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89-400: A shirasaya ( 白鞘 ) , "white scabbard", is a plain wooden Japanese sword saya ( scabbard ) and tsuka ( hilt ), traditionally made of nurizaya wood and used when a blade was not expected to see use for some time and needed to be stored. They were externally featureless save for the needed mekugi-ana to secure the nakago ( tang ), though sometimes sayagaki (blade information)

178-519: A fuel or as a construction material for making houses , tools , weapons , furniture , packaging , artworks , and paper . Known constructions using wood date back ten thousand years. Buildings like the longhouses in Neolithic Europe were made primarily of wood. Recent use of wood has been enhanced by the addition of steel and bronze into construction. The year-to-year variation in tree-ring widths and isotopic abundances gives clues to

267-460: A kabuto-gane instead of a kashira . The aikuchi ( 合口 or 匕首 ) is a form of koshirae for small swords in which the hilt and the scabbard meet without a crossguard between them. The word literally means ai ("meeting") + kuchi ("mouth; opening"), in reference to the way the hilt fits directly against the scabbard. Originally used on the koshigatana (a precursor to the wakizashi ) to facilitate close wearing with armour, it became

356-402: A matrix of lignin that resists compression. Wood is sometimes defined as only the secondary xylem in the stems of trees, or more broadly to include the same type of tissue elsewhere, such as in the roots of trees or shrubs. In a living tree, it performs a mechanical-support function, enabling woody plants to grow large or to stand up by themselves. It also conveys water and nutrients among

445-476: A 2017 amendment to M.C.A. 45-8-316, Oklahoma in 2016, 21 Okl. St.Ann. § 1272, and Ohio in 2021, which removed possession and carry restrictions on essentially all knives. With U.S. constitutional law evolving on the U.S. 2nd Amendment right to keep and bear arms, and a demonstrable tradition of carrying swordsticks in the late 18th Century when the Constitution was adopted, at least one commentator believes

534-435: A closed forest, and in the manufacture of articles where strength is an important consideration such "second-growth" hardwood material is preferred. This is particularly the case in the choice of hickory for handles and spokes . Here not only strength, but toughness and resilience are important. The results of a series of tests on hickory by the U.S. Forest Service show that: Swordstick A swordstick or cane-sword

623-516: A fashionable upper-class mounting style for a tantō (literally, "small sword", nowadays regarded as a dagger ) from the Kamakura period onwards. The shikomizue ( 仕込み杖 , "prepared cane") or jotō ( 杖刀 , "staff sword") is a Japanese swordstick . It is most famous for its use by the fictional swordmaster Zatoichi . The sword blade was placed in a cane-like mounting ( tsue ) as concealment. These mountings are not to be confused with

712-412: A general ban on carrying a hidden or disguised knife. An example is Virginia Code §18.2-308 which prohibits concealed dirks, stiletto knives, and "any weapon of like kind," considered "hidden from common observation when it is observable but is of such deceptive appearance as to disguise the weapon's true nature." Some states recently removed statutory restrictions on sword canes, including Montana in

801-428: A growth ring, then the part of a growth ring nearest the center of the tree, and formed early in the growing season when growth is rapid, is usually composed of wider elements. It is usually lighter in color than that near the outer portion of the ring, and is known as earlywood or springwood. The outer portion formed later in the season is then known as the latewood or summerwood. There are major differences, depending on

890-401: A heavy piece of pine is compared with a lightweight piece it will be seen at once that the heavier one contains a larger proportion of latewood than the other, and is therefore showing more clearly demarcated growth rings. In white pines there is not much contrast between the different parts of the ring, and as a result the wood is very uniform in texture and is easy to work. In hard pines , on

979-413: A hole in the kurikata . The kojiri ( 鐺 ) is the end cap of the scabbard or the protective fitting at the end of the scabbard. Kogatana (小刀), a small utility knife that fits into a pocket on the scabbard, the kozuka is the decorative handle for the kogatana . The kōgai (笄) is a spike for hair arranging that fits into a pocket on the saya . The umabari ( 馬針 ) is a small knife that

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1068-405: A large log the sapwood, because of the time in the life of the tree when it was grown, may be inferior in hardness , strength , and toughness to equally sound heartwood from the same log. In a smaller tree, the reverse may be true. In species which show a distinct difference between heartwood and sapwood the natural color of heartwood is usually darker than that of the sapwood, and very frequently

1157-400: A log is on the outside, it is more or less knotty near the middle. Consequently, the sapwood of an old tree, and particularly of a forest-grown tree, will be freer from knots than the inner heartwood. Since in most uses of wood, knots are defects that weaken the timber and interfere with its ease of working and other properties, it follows that a given piece of sapwood, because of its position in

1246-462: A pocket like fold or in the sleeve for self-defense or for suicide by means of slashing the jugular veins and carotid artery in the left side of the neck. Saya ( 鞘 ) is the Japanese term for a scabbard , and specifically refers to the scabbard for a sword or knife. The saya of a koshirae (scabbards for practical use) are normally manufactured from very lightweight wood, with a coat of lacquer on

1335-481: A pretty definite relation between the rate of growth of timber and its properties. This may be briefly summed up in the general statement that the more rapid the growth or the wider the rings of growth, the heavier, harder, stronger, and stiffer the wood. This, it must be remembered, applies only to ring-porous woods such as oak, ash, hickory, and others of the same group, and is, of course, subject to some exceptions and limitations. In ring-porous woods of good growth, it

1424-460: A source of weakness. In diffuse-porous woods the pores are evenly sized so that the water conducting capability is scattered throughout the growth ring instead of being collected in a band or row. Examples of this kind of wood are alder , basswood , birch , buckeye, maple, willow , and the Populus species such as aspen, cottonwood and poplar. Some species, such as walnut and cherry , are on

1513-425: A staff while disguised as a pilgrim. The swordstick became a popular fashion accessory for the wealthy during the 18th and 19th centuries. During this period, it was becoming less socially acceptable to openly carry a sword, but there were still upper-class men routinely trained in swordsmanship who wished to go armed for self-defense. Swords concealed in ladies' walking sticks and parasols were also not unknown, as it

1602-428: A sword-stick for self-defense is questionable. A 19th-century English expert on fencing, boxing, and close-quarters self-defense, R. G. Allanson-Winn, opined: [t]he sword-stick is an instrument I thoroughly detest and abominate, and could not possibly advocate the use of in any circumstance whatever . . . They are poor things as regards length and strength, and 'not in it' with a good stick. . . . The hollowing out of

1691-564: A tree is first formed as sapwood. The more leaves a tree bears and the more vigorous its growth, the larger the volume of sapwood required. Hence trees making rapid growth in the open have thicker sapwood for their size than trees of the same species growing in dense forests. Sometimes trees (of species that do form heartwood) grown in the open may become of considerable size, 30 cm (12 in) or more in diameter, before any heartwood begins to form, for example, in second growth hickory , or open-grown pines . No definite relation exists between

1780-423: Is tōsō ( 刀装 ) , meaning sword-furniture, where tōsōgu ( 刀装具 ) are the parts of the mounting in general, and "kanagu" stands for those made of metal. Gaisō ( 外装 ) are the "outer" mountings, as opposed to tōshin ( 刀身 ) , the "body" of the sword. A koshirae should be presented with the tsuka ( hilt ) to the left, particularly in times of peace with the reason being that one cannot unsheathe

1869-552: Is a cane containing a hidden blade or sword . The term is typically used to describe European weapons from around the 18th century. But similar devices have been used throughout history, notably the Roman dolon , the Japanese shikomizue and the Indian gupti . A precedent for the swordstick would be used by 17th century century spy Alonso de Contreras , who would hide a sword inside

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1958-404: Is a common sight in modern kendō . In modern Japanese, tsubazeriai (鍔迫り合い) has also come to mean "to be in fierce competition." The seppa (切羽) are washers used in front of and behind the tsuba to tighten the fittings. Seppa can be ornate or plain. The habaki ( 鎺 ) is a piece of metal encircling the base of the blade of a Japanese sword. It has the double purpose of locking

2047-452: Is a debatable topic in koryu circles. The kaiken ( 懐剣 ) is an 8–10 inch long, single- or double-edged dagger without ornamental fittings housed in a plain mount, formerly carried by men and women of the samurai class in Japan. It was useful for self-defense indoors where the long katana and intermediate wakizashi were inconvenient. Women carried them in their kimono either in

2136-411: Is a variation of the kogatana . It fits into a pocket on the saya . The tsuka ( 柄 ) is the hilt or handle of a Japanese sword. The tsuka is divided in the following parts: The menuki (目貫) are ornaments on the tsuka (generally under the tsuka-ito ); to fit into the palm for grip. Samegawa (鮫皮) is the ray skin used to cover or wrap the handle. Tsuka-ito (柄糸) is the wrapping of

2225-456: Is also greatly increased in strength thereby. Since the latewood of a growth ring is usually darker in color than the earlywood, this fact may be used in visually judging the density, and therefore the hardness and strength of the material. This is particularly the case with coniferous woods. In ring-porous woods the vessels of the early wood often appear on a finished surface as darker than the denser latewood, though on cross sections of heartwood

2314-422: Is dark colored and firm, and consists mostly of thick-walled fibers which form one-half or more of the wood. In inferior oak, this latewood is much reduced both in quantity and quality. Such variation is very largely the result of rate of growth. Wide-ringed wood is often called "second-growth", because the growth of the young timber in open stands after the old trees have been removed is more rapid than in trees in

2403-550: Is determined by the tsuba and the curvature of the blade. The diameter of the average katana tsuba is 7.5–8 centimetres (3.0–3.1 in), wakizashi tsuba is 6.2–6.6 cm (2.4–2.6 in), and tantō tsuba is 4.5–6 cm (1.8–2.4 in). During the Muromachi period (1333–1573) and the Momoyama period (1573–1603) Tsuba were more for functionality than for decoration, being made of stronger metals and designs. During

2492-560: Is difficult to control completely, especially when using mass-produced kiln-dried timber stocks. Heartwood (or duramen ) is wood that as a result of a naturally occurring chemical transformation has become more resistant to decay. Heartwood formation is a genetically programmed process that occurs spontaneously. Some uncertainty exists as to whether the wood dies during heartwood formation, as it can still chemically react to decay organisms, but only once. The term heartwood derives solely from its position and not from any vital importance to

2581-506: Is forbidden as concealed weapons. In Ireland , the manufacture, importation, sale, hire, or loan of swordsticks are prohibited under the Firearms and Offensive Weapons Act 1990. Swordsticks are considered a prohibited offensive weapon in New Zealand. The Criminal Justice Act 1988 (Offensive Weapons) Order 1988, ISBN   0-11-088019-6 also made it illegal to trade in sword canes in

2670-399: Is in the walls, not the cavities. Hence the greater the proportion of latewood, the greater the density and strength. In choosing a piece of pine where strength or stiffness is the important consideration, the principal thing to observe is the comparative amounts of earlywood and latewood. The width of ring is not nearly so important as the proportion and nature of the latewood in the ring. If

2759-470: Is more complex. The water conducting capability is mostly taken care of by vessels : in some cases (oak, chestnut, ash) these are quite large and distinct, in others ( buckeye , poplar , willow ) too small to be seen without a hand lens. In discussing such woods it is customary to divide them into two large classes, ring-porous and diffuse-porous . In ring-porous species, such as ash, black locust, catalpa , chestnut, elm , hickory, mulberry , and oak,

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2848-410: Is much more serious when timber is subjected to forces perpendicular to the grain and/or tension than when under load along the grain and/or compression . The extent to which knots affect the strength of a beam depends upon their position, size, number, and condition. A knot on the upper side is compressed, while one on the lower side is subjected to tension. If there is a season check in the knot, as

2937-403: Is often the case, it will offer little resistance to this tensile stress. Small knots may be located along the neutral plane of a beam and increase the strength by preventing longitudinal shearing . Knots in a board or plank are least injurious when they extend through it at right angles to its broadest surface. Knots which occur near the ends of a beam do not weaken it. Sound knots which occur in

3026-431: Is the rule. Some others never form heartwood. Heartwood is often visually distinct from the living sapwood and can be distinguished in a cross-section where the boundary will tend to follow the growth rings. For example, it is sometimes much darker. Other processes such as decay or insect invasion can also discolor wood, even in woody plants that do not form heartwood, which may lead to confusion. Sapwood (or alburnum )

3115-413: Is the younger, outermost wood; in the growing tree it is living wood, and its principal functions are to conduct water from the roots to the leaves and to store up and give back according to the season the reserves prepared in the leaves. By the time they become competent to conduct water, all xylem tracheids and vessels have lost their cytoplasm and the cells are therefore functionally dead. All wood in

3204-501: Is up to 90 degrees different from the grain direction of the regular wood. In the tree a knot is either the base of a side branch or a dormant bud. A knot (when the base of a side branch) is conical in shape (hence the roughly circular cross-section) with the inner tip at the point in stem diameter at which the plant's vascular cambium was located when the branch formed as a bud. In grading lumber and structural timber , knots are classified according to their form, size, soundness, and

3293-461: Is usually the latewood in which the thick-walled, strength-giving fibers are most abundant. As the breadth of ring diminishes, this latewood is reduced so that very slow growth produces comparatively light, porous wood composed of thin-walled vessels and wood parenchyma. In good oak, these large vessels of the earlywood occupy from six to ten percent of the volume of the log, while in inferior material they may make up 25% or more. The latewood of good oak

3382-461: The shikomizue . Also, many blades dating back to earlier Japanese history are today sold in such a format, along with modern-day reproductions; while most are purely decorative replicas, a few have functional blades. The word koshirae is derived from the verb koshiraeru ( 拵える ) , which is no longer used in current speech. More commonly "tsukuru" is used in its place with both words meaning to "make, create, manufacture." A more accurate word

3471-416: The tachi , where the sword is suspended edge-down from two hangers ( ashi ) attached to the obi . The hilt often had a slightly stronger curvature than the blade , continuing the classic tachi increase in curvature going from the tip to the hilt. The hilt was usually secured with two pegs (mekugi) , as compared to one peg for shorter blades including katana . The tachi style koshirae preceded

3560-404: The tsuba (guard) in place, and to maintain the weapon in its saya (scabbard). The importance of the habaki is seen in drawing the katana from the scabbard. It is drawn by grasping the scabbard near the top and pressing the guard with the thumb to emerge the blade just enough to unwedge the habaki from inside the scabbard in a process called koiguchi no kirikata ( 鯉口の切り方 ) "cutting

3649-486: The Edo period (1603–1868) there was peace in Japan so tsuba became more ornamental and made of less practical metals such as gold. Tsuba are usually finely decorated, and nowadays are collectors' items. Tsuba were made by whole dynasties of craftsmen whose only craft was making tsuba . They were usually lavishly decorated. In addition to being collectors items, they were often used as heirlooms, passed from one generation to

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3738-455: The Shirasaya (白鞘, "white scabbard"), which were just plain wooden mountings with no decoration other than (sometimes) a short description of the contents. According to Hatsumi Masaaki, Some shikomi-zue also concealed metsubushi , chains, hooks, and many other things. Shikomi-zue could be carried in public without arousing suspicion, making them perfect tools for shinobi . However, this

3827-600: The United Kingdom . However, antique swordsticks which are 100 years old or older are exempt. It is illegal to: U.S. law on swordsticks is inconsistent, varying state-by-state, and currently it is in flux. Examples of U.S. states with statutes that expressly prohibit the carrying of swordsticks include Arkansas (Ark. Code Ann. § 5-73-120(b)(3)(B)), California (Cal Pen Code § 12020(a)(1), New York (§ 265.01) and Massachusetts (269 § 12). Other state laws do not prohibit swordsticks per se , but would include them under

3916-434: The katana style koshirae . The katana (刀) style koshirae is the most commonly known koshirae and it is what is most associated with a samurai sword. Swords mounted in this manner are worn with the cutting edge up as opposed to the tachi mounting, in which the sword is worn with the cutting edge down. The han-dachi ( 半太刀 ) koshirae was worn katana -style but included some tachi related fittings such as

4005-495: The leaves , other growing tissues, and the roots. Wood may also refer to other plant materials with comparable properties, and to material engineered from wood, woodchips , or fibers . Wood has been used for thousands of years for fuel , as a construction material , for making tools and weapons , furniture and paper . More recently it emerged as a feedstock for the production of purified cellulose and its derivatives, such as cellophane and cellulose acetate . As of 2020,

4094-429: The resin which increases the strength when dry. Such resin-saturated heartwood is called "fat lighter". Structures built of fat lighter are almost impervious to rot and termites , and very flammable. Tree stumps of old longleaf pines are often dug, split into small pieces and sold as kindling for fires. Stumps thus dug may actually remain a century or more since being cut. Spruce impregnated with crude resin and dried

4183-424: The tsuka , traditionally silk but today more often cotton and sometimes, leather. Fuchi (縁), a cap type collar or ferrule which covers the opening in the tsuka of a Japanese sword. The tang of the sword goes into the tsuka through the opening in the fuchi . The kashira ( 頭 ) is the end cap (pommel) on the tsuka . The tsuba ( 鍔 , or 鐔 ) is usually a round (or occasionally squarish) guard at

4272-778: The English Inns of Court School of Arms, took a different, perhaps even opposite view: a thrusting weapon is too deadly. The rapier imported from France and Spain displaced the native English and Scots broad-sword and sabre because "English swordsmen realized that the point was much more deadly than the edge." But carrying a sword-cane designed only for a fatal thrust is problematic: the laws of self-defense require if possible to disable, not to kill. Instead these 19th-century experts recommended as more practical an ordinary walking-stick of Irish blackthorn, sans blade: strong, supple, and in skilled hands (that is, someone trained in fencing), decisive. A bladeless walking stick or cane has

4361-593: The additional advantage that it is not an illegal concealed weapon (see below). In many jurisdictions the ownership, carrying, manufacturing or trading in sword canes is restricted by law. Possession of a swordstick is prohibited in Belgium as it falls under concealed weapons. Having a swordstick is considered as having weapons of the 6th category. It is legal to own, however, specific care must be taken in case of transportation. (French defense code; Article L2331-1) Handling of swordsticks (including those with short blades)

4450-418: The annual rings of growth and the amount of sapwood. Within the same species the cross-sectional area of the sapwood is very roughly proportional to the size of the crown of the tree. If the rings are narrow, more of them are required than where they are wide. As the tree gets larger, the sapwood must necessarily become thinner or increase materially in volume. Sapwood is relatively thicker in the upper portion of

4539-449: The border between the two classes, forming an intermediate group. In temperate softwoods, there often is a marked difference between latewood and earlywood. The latewood will be denser than that formed early in the season. When examined under a microscope, the cells of dense latewood are seen to be very thick-walled and with very small cell cavities, while those formed first in the season have thin walls and large cell cavities. The strength

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4628-416: The cane, to make the scabbard, renders them almost useless for hitting purposes. Allanson-Winn's objection may also reflect the prevailing view of concealed daggers as ungentlemanly, "of shady reputation": the weapon of a ruffian or "hasty hot-tempered individual" for the "shedding of blood over some trivial, senseless squabble." Allanson-Winn's collaborator in self-defense training C. Phillips Wolley of

4717-458: The cell walls are composed of micro-fibrils of cellulose (40–50%) and hemicellulose (15–25%) impregnated with lignin (15–30%). In coniferous or softwood species the wood cells are mostly of one kind, tracheids , and as a result the material is much more uniform in structure than that of most hardwoods . There are no vessels ("pores") in coniferous wood such as one sees so prominently in oak and ash, for example. The structure of hardwoods

4806-435: The central portion one-fourth the height of the beam from either edge are not serious defects. Knots do not necessarily influence the stiffness of structural timber; this will depend on the size and location. Stiffness and elastic strength are more dependent upon the sound wood than upon localized defects. The breaking strength is very susceptible to defects. Sound knots do not weaken wood when subject to compression parallel to

4895-433: The contrast is conspicuous (see section of yew log above). This is produced by deposits in the heartwood of chemical substances, so that a dramatic color variation does not imply a significant difference in the mechanical properties of heartwood and sapwood, although there may be a marked biochemical difference between the two. Some experiments on very resinous longleaf pine specimens indicate an increase in strength, due to

4984-518: The discipline of wood science , which was initiated since the beginning of the 20th century. A 2011 discovery in the Canadian province of New Brunswick yielded the earliest known plants to have grown wood, approximately 395 to 400 million years ago . Wood can be dated by carbon dating and in some species by dendrochronology to determine when a wooden object was created. People have used wood for thousands of years for many purposes, including as

5073-414: The distinctiveness between seasons is annual (as is the case in equatorial regions, e.g. Singapore ), these growth rings are referred to as annual rings. Where there is little seasonal difference growth rings are likely to be indistinct or absent. If the bark of the tree has been removed in a particular area, the rings will likely be deformed as the plant overgrows the scar. If there are differences within

5162-405: The end of the grip of bladed Japanese weapons, like the katana and its variations, tachi , wakizashi , tantō , naginata etc. They contribute to the balance of the weapon and to the protection of the hand. The tsuba was mostly meant to be used to prevent the hand from sliding onto the blade during thrusts as opposed to protecting from an opponent's blade. The chudan no kamae guard

5251-403: The exact mechanisms determining the formation of earlywood and latewood. Several factors may be involved. In conifers, at least, rate of growth alone does not determine the proportion of the two portions of the ring, for in some cases the wood of slow growth is very hard and heavy, while in others the opposite is true. The quality of the site where the tree grows undoubtedly affects the character of

5340-421: The exterior. Correct drawing and sheathing of the blade involves contacting the mune (the back of the blade) rather than ha (the edge) to the inside of the scabbard. The saya also has a horn knob ( 栗形 , kurigata ) on one side for attaching a braided cord ( sageo ), and may have a shitodome (mounting loop) to accent the kurigata as well as an end cap ( 小尻 , kojiri ) made from metal. Traditionally

5429-433: The firmness with which they are held in place. This firmness is affected by, among other factors, the length of time for which the branch was dead while the attaching stem continued to grow. Knots materially affect cracking and warping, ease in working, and cleavability of timber. They are defects which weaken timber and lower its value for structural purposes where strength is an important consideration. The weakening effect

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5518-505: The grain. In some decorative applications, wood with knots may be desirable to add visual interest. In applications where wood is painted , such as skirting boards, fascia boards, door frames and furniture, resins present in the timber may continue to 'bleed' through to the surface of a knot for months or even years after manufacture and show as a yellow or brownish stain. A knot primer paint or solution (knotting), correctly applied during preparation, may do much to reduce this problem but it

5607-412: The greater the water content, the greater its softening effect. The moisture in wood can be measured by several different moisture meters . Drying produces a decided increase in the strength of wood, particularly in small specimens. An extreme example is the case of a completely dry spruce block 5 cm in section, which will sustain a permanent load four times as great as a green (undried) block of

5696-401: The growing stock of forests worldwide was about 557 billion cubic meters. As an abundant, carbon-neutral renewable resource, woody materials have been of intense interest as a source of renewable energy. In 2008, approximately 3.97 billion cubic meters of wood were harvested. Dominant uses were for furniture and building construction. Wood is scientifically studied and researched through

5785-464: The kind of wood. If a tree grows all its life in the open and the conditions of soil and site remain unchanged, it will make its most rapid growth in youth, and gradually decline. The annual rings of growth are for many years quite wide, but later they become narrower and narrower. Since each succeeding ring is laid down on the outside of the wood previously formed, it follows that unless a tree materially increases its production of wood from year to year,

5874-435: The koiguchi (the throat of the scabbard) and kojiri (the chape ) were made from buffalo horn. The Saya is divided in parts: A sageo ( 下緒 or 下げ緒 ) is a hanging cord made of silk, cotton or leather that is passed through the hole in the kurigata ( 栗形 ) of a Japanese sword 's saya . There are a number of different methods for wrapping and tying the sageo on the saya for display purposes. Other uses for

5963-444: The koiguchi" . The blade, being freed, can be drawn out very quickly. This is known as koiguchi o kiru ( 鯉口を切る ) , nukitsuke ( 抜き付け ) , or tanka o kiru ( 啖呵を切る ) "clearing the tanka " . The expression " tanka o kiru " is now widely used in Japan, in the sense of "getting ready to begin something", or "getting ready to speak", especially with an aggressive connotation. The habaki will cause normal wear and tear inside

6052-407: The larger vessels or pores (as cross sections of vessels are called) are localized in the part of the growth ring formed in spring, thus forming a region of more or less open and porous tissue. The rest of the ring, produced in summer, is made up of smaller vessels and a much greater proportion of wood fibers. These fibers are the elements which give strength and toughness to wood, while the vessels are

6141-480: The moisture content of the air) retains 8–16% of the water in the cell walls, and none, or practically none, in the other forms. Even oven-dried wood retains a small percentage of moisture, but for all except chemical purposes, may be considered absolutely dry. The general effect of the water content upon the wood substance is to render it softer and more pliable. A similar effect occurs in the softening action of water on rawhide, paper, or cloth. Within certain limits,

6230-410: The new cells. These cells then go on to form thickened secondary cell walls, composed mainly of cellulose , hemicellulose and lignin . Where the differences between the seasons are distinct, e.g. New Zealand , growth can occur in a discrete annual or seasonal pattern, leading to growth rings ; these can usually be most clearly seen on the end of a log, but are also visible on the other surfaces. If

6319-493: The next. Japanese families with samurai roots sometimes have their family crest (mon) crafted onto a tsuba . Tsuba can be found in a variety of metals and alloys, including iron, steel, brass, copper and shakudō . In a duel, two participants may lock their katana together at the point of the tsuba and push, trying to gain a better position from which to strike the other down. This is known as tsubazeriai ( 鍔迫り合い , lit. pushing tsuba against each other) . Tsubazeriai

6408-542: The other hand, the latewood is very dense and is deep-colored, presenting a very decided contrast to the soft, straw-colored earlywood. It is not only the proportion of latewood, but also its quality, that counts. In specimens that show a very large proportion of latewood it may be noticeably more porous and weigh considerably less than the latewood in pieces that contain less latewood. One can judge comparative density, and therefore to some extent strength, by visual inspection. No satisfactory explanation can as yet be given for

6497-431: The prevailing climate at the time a tree was cut. Wood, in the strict sense, is yielded by trees , which increase in diameter by the formation, between the existing wood and the inner bark , of new woody layers which envelop the entire stem, living branches, and roots. This process is known as secondary growth ; it is the result of cell division in the vascular cambium , a lateral meristem, and subsequent expansion of

6586-411: The properties of the wood. Certain rot-producing fungi impart to wood characteristic colors which thus become symptomatic of weakness. Ordinary sap-staining is due to fungal growth, but does not necessarily produce a weakening effect. Water occurs in living wood in three locations, namely: In heartwood it occurs only in the first and last forms. Wood that is thoroughly air-dried (in equilibrium with

6675-468: The reverse is commonly true. Otherwise the color of wood is no indication of strength. Abnormal discoloration of wood often denotes a diseased condition, indicating unsoundness. The black check in western hemlock is the result of insect attacks. The reddish-brown streaks so common in hickory and certain other woods are mostly the result of injury by birds. The discoloration is merely an indication of an injury, and in all probability does not of itself affect

6764-451: The rings must necessarily become thinner as the trunk gets wider. As a tree reaches maturity its crown becomes more open and the annual wood production is lessened, thereby reducing still more the width of the growth rings. In the case of forest-grown trees so much depends upon the competition of the trees in their struggle for light and nourishment that periods of rapid and slow growth may alternate. Some trees, such as southern oaks , maintain

6853-402: The sageo are tying the sword to the samurai and hojojutsu . The samurai felt the sageo formed a spiritual bond between them and the sword, and they were very particular about tying it correctly when the sword was not in use. The kurikata (栗形) is a knob that is attached to the scabbard of a Japanese sword. The sageo (cord) that secures the saya of the sword to the obi (belt) goes through

6942-453: The same size will. The greatest strength increase due to drying is in the ultimate crushing strength, and strength at elastic limit in endwise compression; these are followed by the modulus of rupture, and stress at elastic limit in cross-bending, while the modulus of elasticity is least affected. Wood is a heterogeneous , hygroscopic , cellular and anisotropic (or more specifically, orthotropic ) material. It consists of cells, and

7031-409: The same width of ring for hundreds of years. On the whole, as a tree gets larger in diameter the width of the growth rings decreases. As a tree grows, lower branches often die, and their bases may become overgrown and enclosed by subsequent layers of trunk wood, forming a type of imperfection known as a knot. The dead branch may not be attached to the trunk wood except at its base and can drop out after

7120-511: The scabbard, and either a shim or a total replacement of the scabbard may be needed to remedy the issue as it will become too loose over time. Removing the habaki and oiling it after cutting or once every few months is recommended. Wood Wood is a structural tissue/material found as xylem in the stems and roots of trees and other woody plants . It is an organic material  – a natural composite of cellulosic fibers that are strong in tension and embedded in

7209-457: The sword easily this way. During the Edo period, many formalized rules were put into place: in times of war the hilt should be presented to the right allowing the sword to be readily unsheathed. Koshirae were meant not only for functional but also for aesthetic purposes, often using a family mon ( crest ) for identification. The tachi (太刀) style koshirae is the primary style of mounting used for

7298-411: The tree has been sawn into boards. Knots affect the technical properties of the wood, usually reducing tension strength, but may be exploited for visual effect. In a longitudinally sawn plank, a knot will appear as a roughly circular "solid" (usually darker) piece of wood around which the grain of the rest of the wood "flows" (parts and rejoins). Within a knot, the direction of the wood (grain direction)

7387-430: The tree, may well be stronger than a piece of heartwood from the same tree. Different pieces of wood cut from a large tree may differ decidedly, particularly if the tree is big and mature. In some trees, the wood laid on late in the life of a tree is softer, lighter, weaker, and more even textured than that produced earlier, but in other trees, the reverse applies. This may or may not correspond to heartwood and sapwood. In

7476-445: The tree. This is evidenced by the fact that a tree can thrive with its heart completely decayed. Some species begin to form heartwood very early in life, so having only a thin layer of live sapwood, while in others the change comes slowly. Thin sapwood is characteristic of such species as chestnut , black locust , mulberry , osage-orange , and sassafras , while in maple , ash , hickory , hackberry , beech , and pine, thick sapwood

7565-416: The trunk of a tree than near the base, because the age and the diameter of the upper sections are less. When a tree is very young it is covered with limbs almost, if not entirely, to the ground, but as it grows older some or all of them will eventually die and are either broken off or fall off. Subsequent growth of wood may completely conceal the stubs which will remain as knots. No matter how smooth and clear

7654-418: The wood formed, though it is not possible to formulate a rule governing it. In general, where strength or ease of working is essential, woods of moderate to slow growth should be chosen. In ring-porous woods, each season's growth is always well defined, because the large pores formed early in the season abut on the denser tissue of the year before. In the case of the ring-porous hardwoods, there seems to exist

7743-477: Was also present. The need for specialized storage is because prolonged koshirae mounting harmed the blade, owing to factors such as the lacquered wood retaining moisture and encouraging corrosion . Such mountings are not intended for actual combat, as the lack of a tsuba (guard) and proper handle wrappings were deleterious; as such they would likely never make their way onto a battlefield. However, there have been loosely similar "hidden" mountings, such as

7832-500: Was even less socially acceptable for a lady to carry a sword, or publicly admit that she knew how to use one. Soon after their introduction, other "gadget canes" became popular. Instead of a blade, these would hold the tools of one's trade, compasses, and even flasks for keeping alcohol. Benjamin Franklin received such a walking stick from a French admirer, and in a codicil to his Will bequeathed it to George Washington . Malacca wood

7921-830: Was the most commonly used material in making the cane shafts, and the standard grip was rounded and metallic. Today, designer and collector canes have sterling silver handles, and are made with wooden shafts made from various woods, including Malacca and bamboo . Ornate designs, such as animal heads, skulls, and various emblems may also be carved into the wooden handles; these may make them harder to wield, but some find them more attractive. Sword canes are most often made with rapier -pointed blades. A bespoke swordstick maker in South Africa constructs canes and walking sticks of light but exceptionally strong carbon fiber, or titanium, often with an ornately engraved silver or wood head, concealing an 18 inch stainless steel blade. The utility of

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