose 1972 report The Limits to Growth warned of the dire effects of overpopulation. Brunner's pen names include K. H. Brunner (Kilian Houston Brunner), Gill Hunt, John Loxmith, Trevor Staines, Ellis Quick, Henry Crosstrees Jr., and Keith Woodcott. In addition to his fiction, Brunner wrote poetry and published many unpaid articles in
4620-432: The "computer tapeworm" that prevents the calls to Hearing Aid being monitored. While at G2S he became aware of massive backups of data being performed, clearly in anticipation of a major network outage. The Hearing Aid worm is designed to scramble network traffic if attacked, but Nick realises that it could be destroyed if the authorities were prepared for the effects and ready to recover from them. His new worm, which he calls
4725-501: The DNA of non-viable human embryos , leading scientists of major world academies to call for a moratorium on inheritable human genome edits. There are also concerns that the technology could be used not just for treatment, but for enhancement, modification or alteration of a human beings' appearance, adaptability, intelligence, character or behavior. The distinction between cure and enhancement can also be difficult to establish. In November 2018, He Jiankui announced that he had edited
4830-432: The DNA. A construct is usually created and used to insert this DNA into the host organism. The first recombinant DNA molecule was made by Paul Berg in 1972 by combining DNA from the monkey virus SV40 with the lambda virus . As well as inserting genes , the process can be used to remove, or " knock out ", genes. The new DNA can be inserted randomly, or targeted to a specific part of the genome . An organism that
4935-449: The FDA approved a drug produced in goat milk. Genetic engineering has potential applications in conservation and natural area management. Gene transfer through viral vectors has been proposed as a means of controlling invasive species as well as vaccinating threatened fauna from disease. Transgenic trees have been suggested as a way to confer resistance to pathogens in wild populations. With
5040-613: The USDA, FDA and EPA. The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety , an international treaty that governs the transfer, handling, and use of GMOs, was adopted on 29 January 2000. One hundred and fifty-seven countries are members of the Protocol, and many use it as a reference point for their own regulations. The legal and regulatory status of GM foods varies by country, with some nations banning or restricting them, and others permitting them with widely differing degrees of regulation. Some countries allow
5145-579: The United States and Europe . Genetic engineering : Process of inserting new genetic information into existing cells in order to modify a specific organism for the purpose of changing its characteristics. Note : Adapted from ref. Genetic engineering is a process that alters the genetic structure of an organism by either removing or introducing DNA , or modifying existing genetic material in situ. Unlike traditional animal and plant breeding , which involves doing multiple crosses and then selecting for
5250-478: The United States of America and Canada genetic modification can also be used to refer to more conventional breeding methods. Humans have altered the genomes of species for thousands of years through selective breeding , or artificial selection as contrasted with natural selection . More recently, mutation breeding has used exposure to chemicals or radiation to produce a high frequency of random mutations, for selective breeding purposes. Genetic engineering as
5355-404: The United States. One of the key issues concerning regulators is whether GM products should be labeled. The European Commission says that mandatory labeling and traceability are needed to allow for informed choice, avoid potential false advertising and facilitate the withdrawal of products if adverse effects on health or the environment are discovered. The American Medical Association and
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#17328732384685460-432: The accounts of criminals, while making sure money (or credit) flows to places where people are in need. This will only happen fully if the results of a plebiscite , again conducted over the network, allow it. In a final atavistic attempt at revenge, the government orders a nuclear strike by a single aircraft from a local Air Force base. Warned by Hearing Aid, Nick is able to penetrate the military computers and manufacture
5565-514: The approaches taken by governments to assess and manage the risks associated with the development and release of GMOs. The development of a regulatory framework began in 1975, at Asilomar , California. The Asilomar meeting recommended a set of voluntary guidelines regarding the use of recombinant technology. As the technology improved the US established a committee at the Office of Science and Technology , which assigned regulatory approval of GM food to
5670-473: The best candidates. The development of microarrays , transcriptomics and genome sequencing has made it much easier to find suitable genes. Luck also plays its part; the Roundup Ready gene was discovered after scientists noticed a bacterium thriving in the presence of the herbicide. The next step is to isolate the candidate gene. The cell containing the gene is opened and the DNA is purified. The gene
5775-534: The book. Besides the two Hearing Aid tapeworms, and Nick's ultimate tapeworm, there is a "denunciation tapeworm" created as revenge by a representative of Anti-Trauma Inc. whom Nick insults and curses. At the time, Nick was playing the role of a priest in a revivalist church. The worm's intent was to destroy the church by cancelling all its utility services. Nick in turn sends another worm into the network to destroy that one. John Brunner (novelist) John Kilian Houston Brunner (24 September 1934 – 25 August 1995)
5880-408: The cell membrane permeable to plasmid DNA. As only a single cell is transformed with genetic material, the organism must be regenerated from that single cell. In plants this is accomplished through the use of tissue culture . In animals it is necessary to ensure that the inserted DNA is present in the embryonic stem cells . Bacteria consist of a single cell and reproduce clonally so regeneration
5985-763: The cell's nuclear envelope directly into the nucleus , or through the use of viral vectors . Plant genomes can be engineered by physical methods or by use of Agrobacterium for the delivery of sequences hosted in T-DNA binary vectors . In plants the DNA is often inserted using Agrobacterium -mediated transformation , taking advantage of the Agrobacterium s T-DNA sequence that allows natural insertion of genetic material into plant cells. Other methods include biolistics , where particles of gold or tungsten are coated with DNA and then shot into young plant cells, and electroporation , which involves using an electric shock to make
6090-409: The code he gets from Freeman, he sets up an identity as an Army major, with Kate as his prisoner. Once clear of Tarnover, they disappear together. This time around, Nick has another plan, and rather than running and hiding, he and Kate spend a number of months travelling the country, aided by an "invisible college" of academics who are allies or former residents of Precipice. He creates a new "worm" which
6195-443: The composition of the food, or to produce novel products. The first crops to be released commercially on a large scale provided protection from insect pests or tolerance to herbicides . Fungal and virus resistant crops have also been developed or are in development. This makes the insect and weed management of crops easier and can indirectly increase crop yield. GM crops that directly improve yield by accelerating growth or making
6300-604: The concept of substantial equivalence . The European Union by contrast has possibly the most stringent GMO regulations in the world. All GMOs, along with irradiated food , are considered "new food" and subject to extensive, case-by-case, science-based food evaluation by the European Food Safety Authority . The criteria for authorisation fall in four broad categories: "safety", "freedom of choice", "labelling", and "traceability". The level of regulation in other countries that cultivate GMOs lie in between Europe and
6405-413: The defective gene with a functioning one. It is an important tool in research that allows the function of specific genes to be studied. Drugs, vaccines and other products have been harvested from organisms engineered to produce them. Crops have been developed that aid food security by increasing yield, nutritional value and tolerance to environmental stresses. The DNA can be introduced directly into
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#17328732384686510-567: The direct manipulation of DNA by humans outside breeding and mutations has only existed since the 1970s. The term "genetic engineering" was coined by the Russian-born geneticist Nikolay Timofeev-Ressovsky in his 1934 paper "The Experimental Production of Mutations", published in the British journal Biological Reviews. Jack Williamson used the term in his science fiction novel Dragon's Island, published in 1951 – one year before DNA's role in heredity
6615-573: The earliest uses of genetic engineering was to mass-produce human insulin in bacteria. This application has now been applied to human growth hormones , follicle stimulating hormones (for treating infertility), human albumin , monoclonal antibodies , antihemophilic factors , vaccines and many other drugs. Mouse hybridomas , cells fused together to create monoclonal antibodies , have been adapted through genetic engineering to create human monoclonal antibodies. Genetically engineered viruses are being developed that can still confer immunity, but lack
6720-444: The early 1980s, without success. Before his death, most of his books had fallen out of print. Brunner accused publishers of a conspiracy against him, although he was known to be difficult to deal with. His wife, Marjorie Brunner, had handled his publishing relations before she died. Brunner's health began to decline in the 1980s and worsened with the death of his wife in 1986. He remarried, to Li Yi Tan, on 27 September 1991. He died of
6825-502: The environment when a strawberry field and a potato field in California were sprayed with it. Both test fields were attacked by activist groups the night before the tests occurred: "The world's first trial site attracted the world's first field trasher". The first field trials of genetically engineered plants occurred in France and the US in 1986, tobacco plants were engineered to be resistant to herbicides . The People's Republic of China
6930-428: The feeling that their lives could be turned upside down in an instant because of someone breaking into the data held on the network. They also believe that the network knows more about them than they do about themselves. This is an extension of the sense of paranoia felt by many people in the 1970s, believing themselves to be powerless in the face of political and economic forces over which they had no control. Perception
7035-704: The first European Science Fiction Convention Eurocon-1 in Trieste in 1972. Brunner wrote the screenplay for the science fiction film The Terrornauts (1967) by Amicus Productions . Two of his short stories, "Some Lapse of Time" and "The Last Lonely Man", were adapted as TV plays in the BBC science fiction series Out of the Unknown , in series 1 (1965) and series 3 (1969) , respectively. Max Curfew Series Genetic engineering Genetic engineering , also called genetic modification or genetic manipulation ,
7140-471: The first synthetic genome and inserted it into an empty bacterial cell. The resulting bacterium, named Mycoplasma laboratorium , could replicate and produce proteins. Four years later this was taken a step further when a bacterium was developed that replicated a plasmid containing a unique base pair , creating the first organism engineered to use an expanded genetic alphabet. In 2012, Jennifer Doudna and Emmanuelle Charpentier collaborated to develop
7245-583: The first GMO designed as a pet, was sold in the United States in December 2003. In 2016 salmon modified with a growth hormone were sold. Genetic engineering has been applied in numerous fields including research, medicine, industrial biotechnology and agriculture. In research, GMOs are used to study gene function and expression through loss of function, gain of function, tracking and expression experiments. By knocking out genes responsible for certain conditions it
7350-482: The food supply and intellectual property rights have also been raised as potential issues. These concerns have led to the development of a regulatory framework, which started in 1975. It has led to an international treaty, the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety , that was adopted in 2000. Individual countries have developed their own regulatory systems regarding GMOs, with the most marked differences occurring between
7455-464: The gene is ligated into a plasmid that is then inserted into a bacterium. The plasmid is replicated when the bacteria divide, ensuring unlimited copies of the gene are available. The RK2 plasmid is notable for its ability to replicate in a wide variety of single-celled organisms , which makes it suitable as a genetic engineering tool. Before the gene is inserted into the target organism it must be combined with other genetic elements. These include
7560-404: The genome of pigs to induce the growth of human organs, with the aim of increasing the success of pig to human organ transplantation . Scientists are creating "gene drives", changing the genomes of mosquitoes to make them immune to malaria, and then looking to spread the genetically altered mosquitoes throughout the mosquito population in the hopes of eliminating the disease. Genetic engineering
7665-458: The genome, and use the cell's endogenous mechanisms to repair the induced break by the natural processes of homologous recombination and nonhomologous end-joining . There are four families of engineered nucleases: meganucleases , zinc finger nucleases , transcription activator-like effector nucleases (TALENs), and the Cas9-guideRNA system (adapted from CRISPR ). TALEN and CRISPR are
7770-466: The genomes of two human embryos, to attempt to disable the CCR5 gene, which codes for a receptor that HIV uses to enter cells. The work was widely condemned as unethical, dangerous, and premature. Currently, germline modification is banned in 40 countries. Scientists that do this type of research will often let embryos grow for a few days without allowing it to develop into a baby. Researchers are altering
7875-777: The government in lieu of actual services. The novel is set in the weeks following Nick's recapture after several years on the run, alternating between moral arguments with his interrogator, who is trying to discover why the program's star pupil had absconded, and flashbacks of his career. The interrogator is Paul Freeman, a graduate of another secret installation known as Electric Skillet, which focuses on weapons and defence strategy. Although he had initially felt at home at Tarnover, Nick eventually becomes aware of experiments in genetic engineering being performed there. These produce monstrous deformed children who are disposed of when they are no longer needed for study. At this point Nick becomes determined to escape. He studies data processing, steals
7980-511: The host genome or targeted to a specific location. The technique of gene targeting uses homologous recombination to make desired changes to a specific endogenous gene. This tends to occur at a relatively low frequency in plants and animals and generally requires the use of selectable markers . The frequency of gene targeting can be greatly enhanced through genome editing . Genome editing uses artificially engineered nucleases that create specific double-stranded breaks at desired locations in
8085-454: The import of GM food with authorisation, but either do not allow its cultivation (Russia, Norway, Israel) or have provisions for cultivation even though no GM products are yet produced (Japan, South Korea). Most countries that do not allow GMO cultivation do permit research. Some of the most marked differences occur between the US and Europe. The US policy focuses on the product (not the process), only looks at verifiable scientific risks and uses
8190-678: The increasing risks of maladaptation in organisms as a result of climate change and other perturbations, facilitated adaptation through gene tweaking could be one solution to reducing extinction risks. Applications of genetic engineering in conservation are thus far mostly theoretical and have yet to be put into practice. Genetic engineering is also being used to create microbial art . Some bacteria have been genetically engineered to create black and white photographs. Novelty items such as lavender-colored carnations , blue roses , and glowing fish , have also been produced through genetic engineering. The regulation of genetic engineering concerns
8295-475: The interests of the state in a future where quantitative analysis backed by the tacit threat of coercion has replaced overt military and economic power as the deciding factor in international competition. In parallel with this, the government has become a de facto oligarchy that is effectively an offshoot of organised crime . Nick's talent extends to programming the network using only a touch-tone telephone. One of his handlers at Tarnover explains that this
8400-451: The lover of Ina Grierson, a top executive at Ground to Space Industries, a powerful "hypercorp" known to all as G2S. Intending to use the computer facilities at G2S to ensure that his stolen code is still valid, he signs on as a "systems rationalizer" with the company. This brings him into contact with Ina's daughter, Kate, who attracts him despite her plain appearance and simple lifestyle. At the age of 22, Nick's age when he left Tarnover, Kate
8505-434: The monkey virus SV40 with that of the lambda virus . In 1973 Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen created the first transgenic organism by inserting antibiotic resistance genes into the plasmid of an Escherichia coli bacterium. A year later Rudolf Jaenisch created a transgenic mouse by introducing foreign DNA into its embryo, making it the world's first transgenic animal These achievements led to concerns in
8610-436: The network – in fact, those most affected by a particular crime of a government official are emailed the full details. In place of the old system, Nick has designed the worm to enforce a kind of utilitarian socialism, with people's worth being defined by their roles in society, not their connections in high places. In effect, the network becomes the entire government and financial system, policing income for illegal money, freezing
8715-498: The new gene. These tests can also confirm the chromosomal location and copy number of the inserted gene. The presence of the gene does not guarantee it will be expressed at appropriate levels in the target tissue so methods that look for and measure the gene products (RNA and protein) are also used. These include northern hybridisation , quantitative RT-PCR , Western blot , immunofluorescence , ELISA and phenotypic analysis. The new genetic material can be inserted randomly within
8820-533: The operator listens. Some rant, others seek sympathy, still others commit suicide while on the phone. Hearing Aid's promise is that nobody else, not even the government, will hear the call. The only response Hearing Aid gives to a caller is "Only I heard that, I hope it helped." Nick and Kate settle into the community. The inhabitants include intelligent dogs that escaped from the projects that Kate's father worked on. These act as companions, guards, nannies, and even lie detectors, using their sense of smell. Nick rewrites
8925-399: The organism with the desired phenotype , genetic engineering takes the gene directly from one organism and delivers it to the other. This is much faster, can be used to insert any genes from any organism (even ones from different domains ) and prevents other undesirable genes from also being added. Genetic engineering could potentially fix severe genetic disorders in humans by replacing
9030-483: The pen-name Gill Hunt. He did not start writing full-time until 1958, some years after his military service. He served as an officer in the Royal Air Force from 1953 to 1955. He married Marjorie Rosamond Sauer on 12 July 1958. Brunner had an uneasy relationship with British new wave writers, who often considered him too American in his settings and themes. He attempted to shift to a more mainstream readership in
9135-564: The plant more hardy (by improving salt, cold or drought tolerance) are also under development. In 2016 Salmon have been genetically modified with growth hormones to reach normal adult size much faster. GMOs have been developed that modify the quality of produce by increasing the nutritional value or providing more industrially useful qualities or quantities. The Amflora potato produces a more industrially useful blend of starches. Soybeans and canola have been genetically modified to produce more healthy oils. The first commercialised GM food
9240-430: The production of agricultural or pharmaceutical products. The genetically modified animals include animals with genes knocked out , increased susceptibility to disease , hormones for extra growth and the ability to express proteins in their milk. Genetic engineering has many applications to medicine that include the manufacturing of drugs, creation of model animals that mimic human conditions and gene therapy . One of
9345-570: The production of food ( chymosin in cheese making) and fuels. Other applications with genetically engineered bacteria could involve making them perform tasks outside their natural cycle, such as making biofuels , cleaning up oil spills, carbon and other toxic waste and detecting arsenic in drinking water. Certain genetically modified microbes can also be used in biomining and bioremediation , due to their ability to extract heavy metals from their environment and incorporate them into compounds that are more easily recoverable. In materials science ,
9450-399: The research because the government was using it to produce animals for military uses. The 21st-century lifestyle produces a symptom called " overload " in many people, and most, including Nick, take tranquilizers to some degree. However Nick collapses completely when told that a representative from Tarnover is coming to his promotional interview at G2S. He returns to Kate and confesses that he
9555-424: The rootlessness enabled by access to online data and strong social pressure to be flexible (the results of corporations wanting highly mobile workforces without strong local ties), results in a fragmentation of society along religious, ethnic, and a variety of class markers, what Toffler called " subcults ", including what would in 2010 be described as gangs . The equitable distribution of data access and data privacy
9660-491: The scientific community about potential risks from genetic engineering, which were first discussed in depth at the Asilomar Conference in 1975. One of the main recommendations from this meeting was that government oversight of recombinant DNA research should be established until the technology was deemed safe. In 1976 Genentech, the first genetic engineering company, was founded by Herbert Boyer and Robert Swanson and
9765-434: The source of most of the controversy surrounding the technology. This has been present since its early use; the first field trials were destroyed by anti-GM activists. Although there is a scientific consensus that currently available food derived from GM crops poses no greater risk to human health than conventional food, critics consider GM food safety a leading concern. Gene flow , impact on non-target organisms, control of
9870-448: The term to describe software that reproduces itself across a computer network. Brunner's work has also been credited for prefiguring modern developments such as genetic engineering , same-sex marriage , online encyclopedias , the legalization of cannabis , and the development of Viagra . These four novels Stand on Zanzibar (1968), The Jagged Orbit (1969), The Sheep Look Up (1972) and The Shockwave Rider (1975), have been called
9975-496: The town's unique design merges public and private space, along with natural and artificial structures. The theme of patterns in perception runs through the entire novel. Future shock arises when reality and change disrupt patterns. People respond by falling into strong patterns within human nature, particularly tribalism. Others try to convince themselves that all change is good, adopting the "plug-in" lifestyle where they feel able to relocate to another city and insert themselves into
10080-399: The town. He finally reveals his location to the authorities when, encountering one of the " Roman circus " operations which broadcast live fights and other bloody exhibitions to the country, he responds to an "all comers" challenge by the father of the leader of one of the gangs, and cripples him in front of a nationwide audience. At Tarnover, Paul Freeman takes charge of the interrogation. He
10185-412: The two most commonly used and each has its own advantages. TALENs have greater target specificity, while CRISPR is easier to design and more efficient. In addition to enhancing gene targeting, engineered nucleases can be used to introduce mutations at endogenous genes that generate a gene knockout . Genetic engineering has applications in medicine, research, industry and agriculture and can be used on
10290-490: Was a tomato that had delayed ripening, increasing its shelf life . Plants and animals have been engineered to produce materials they do not normally make. Pharming uses crops and animals as bioreactors to produce vaccines, drug intermediates, or the drugs themselves; the useful product is purified from the harvest and then used in the standard pharmaceutical production process. Cows and goats have been engineered to express drugs and other proteins in their milk, and in 2009
10395-763: Was a British author of science fiction novels and stories. His 1968 novel Stand on Zanzibar , about an overpopulated world , won the 1969 Hugo Award for best science fiction novel and the BSFA Award the same year. The Jagged Orbit won the BSFA Award in 1970. Brunner was born in 1934 in Preston Crowmarsh , near Wallingford in Oxfordshire , and went to school at St Andrew's Prep School, Pangbourne . He did his upper studies at Cheltenham College . He wrote his first novel, Galactic Storm , at 17, and published it under
10500-494: Was approved safe by the Environmental Protection Agency , after having been approved by the FDA, making it the first pesticide producing crop to be approved in the US. In 2009 11 transgenic crops were grown commercially in 25 countries, the largest of which by area grown were the US, Brazil, Argentina, India, Canada, China, Paraguay and South Africa. In 2010, scientists at the J. Craig Venter Institute created
10605-477: Was confirmed by Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase , and two years before James Watson and Francis Crick showed that the DNA molecule has a double-helix structure – though the general concept of direct genetic manipulation was explored in rudimentary form in Stanley G. Weinbaum 's 1936 science fiction story Proteus Island . In 1972, Paul Berg created the first recombinant DNA molecules by combining DNA from
10710-495: Was founded in 1976 and started the production of human proteins. Genetically engineered human insulin was produced in 1978 and insulin-producing bacteria were commercialised in 1982. Genetically modified food has been sold since 1994, with the release of the Flavr Savr tomato. The Flavr Savr was engineered to have a longer shelf life, but most current GM crops are modified to increase resistance to insects and herbicides. GloFish ,
10815-576: Was the first country to commercialise transgenic plants, introducing a virus-resistant tobacco in 1992. In 1994 Calgene attained approval to commercially release the first genetically modified food , the Flavr Savr , a tomato engineered to have a longer shelf life. In 1994, the European Union approved tobacco engineered to be resistant to the herbicide bromoxynil , making it the first genetically engineered crop commercialised in Europe. In 1995, Bt potato
10920-467: Was the representative whom Nick, as Sandy Locke, was supposed to meet at G2S. Freeman, a tall gaunt African-American, gradually comes to realise that he has more sympathy with Nick's views than his employer's, and eventually absconds himself, giving Nick computer access so that Nick can make his own escape. The precipitating event in this case is Kate's abduction by government agents, who bring her to Tarnover for further questioning and to threaten Nick. With
11025-589: Was written shortly after two pivotal events of the 1970s, the resignation of Richard Nixon and the overthrow of the Chilean President Salvador Allende , which are cited in the novel as examples, in Nixon's case, of a failed attempt by organised crime to suborn the Presidency, and in the second, of the consequences of working against multinational commercial interests. Most of the characters live with
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