Sando ( POW )
111-614: Sharga can refer to the following places in Mongolia : Sharga sum , a sum of Govi-Altai aimag; Sharga , official name of the Tsagaan-Uul sum center (in Khövsgöl); Sharga Nature Reserve , a reserve in the western part of Mongolia. See also [ edit ] All pages with titles beginning with Sharga All pages with titles containing Sharga Sharla Topics referred to by
222-502: A market economy . Approximately 30% of the population is nomadic or semi-nomadic; horse culture remains integral. Buddhism is the majority religion (51.7%), with the nonreligious being the second-largest group (40.6%). Islam is the third-largest religious identification (3.2%), concentrated among ethnic Kazakhs . The vast majority of citizens are ethnic Mongols, with roughly 5% of the population being Kazakhs , Tuvans , and other ethnic minorities, who are especially concentrated in
333-647: A quadripoint . The geography of Mongolia is varied, with the Gobi Desert to the south and cold, mountainous regions to the north and west. Much of Mongolia consists of the Mongolian-Manchurian grassland , with forested areas accounting for 11.2% of the total land area, a higher percentage than Ireland (10%). The whole of Mongolia is considered to be part of the Mongolian Plateau. The highest point in Mongolia
444-646: A 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 9.36/10, ranking it sixth globally out of 172 countries. Mongolia's total population as of January 2015 was estimated by the U.S. Census Bureau to be 3,000,251 people, ranking around 121st in the world. But the U.S. Department of State Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs uses the United Nations (UN) estimations instead of the U.S. Census Bureau estimations. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs Population Division estimates Mongolia's total population (mid-2007) as 2,629,000 (11% less than
555-698: A Lieutenant Colonel Tang Zaili arrived to supervise the organization of a Mongolian army, half of which was to consist of Mongolian herdsmen. A 400-room barracks was erected near Urga. The Mongolians saw in all this a threat to their very survival. Their desperation was echoed in a petition to the Qing government: "Among the many directives repeatedly issued, there is not one which benefits the Mongolians. Consequently, we all desire that we be allowed to live according to our ancient ways." The arrogance and brutality of Tang Zaili's staff and military escort did not help. No more than
666-460: A Mongol himself and former deputy lieutenant governor of Guihwa, as viceroy of Mongolia in the capital city of Urga (modern Ulaanbaatar ), to implement the New Administration. He immediately set about organizing twenty offices to oversee such matters as the military, taxation, police, government and commerce. Plans were made for the colonization of Mongolia with Chinese farmers. In January 1911
777-512: A category of arid rangeland with insufficient vegetation to support marmots but with enough to support camels. Mongols distinguish Gobi from desert proper, although the distinction is not always apparent to outsiders unfamiliar with the Mongolian landscape. Gobi rangelands are fragile and easily destroyed by overgrazing, which results in expansion of the true desert, a stony waste where not even Bactrian camels can survive. The arid conditions in
888-575: A confederation in 209 BC. Soon they emerged as the greatest threat to the Qin dynasty , forcing the latter to construct the Great Wall of China . It was guarded by up to almost 300,000 soldiers during Marshal Meng Tian 's tenure, as a means of defense against the destructive Xiongnu raids. The vast Xiongnu empire (209 BC–93 AD) was followed by the Mongolic Xianbei empire (93–234 AD), which also ruled more than
999-513: A dictatorship and organized Stalinist purges in Mongolia between 1937 and 1939, died suspiciously in the Soviet Union in 1952. Comintern leader Bohumír Šmeral said, "People of Mongolia are not important, the land is important. Mongolian land is larger than England, France and Germany". After the Japanese invasion of neighboring Manchuria in 1931, Mongolia was threatened on this front. During
1110-638: A group of princes and lamas. They composed a joint memorial to the Khutukhtu asking what Mongolia should do in lieu of the provincial uprisings. He advised that Mongolians form a state of their own. Buoyed by the Khutuktu's support and by the impending collapse of the Qing dynasty, the Provisional Government of Khalkha was formed, headed by some prominent Khalkha nobles. On November 28, the government ordered all four provinces ( aimag ) of Khalkha to mobilize
1221-481: A large group of Mongolic-speaking tribes united under the rule of Genghis Khan . Since the adoption of the new Constitution of Mongolia on 13 February 1992, the official name of the state is "Mongolia" ( Mongol Uls ). The Khoit Tsenkher Cave in Khovd Province shows lively pink, brown, and red ochre paintings (dated to 20,000 years ago) of mammoths , lynx , bactrian camels , and ostriches , earning it
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#17330857423261332-496: A market economy was often rocky; during the early 1990s the country had to deal with high inflation and food shortages. The first election victories for non-communist parties came in 1993 (presidential elections) and 1996 (parliamentary elections). China has supported Mongolia's application for membership in the Asia Cooperation Dialogue (ACD), Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) and granting it observer status in
1443-415: A minor revival of the historic Mongolian script , which is still the official script used by Mongols in neighboring Inner Mongolia . Although Mongolian script has officially been declared the national script , and is taught from the sixth grade onward at schools, it remains mostly confined to ceremonial usage in daily life. In March 2020, the Mongolian government announced plans to use both Cyrillic and
1554-521: A month after Sando 's arrival, a brawl broke out between some intoxicated lamas (Buddhist priests) and Chinese at a Chinese carpentry shop in Urga. Such incidents were not unknown in the past, but they had been firmly suppressed by Qing officials. This one developed differently. When Sando arrived at Gandan Monastery , the principal monastery in the city, to make arrests, the lamas pelted him and his troops with stones, forcing them to withdraw. Sando demanded that
1665-479: A quarter of Earth's total population at the time). The emergence of Pax Mongolica also significantly eased trade and commerce across Asia during its height. After Genghis Khan's death, the empire was subdivided into four kingdoms or Khanates . These eventually became quasi-independent after the Toluid Civil War (1260–1264), which broke out in a battle for power following Möngke Khan 's death in 1259. One of
1776-580: A refractory mood because of arrears in back pay. On the following day, his soldiers were disarmed by Mongolian militiamen, as well as Russian Cossacks of the consular convoy under command of Grigory Semyonov , future Ataman . Sando and his staff moved into the compound of the Russian consulate for their own safety. On 30 November 1911 the Mongols established Temporary Government of Khalkha . On December 5, Sando left Mongolia with Russian escort. Chinese authority in
1887-551: A relatively bloodless separation from the Qing Empire. Many Barga and Inner Mongolian chieftains assisted in the revolution and became the revolution leaders. By the early 20th century, Mongolia was impoverished. Repercussions from the Taiping Rebellion (1850–1864) were primarily responsible for this economic deterioration. Loss of tax revenue from South China during the rebellion and expenses for its suppression had depleted
1998-719: A result of the Russian Civil War , the White Russian Lieutenant General Baron Ungern led his troops into Mongolia in October 1920, defeating the Chinese forces in Niislel Khüree (now Ulaanbaatar) in early February 1921 with Mongol support. To eliminate the threat posed by Ungern, Bolshevik Russia decided to support the establishment of a communist Mongolian government and army. This Mongolian army took
2109-526: A series of alliances and intermarriages, as well as military and economic measures. Ambans , Manchu "high officials", were installed in Khüree , Uliastai , and Khovd , and the country was divided into numerous feudal and ecclesiastical fiefdoms (which also placed people in power with loyalty to the Qing). Over the course of the 19th century, the feudal lords attached more importance to representation and less importance to
2220-429: A small band, had with the connivance of local Mongolian officials plundered several Chinese merchant shops in eastern Mongolia. Sando dispatched two detachments of soldiers to capture Togtokh. They were led into a trap by their Mongolian guide; most were killed. Mongolian princes resisted providing soldiers for Sando's army. And the prince of the khoshuun which Togtokh had raided refused Sando's demand to pay compensation to
2331-465: A thousand soldiers each. Almost immediately 500 men from the neighboring khoshuuns had gathered in Urga. Two days later, Sando received a letter, signed in the name of the nobles and lamas of Khalkha, stating that they had heard of a secessionist movement in China, and that Chinese troops of the "revolutionary party" were preparing to march on Urga from Inner Mongolia. The letter went on to state that, in view of
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#17330857423262442-420: A year, and it is usually at the center of a region of high atmospheric pressure. Precipitation is highest in the north (average of 200 to 350 millimeters (8 to 14 in) per year) and lowest in the south, which receives 100 to 200 millimeters (4 to 8 in) annually. The highest annual precipitation of 622.297 mm (24.500 in) occurred in the forests of Bulgan Province near the border with Russia and
2553-470: Is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Mongolia Mongolia is a landlocked country in East Asia , bordered by Russia to the north and China to the south. It covers an area of 1,564,116 square kilometres (603,909 square miles), with a population of 3.5 million, making it the world's most sparsely populated sovereign state . Mongolia
2664-657: Is of uncertain etymology. Sükhbataar (1992) and de la Vaissière (2021) proposed it being a derivation from Mugulü , the 4th-century founder of the Rouran Khaganate , first attested as the 'Mungu', ( Chinese : 蒙兀 , Modern Chinese Měngwù , Middle Chinese Muwngu ), a branch of the Shiwei in an 8th-century Tang dynasty list of northern tribes, presumably related to the Liao -era Mungku (Chinese: 蒙古 , Modern Chinese Měnggǔ , Middle Chinese MuwngkuX ). After
2775-665: Is the Khüiten Peak in the Tavan bogd massif in the far west at 4,374 m (14,350 ft). The basin of the Uvs Lake , shared with Tuva Republic in Russia, is a natural World Heritage Site . Mongolia is known as the "Land of the Eternal Blue Sky" or "Country of Blue Sky" (Mongolian: "Mönkh khökh tengeriin oron") because it has over 250 sunny days a year. Most of the country is hot in
2886-461: Is the world's largest landlocked country that does not border a closed sea , and much of its area is covered by grassy steppe , with mountains to the north and west and the Gobi Desert to the south. Ulaanbaatar , the capital and largest city , is home to roughly half of the country's population. The territory of modern-day Mongolia has been ruled by various nomadic empires , including the Xiongnu ,
2997-642: The Dzungars (western Mongols or Oirats) were virtually annihilated during the Qing conquest of Dzungaria in 1757 and 1758. Some scholars estimate that about 80% of the 600,000 or more Dzungar were killed by a combination of disease and warfare. Outer Mongolia was given relative autonomy, being administered by the hereditary Genghisid khanates of Tusheet Khan, Setsen Khan, Zasagt Khan and Sain Noyon Khan. The Jebtsundamba Khutuktu of Mongolia had immense de facto authority. The Manchu forbade mass Chinese immigration into
3108-490: The Jebstundamba Khutuktu (variously spelled), the spiritual leader in Urga of the Mongolians, surrender a particular lama believed to be the ringleader of the incident. The Khutuktu refused and Sando fined him. In response, the Mongolians petitioned the Qing government to remove Sando, but without success. Other incidents followed, all underscoring the diminished authority of Sando : a minor noble, Togtokh Taij, with
3219-523: The Mongol Empire , the largest contiguous land empire in world history. Under his successors it stretched from present-day Poland in the west to Korea in the east, and from parts of Siberia in the north to the Gulf of Oman and Vietnam in the south, covering some 33,000,000 square kilometres (13,000,000 sq mi), (22% of Earth's total land area) and had a population of over 100 million people (about
3330-582: The Mongolian People's Republic to prevent Mongolian reunification. All leaders of Mongolia who did not fulfill Stalin's demands to perform Red Terror against Mongolians were executed, including Peljidiin Genden and Anandyn Amar . The Stalinist purges in Mongolia , which began in 1937, killed more than 30,000 people. Under Stalinist influence in the Mongolian People's Republic , an estimated 17,000 monks were killed, official figures show. Choibalsan , who led
3441-613: The Mongolian part of Kyakhta from Chinese forces on 18 March 1921, and on 6 July, Russian and Mongolian troops arrived in Khüree. Mongolia declared its independence again on 11 July 1921. As a result, Mongolia was closely aligned with the Soviet Union over the next seven decades. In 1924, after the Bogd Khaan died of laryngeal cancer or, as some sources claim, at the hands of Russian spies,
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3552-552: The Republic of China used its Security Council veto in 1955, to stop the admission of the Mongolian People's Republic to the United Nations on the grounds it recognized all of Mongolia —including Outer Mongolia— as part of China. This was the only time the Republic of China ever used its veto. Hence, and because of the repeated threats to veto by the ROC, Mongolia did not join the UN until 1961 when
3663-536: The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation . At 1,564,116 km (603,909 sq mi), Mongolia is the world's 18th-largest country. It is significantly larger than the next-largest country, Peru. It mostly lies between latitudes 41° and 52°N (a small area is north of 52°), and longitudes 87° and 120°E . As a point of reference the northernmost part of Mongolia is on roughly the same latitude as Berlin (Germany) and Saskatoon (Canada), while
3774-743: The Soviet-Japanese Border War of 1939, the Soviet Union successfully defended Mongolia against Japanese expansionism. Mongolia fought against Japan during the Battles of Khalkhin Gol in 1939 and during the Soviet–Japanese War in August 1945 to liberate Inner Mongolia from Japan and Mengjiang . The February 1945 Yalta Conference provided for the Soviet Union's participation in the Pacific War . One of
3885-892: The Xianbei , the Rouran , the First Turkic Khaganate , the Second Turkic Khaganate , the Uyghur Khaganate and others. In 1206, Genghis Khan founded the Mongol Empire , which became the largest contiguous land empire in history. His grandson Kublai Khan conquered China proper and established the Yuan dynasty . After the collapse of the Yuan, the Mongols retreated to Mongolia and resumed their earlier pattern of factional conflict, except during
3996-717: The Genghisids. In the mid-16th century, Altan Khan of the Tümed, a grandson of Dayan Khan – but not a hereditary or legitimate Khan – became powerful. He founded Hohhot in 1557. After he met with the Dalai Lama in 1578, he ordered the introduction of Tibetan Buddhism to Mongolia. (It was the second time this had occurred.) Abtai Khan of the Khalkha converted to Buddhism and founded the Erdene Zuu monastery in 1585. His grandson Zanabazar became
4107-675: The Gobi are attributed to the rain shadow effect caused by the Himalayas. Before the Himalayas were formed by the collision of the Indo-Australian plate with the Eurasian plate 10 million years ago, Mongolia was a flourishing habitat for major fauna but still somewhat arid and cold due to distance from sources of evaporation. Sea turtle and mollusk fossils have been found in the Gobi, apart from well-known dinosaur fossils. Tadpole shrimps are still found in
4218-733: The Gobi today. The eastern part of Mongolia including the Onon and Kherlen rivers and Lake Buir form part of the Amur river basin draining to the Pacific Ocean. It hosts some unique species like the Eastern brook lamprey, Daurian crayfish ( cambaroides dauricus ) and Daurian pearl oyster ( dahurinaia dahurica ) in the Onon/Kherlen rivers as well as Siberian prawn ( exopalaemon modestus ) in Lake Buir. Mongolia had
4329-598: The Han Chinese. While over time enforcement waned, the laws still remained on the books, receiving at least token observance. Western imperialism in China during the latter part of the 19th century changed political priorities in China. The Qing defeat by the Japanese in 1895 ( First Sino-Japanese War ), followed shortly afterwards by the German seizure of Shandong and the "scramble for concessions" that followed dramatically proved
4440-818: The Inner Mongolian Harqin Banner , forged close contacts with the Japanese in December 1911. He and other inner Mongolian princes took loans, promised the Japanese mining rights and received major arms shipments. The role of the Russians in this revolution (and later in the revolution of 1921) has been controversial. Chinese historians especially have often explained the events of 1911 as the product of "Tsarist provocations and manipulations". This conclusion however contradicts with archival materials from Russia and Mongolia. The movement for independence in Outer Mongolia
4551-518: The Inner Mongolian 49 hoshuns sent statements to support Bogd Khan's call of Mongolian reunification , in reality however, most of them were too prudent or irresolute to attempt joining the Bogd Khan regime. The Mongolian revolution was for the most part an orderly transference of power. Its relatively peaceful character was due to the realism of Qing authorities in Mongolia, and in no small part to
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4662-445: The Khutuktu as emperor. Sando pleaded with the delegation. He admitted that what had come to pass was the result of his own folly, and he promised to recommend full autonomy for Mongolia, but not independence. The delegation curtly replied that it had come simply to deliver a message, not to debate it. Sando was ordered to leave the country within 24 hours. There was little Sando could do. He had only 150 troops, who in any event were in
4773-400: The Khutuktu to send a delegation of three prominent representatives—a secular noble, an ecclesiastic, and a lay official from Inner Mongolia—to Russia for assistance. The particular composition of the delegation—a noble, a cleric, and a commoner—may have been intended to invest the mission with a sense of national consensus. The delegation to St. Petersburg brought with it a letter signed in
4884-447: The Khutuktu withdraw his request for Russian troops. The Khutuktu agreed, provided that Sando dismantle the New Administration. Sando cabled to Beijing for instructions, and was told that parts of the New Administration could be delayed. Sando ordered the princes in Urga to sign a statement that only a few individuals had been responsible for the appeal to Russia. The princes did give such a declaration, but only orally. Sando then ordered
4995-729: The Kyrgyz. The Mongolic Khitans , descendants of the Xianbei, ruled Mongolia during the Liao dynasty (907–1125), after which the Khamag Mongol (1125–1206) rose to prominence. Lines 3–5 of the memorial inscription of Bilge Khagan (684–737) in central Mongolia summarizes the time of the Khagans : In battles they subdued the nations of all four sides of the world and suppressed them. They made those who had heads bow their heads, and who had knees genuflect them. In
5106-432: The Manchu strain ethnically pure, although these efforts proved fruitless. The early Qing rulers enacted various laws to isolate Manchuria from China proper (Eighteen Provinces) and Mongolia. They did the same for the Mongols: Han Chinese were prohibited from entering Mongolia and Mongols were not allowed to travel outside their own leagues . Mongols were forbidden from speaking Chinese languages or intermarrying with
5217-412: The Ming armies pursued the Mongols into their homeland, they successfully sacked and destroyed the Mongol capital Karakorum and other cities. Some of these attacks were repelled by the Mongols under Ayushridar and his general Köke Temür . After the expulsion of the Yuan rulers from China proper , the Mongols continued to rule their homeland, known in historiography as the Northern Yuan dynasty. With
5328-503: The Mongolians to have no further contact with the Russian consulate, threatening in case of disobedience to bring an additional 500 troops to Urga and to arm the Chinese population in the city. He posted sentries around the Khutuktu's palace with orders to bar Russian visitors. And he sent a contingent of troops to the Russian-Mongolian border to intercept the Mongolian delegation to Russia on its return. Events of historic proportions were then taking place in China proper. On October 10 there
5439-456: The Mongols wished to establish with Russia. Russia wanted to include Outer Mongolia in its sphere of influence and as a buffer state offering protection from China and Japan, but never planned to make it a part of her empire. The Russian government decided to support, by diplomatic rather than by military means, not full independence for Mongolia, but autonomy within the Qing empire. It did, however, increase its consular guard in Urga to protect
5550-405: The New Administration was implemented rather differently. The aim was not simply modernization, as it was in Han Chinese territories, but cultural assimilation . Russia's occupation of the Liaodong Peninsula in 1898 and then of Northern Manchuria in 1900 confirmed the Qing government's fears of a larger Russian design on the entire northern frontier of their empire. Qing rulers came to believe that
5661-575: The Qing treasury. Silver, rather than livestock as was the custom, became the primary medium for paying taxes. The major source of silver for Mongols was from loans borrowed from Han merchants. These loans, transacted at crippling interest rates, were repaid in livestock, which was then exported to China proper . The result was a catastrophic decline in the size of the herds upon which the livelihood of Mongolians depended. A disintegrating economy, growing debt, and increasing tax demands were ingredients of social and political unrest in Mongolia. However, it
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#17330857423265772-404: The Qing, and after the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1911, the contract of Mongolian submission to the Manchu had become invalid. The area controlled by the Bogd Khaan was approximately that of the former Outer Mongolia during the Qing period. In 1919, after the October Revolution in Russia, Chinese troops led by warlord Xu Shuzheng occupied Mongolia. Warfare erupted on the northern border. As
5883-400: The Republic of China in 1921. Shortly thereafter, the country became a satellite state of the Soviet Union . In 1924, the Mongolian People's Republic was founded as a socialist state . After the anti-communist revolutions of 1989 , Mongolia conducted its own peaceful democratic revolution in early 1990. This led to a multi-party system , a new constitution of 1992 , and transition to
5994-447: The Soviet Union agreed to lift its veto on the admission of Mauritania (and any other newly independent African state), in return for the admission of Mongolia. Faced with pressure from nearly all the other African countries, the ROC relented under protest. Mongolia and Mauritania were both admitted to the UN on 27 October 1961. (see China and the United Nations ) On 26 January 1952, Yumjaagiin Tsedenbal took power in Mongolia after
6105-420: The Soviet Union to the West, and English has become the dominant foreign language, aided by liberalized media, international aid agencies, the rise of private education and tutoring, as well as official government policy. In the 2014–2015 academic year, 59% of the overall student population studied English at public secondary schools. In 2023, English was declared the "first foreign language", and to be taught from
6216-410: The Soviet conditions for its participation, put forward at Yalta, was that after the war Outer Mongolia would retain its independence. The referendum took place on 20 October 1945, with (according to official numbers) 100% of the electorate voting for independence. After the establishment of the People's Republic of China , both countries confirmed their mutual recognition on 6 October 1949. However,
6327-413: The U.S. Census Bureau figure). UN estimates resemble those made by the Mongolian National Statistical Office (2,612,900, end of June 2007). Mongolia's population growth rate is estimated at 1.2% (2007 est.). About 59% of the total population is under age 30, 27% of whom are under 14. This relatively young and growing population has placed strains on Mongolia's economy. The first census in the 20th century
6438-418: The area, which allowed the Mongols to keep their culture. The Oirats who migrated to the Volga steppes in Russia became known as Kalmyks . The main trade route during this period was the Tea Road through Siberia; it had permanent stations located every 25 to 30 kilometres (16 to 19 mi), each of which was staffed by 5–30 chosen families. Until 1911, the Qing dynasty maintained control of Mongolia with
6549-447: The benefit obtained by the Khalkhas from the Qing in the past, the Khutuktu had ordered the mobilization of 4000 troops to advance on Beijing to defend the Emperor. Sando was asked to provide these men with provisions and arms. He was given three hours to reply. No reply came. Abandoning this thin deception, a delegation of nobles and lamas visited the amban 's office, and informed him of their decision to declare independence and to install
6660-445: The colonization of lands in Inner Mongolia by the Chinese had started much earlier). A decree in 1910 abrogating the old prohibitions against Chinese settling in Outer Mongolia, Chinese and Mongols intermarrying, and Mongols using the Chinese language was the final step toward dismantling the wall of isolation that the Manchus themselves had erected centuries earlier. In early 1910, the Qing government appointed Sando (or Sandowa),
6771-412: The consequences if this warning were ignored. On learning of the Mongolian mission to Russia, the Qing government instructed Sando to investigate. Sando immediately summoned the head of the Khutukhtu's ecclesiastical administration ( Ikh shav' ), the Erdene Shanzav, and demanded an explanation. The Erdene Shanzav, pleading that he had not been involved, revealed the entire plot. Sando then demanded that
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#17330857423266882-453: The continued survival of their state as an integral entity depended on the effectiveness of their frontier serving as a protective "shield" (in the language of the time) for China proper. To accomplish this, the peoples inhabiting this region would have to become Chinese. Between 1901 and 1910, therefore, the Qing government inaugurated an expansive plan for Chinese colonization of the frontier and reorganization of its native governments (though
6993-462: The country's political system was changed. The Mongolian People's Republic was established. In 1928, Khorloogiin Choibalsan rose to power. The early leaders of the Mongolian People's Republic (1921–1952) included many with Pan-Mongolist ideals. However, changing global politics and increased Soviet pressure led to the decline of Pan-Mongol aspirations in the following period. Khorloogiin Choibalsan instituted collectivization of livestock, began
7104-480: The country's livestock dying from starvation or freezing temperatures or both, resulting in economic upheaval for the largely pastoral population. The annual average temperature in Ulaanbaatar is −1.3 °C (29.7 °F), making it the world's coldest capital city. Mongolia is high, cold and windy. It has an extreme continental climate with long, cold winters and short summers, during which most of its annual precipitation falls. The country averages 257 cloudless days
7215-446: The death of Choibalsan. Tsedenbal was the leading political figure in Mongolia for more than 30 years. While Tsedenbal was visiting Moscow in August 1984, his severe illness prompted the parliament to announce his retirement and replace him with Jambyn Batmönkh . The dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 strongly influenced Mongolian politics and youth . Its people undertook the peaceful Democratic Revolution in January 1990 and
7326-443: The destruction of the Buddhist monasteries, and carried out Stalinist purges , which resulted in the murders of numerous monks and other leaders. In Mongolia during the 1920s, approximately one-third of the male population were monks. By the beginning of the 20th century, 750 monasteries were functioning in Mongolia and by the end of the 1930s almost all had been looted or razed. In 1930, the Soviet Union stopped Buryat migration to
7437-459: The division of the Mongol tribes, it was subsequently also known as "The Forty and the Four" (Döčin dörben) among them. The next centuries were marked by violent power struggles among various factions, notably the Genghisids and the non-Genghisid Oirats , as well as by several Ming invasions (such as the five expeditions led by the Yongle Emperor ). In the early 16th century, Dayan Khan and his khatun Mandukhai reunited all Mongol groups under
7548-418: The dominant culture. Horse-riding nomadism has been documented by archeological evidence in Mongolia during the Copper and Bronze Age Afanasevo culture (3500–2500 BC); this Indo-European culture was active to the Khangai Mountains in Central Mongolia. The wheeled vehicles found in the burials of the Afanasevans have been dated to before 2200 BC. Pastoral nomadism and metalworking became more developed with
7659-520: The east up to the Kadyrkhan common people, in the west up to the Iron Gate they conquered... These Khagans were wise. These Khagans were great. Their servants were wise and great too. Officials were honest and direct with people. They ruled the nation this way. This way they held sway over them. When they died ambassadors from Bokuli Cholug (Baekje Korea), Tabgach (Tang China), Tibet (Tibetan Empire), Avar (Avar Khaganate), Rome (Byzantine Empire), Kirgiz , Uch-Kurykan, Otuz-Tatars, Khitans , Tatabis came to
7770-405: The entirety of present-day Mongolia. The Mongolic Rouran Khaganate (330–555), of Xianbei provenance was the first to use "Khagan" as an imperial title. It ruled a massive empire before being defeated by the Göktürks (555–745), an even larger empire. The Göktürks laid siege to Panticapaeum , present-day Kerch , in 576. They were succeeded by the Uyghur Khaganate (745–840) who were defeated by
7881-433: The era of Dayan Khan and Tumen Zasagt Khan . In the 16th century, Tibetan Buddhism spread to Mongolia, being further led by the Manchu -founded Qing dynasty , which absorbed the country in the 17th century. By the early 20th century, almost one-third of the adult male population were Buddhist monks. After the collapse of the Qing dynasty in 1911, Mongolia declared independence , and achieved actual independence from
7992-587: The establishment of a theocracy under the Jebtsundamba Khutuktu. At the end of the month, on December 29, the Khutuktu was formally installed as the Bodg Khaan ("Great Khan", or "Emperor") of the new Mongolian state. This ushered in Bogd Khan era . While all Barga , Dariganga , Khovd, Huvsgul region, 26 hoshuns of Ili region ( Dzungarian Oirads), 24 hoshuns from Upper Mongolian 29 hoshuns, 35 hoshuns from
8103-702: The fall of the Liao dynasty in 1125, the Khamag Mongols became a leading tribe on the Mongolian Plateau . However, their wars with the Jurchen -ruled Jin dynasty and the Tatar confederation had weakened them. The last head of the tribe was Yesügei , whose son Temüjin eventually united all the Shiwei tribes as the Mongol Empire ( Yekhe Monggol Ulus ). In the thirteenth century, the word Mongol grew into an umbrella term for
8214-561: The fall of the Qing dynasty in 1911, Mongolia under the Bogd Khaan declared its independence. However, the newly established Republic of China considered Mongolia to be part of its own territory. Yuan Shikai , the President of the Republic of China , considered the new republic to be the successor of the Qing. Bogd Khaan said that both Mongolia and China had been administered by the Manchu during
8325-587: The fertility value increased to 2.8 in 2013 and stabilised afterwards at a rate of about 2.5-2.6 children per woman around 2020. The Mongols are moderately homogeneous; ethnic Mongols account for about 95% of the population and consist of Khalkha and other groups, all distinguished primarily by dialects of the Mongol language. The Khalkha make up 86% of the ethnic Mongol population. The remaining 14% include Oirats, Buryats and others. Turkic peoples ( Kazakhs and Tuvans ) constitute 4.5% of Mongolia's population, and
8436-479: The first Jebtsundamba Khutughtu in 1640. Following the leaders, the entire Mongolian population embraced Buddhism. Each family kept scriptures and Buddha statues on an altar at the north side of their yurt . Mongolian nobles donated land, money and herders to the monasteries. As was typical in states with established religions, the top religious institutions, the monasteries, wielded significant temporal power in addition to spiritual power. The last Khagan of Mongols
8547-483: The funerals. So many people came to mourn over the great Khagans. They were famous Khagans. In the chaos of the late 12th century, a chieftain named Temüjin finally succeeded in uniting the Mongol tribes between Manchuria and the Altai Mountains . In 1206, he took the title Genghis Khan , and waged a series of military campaigns – renowned for their brutality and ferocity – sweeping through much of Asia, and forming
8658-456: The inadequacy of previous Qing efforts to resist the West. The Boxer Rebellion , and particularly Japan's victory over Russia in 1905 , were widely interpreted in China as the triumph of constitutionalism over autocracy. It was then that far-reaching economic, political, and military reforms, known as the "New Administration" or " New Policies " ( Xin zheng ), were ordered. In Outer Mongolia, however,
8769-415: The introduction of a multi-party system and a market economy. At the same time, the transformation of the former Marxist-Leninist Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party to the current social democratic Mongolian People's Party reshaped the country's political landscape. A new constitution was introduced in 1992, and the term "People's Republic" was dropped from the country's name. The transition to
8880-512: The khanates, the "Great Khaanate", consisting of the Mongol homeland and most of modern-day China, became known as the Yuan dynasty under Kublai Khan , the grandson of Genghis Khan. He set up his capital in present-day Beijing. After more than a century of power, the Yuan dynasty was overthrown by the Ming dynasty in 1368, and the Yuan court fled to the north, thus becoming the Northern Yuan dynasty . As
8991-612: The later Okunev culture (2nd millennium BC), Andronovo culture (2300–1000 BC) and Karasuk culture (1500–300 BC), culminating with the Iron Age Xiongnu Empire in 209 BC. Monuments of the pre-Xiongnu Bronze Age include deer stones , keregsur kurgans , square slab tombs , and rock paintings. Although cultivation of crops has continued since the Neolithic, agriculture has always remained small in scale compared to pastoral nomadism. Agriculture may have first been introduced from
9102-467: The lowest of 41.735 mm (1.643 in) occurred in the Gobi Desert (period 1961–1990). The sparsely populated far north of Bulgan Province averages 600 mm (24 in) in annual precipitation which means it receives more precipitation than Beijing (571.8 mm or 22.51 in) or Berlin (571 mm or 22.5 in). The name "Gobi" is a Mongol term for a desert steppe, which usually refers to
9213-410: The name of the Khutuktu and the "four khans of Khalkha ." It asked for assistance against the Chinese, including arms, and implied that Russian troops would be needed against a Chinese unit which the Mongolians believed was at that moment advancing into Mongolia. To coax a commitment, the Mongols promised economic concessions in return. The letter itself was unclear as to the specific type of relationship
9324-506: The need to reapportion taxes among the khoshuuns. The meeting occurred on July 10 and the Mongolians discussed whether it would be better to submit to or resist the will of the Qings. The assembly became deadlocked, some arguing for complete, others for partial, resistance. Eighteen nobles decided to take matters into their hands. Meeting secretly in the hills outside of Urga, they decided that Mongolia must declare its independence. They then persuaded
9435-469: The nickname "the Lascaux of Mongolia". The Venus figurines of Mal'ta (21,000 years ago) testify to the level of Upper Paleolithic art in northern Mongolia; Mal'ta is now part of Russia. Neolithic agricultural settlements (c. 5500–3500 BC), such as those at Norovlin, Tamsagbulag, Bayanzag, and Rashaan Khad, predated the introduction of horse-riding nomadism, a pivotal event in the history of Mongolia which became
9546-475: The plundered Chinese merchants. By the spring of 1911, some prominent Mongolian nobles including Prince Tögs-Ochiryn Namnansüren persuaded the Jebstundamba Khutukhtu to convene a meeting of nobles and ecclesiastical officials to discuss independence. The Khutukhtu consented. To avoid suspicion, he used as a pretext the occasion of a religious festival, at which time the assembled leaders would discuss
9657-524: The prehistoric times, Mongolia has been inhabited by nomads who, from time to time, formed great confederations that rose to power and prominence. Common institutions were the office of the Khan , the Kurultai (Supreme Council), left and right wings, imperial army ( Keshig ) and the decimal military system. The first of these empires, the Xiongnu of undetermined ethnicity, were brought together by Modu Shanyu to form
9768-568: The presence of Russian troops, who provided protection for these authorities and Chinese troops. The situation was different in Inner Mongolia. There, Chinese authorities remained in power, even though Mongol activists were preparing to join Outer Mongolia in independence. Members of the pro-Qing Royalist Party were known to support the independence of Inner Mongolia, and some argued for a monarchist state covering Manchuria as well as Outer and Inner Mongolia. Most notably, Gungsangnorbu , leader of
9879-527: The region of Outer Mongolia declared its independence from the Manchu -led Qing China during the Xinhai Revolution . A combination of factors, including economic hardship and failure to resist Western imperialism, led many in China to be unhappy with the Qing government. When a new program to settle Mongolia with ethnic Han and assimilate the natives was unveiled, it was met with resistance that resulted in
9990-534: The responsibilities towards their subjects. The behavior of Mongolia's nobility, together with usurious practices by Chinese traders and the collection of imperial taxes in silver instead of animals, resulted in widespread poverty among the nomads. By 1911 there were 700 large and small monasteries in Outer Mongolia; their 115,000 monks made up 21% of the population. Apart from the Jebtsundamba Khutuktu, there were 13 other reincarnating high lamas, called 'seal-holding saints' ( tamgatai khutuktu ), in Outer Mongolia. With
10101-541: The rest are Russian, Chinese, Korean and American nationalities. Mongolia's official and national language is Mongolian . A member of the Mongolic language family, the standard dialect is Khalkha Mongol . It coexists with various other, largely mutually intelligible varieties of Mongolic such as Oirat , Buryat , and Khamnigan . Several dialects have been morphing to become more like the central Khalkha dialect in recent years. Most speakers of these dialects are located in
10212-580: The rest of the country collapsed quickly after that. Later that month or in January 1912 (sources differ) the Military Governor of Uliastai in western Mongolia, his staff and military guards, peacefully departed under the protection of Cossack troops. However, the Deputy Military Governor of Khovd decided to resist, hoping for reinforcements from Xinjiang . The troops came too late: the town
10323-478: The returning delegation. The Russian minister in Beijing was then instructed to inform the Qing government that the Mongols had sent a delegation to St. Petersburg complaining of Chinese immigration, military build-up, and administrative reorganization. He stated that Russia could not but be concerned about these developments, in view of the common boundary shared with Khalkha, and cautioned that China would have to bear
10434-408: The same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Sharga . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sharga&oldid=931306050 " Category : Disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Short description
10545-461: The south in addition to being more stable. The Khangai Mountains play a certain role in forming this microclimate. In Tsetserleg, the warmest town in this microclimate, nighttime January temperatures rarely go under −30 °C (−22 °F) while daytime January temperatures often reach 0 °C (32 °F) to 5 °C (41 °F). The country is subject to occasional harsh climatic conditions known as zud . It results in large proportions of
10656-505: The southernmost part is on roughly the same latitude as Rome (Italy) and Chicago (USA). The westernmost part of Mongolia is on roughly the same longitude as Kolkata in India, while the easternmost part is on the same longitude as Qinhuangdao and Hangzhou in China, as well as the western edge of Taiwan. Although Mongolia does not share a border with Kazakhstan, its westernmost point is only 36.76 kilometres (22.84 mi) from Kazakhstan, nearly making
10767-401: The summer and extremely cold in the winter, with January averages dropping as low as −30 °C (−22 °F). A vast front of cold, heavy, shallow air comes in from Siberia in winter and collects in river valleys and low basins causing very cold temperatures while slopes of mountains are much warmer due to the effects of temperature inversion (temperature increases with altitude). In winter
10878-563: The third grade. As of the 2014–2015 academic year, the most popular foreign language in specialized language courses were (ordered by popularity), English, Chinese , Russian, Japanese , and Korean . Korean in particular has gained popularity as tens of thousands of Mongolians work in South Korea , forming the largest group of Mongolians abroad . Mongolian Revolution of 1911 [REDACTED] Grigory Semyonov [REDACTED] The Mongolian Revolution of 1911 occurred when
10989-495: The traditional Mongolian script in official documents by 2025. Since 1990, English has quickly supplanted Russian as the most popular foreign language in Mongolia. In the communist era , Russian was a vital language for mobility and professional communication, with a large number of students studying in the Soviet Union as well as a large number of Soviet professionals and soldiers located within Mongolia. Since then, however, Mongolia's education system has reoriented away from
11100-514: The warmest January temperatures in Omnogovi Province ( Dalanzadgad , Khanbogd ) and the region of the Altai mountains bordering China. A unique microclimate is the fertile grassland-forest region of central and eastern Arkhangai Province ( Tsetserleg ) and northern Ovorkhangai Province ( Arvaikheer ) where January temperatures are on average the same and often higher than the warmest desert regions to
11211-506: The west or arose independently in the region. The population during the Copper Age has been described as mongoloid in the east of what is now Mongolia, and as europoid in the west. Tocharians ( Yuezhi ) and Scythians inhabited western Mongolia during the Bronze Age. The mummy of a Scythian warrior, which is believed to be about 2,500 years old, was a 30- to 40-year-old man with blond hair; it
11322-578: The western part of the country, namely Bayan-Ölgii , Uvs , and Khovd . Kazakh , a Turkic language , is the majority language in Bayan-Ölgii, while Tuvan is another Turkic language spoken in Khövsgöl . Mongolian Sign Language is the principal language of the deaf community. Today, Mongolian is mainly written using the Cyrillic alphabet , introduced during the 1940s. Since the 1990 revolution there has been
11433-602: The western regions. Mongolia is a member of the United Nations , Asia Cooperation Dialogue , G77 , Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank , Non-Aligned Movement and a NATO global partner . Mongolia joined the World Trade Organization in 1997 and seeks to expand its participation in regional economic and trade groups. The name Mongolia means the "Land of the Mongols" in Latin. The Mongolian word "Mongol" ( монгол )
11544-523: The whole of Mongolia comes under the influence of the Siberian Anticyclone . The localities most severely affected by this cold weather are Uvs province ( Ulaangom ), western Khovsgol ( Rinchinlhumbe ), eastern Zavkhan ( Tosontsengel ), northern Bulgan (Hutag) and eastern Dornod province (Khalkhiin Gol). Ulaanbaatar is strongly, but less severely, affected. The cold gets less severe as one goes south, reaching
11655-635: Was Ligden Khan in the early 17th century. He came into conflicts with the Manchus over the looting of Chinese cities, and also alienated most Mongol tribes. He died in 1634. By 1636, most of the Inner Mongolian tribes had submitted to the Manchus, who founded the Qing dynasty . The Khalkha eventually submitted to Qing rule in 1691, thus bringing all of today's Mongolia under Manchu rule. After several Dzungar–Qing Wars ,
11766-564: Was Qing plans for the transformation of Outer Mongolia that produced the impetus for rebellion. The Qing dynasty (1644–1912) was founded by the Manchu clan Aisin Gioro in what is today Northeast China (also known as Manchuria ). They were certainly not the first non-Han people to rule all of China, but the fate of previous dynasties had always been the same: they invaded; they governed; they assimilated; and eventually they merged, more or less becoming Chinese themselves. Attempts were made to keep
11877-468: Was an uprising in Wuchang and a revolution against the minority ruling class had begun. One province after another declared its independence from the Qing authority. Believing that his position was untenable, Sando wired the Beijing government asking for permission to resign, but his request was denied. In the meantime, the Mongolian delegation to Russia secretly returned, and reported the results of its trip to
11988-407: Was carried out in 1918 and recorded a population of 647,500. Since the end of socialism, Mongolia has experienced a decline of total fertility rate (children per woman) that is steeper than in any other country in the world, according to recent UN estimations: in 1970–1975, fertility was estimated to be 7.33 children per woman, dropping to about 2.1 in 2000–2005. The decline ended and in 2005–2010,
12099-572: Was found in the Altai , Mongolia. As equine nomadism was introduced into Mongolia, the political center of the Eurasian Steppe also shifted to Mongolia, where it remained until the 18th century CE. The intrusions of northern pastoralists (e.g. the Guifang, Shanrong, and Donghu ) into China during the Shang dynasty (1600–1046 BC) and Zhou dynasty (1046–256 BC) presaged the age of nomadic empires . Since
12210-422: Was surrounded by Mongolian troops, and the reinforcement detachment was crushed. In August 1912, his stronghold was overcome by Mongolian troops, and he and his staff were escorted out of the country by Cossacks. In this battle, 200 people of Qing's army and 45 people of Mongolian army were killed. On December 1, the Provisional Government of Khalkha issued a general proclamation announcing the end of Qing rule and
12321-477: Was to a large extent the reaction to the new Qing policies aimed at assimilating the Mongols by Han Chinese. The Russian imperial government preferred to see Outer Mongolia as a buffer state against Chinese and Japanese influences on the Russian borders in Siberia , a dependent state or autonomy of China. The revolution also reflected a growing sense of nationalism on the part of the Mongolians, and their desire to form
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