Misplaced Pages

#151848

122-841: He is famous today for his books of travel such as the Mir'ât ül Memâlik (The Mirror of Countries, 1557) which describes the lands he has seen on his way back from India to Constantinople , and his books of navigation and astronomy, such as the Mir’ât-ı Kâinât (Mirror of the Universe) and the Kitâb ül Muhit: El Muhit fî İlmi'l Eflâk ve'l Buhûr (Book of the Regional Seas and the Science of Astronomy and Navigation) which contain information on navigation techniques, methods of determining direction, calculating time, using

244-518: A Roman province . Rome's presence afforded relative stability in northern Syria for over three centuries. Although the province was administered by a legate from Rome, Rome did not impose its administrative organization on the Greek-speaking ruling class or Aramaic speaking populace. The Roman era saw an increase in the population of northern Syria that accelerated under the Byzantines well into

366-629: A 567-day voyage before returning unsuccessfully to port. Reference is also made to the city in Shakespeare's Othello when Othello speaks his final words (ACT V, ii, 349f.): "Set you down this/And say besides that in Aleppo once,/Where a malignant and a turbanned Turk/Beat a Venetian and traduced the state,/I took by th' throat the circumcised dog/And smote him—thus!" (Arden Shakespeare Edition, 2004). The English naval chaplain Henry Teonge describes in his diary

488-625: A campaign to capture Aleppo during the reign of Sabiq ibn Mahmud of the Mirdasid dynasty , which lasted until 1080, when his reinforcements were ambushed and routed by a coalition of Arab tribesmen led by Kilabi chief Abu Za'ida at Wadi Butnan . After the death of Sharaf al-Dawla of the Uqaylid dynasty in June 1085, the headman in Aleppo Sharif Hassan ibn Hibat Allah Al-Hutayti promised to surrender

610-630: A great many difficulties they at last arrived in Mahmudabad , and after a journey of 50 days in Ahmedabad , the capital of Gujarat. There, Seydi Ali Reis visited the Sultan, his Grand Vizier Imad-ul-Mulk, and other dignitaries. The Sultan, to whom Seydi Ali Reis presented his credentials, was pleased to receive him most graciously and he assured him of his devotion to Suleiman the Magnificent . He gave Seydi Ali Reis

732-518: A horse, a team of camels, and money for the journey. A few days after this, Sultan Ahmad offered Seydi Ali Reis the command of the Province of Burudj, with a very large income, but he kindly refused the generous offer. Amongst the learned people of the land of the Banians, there was a tribe which they called the " Bhats ", whose business was to escort merchants or travelers from one land into another, and for

854-484: A month after the time of the monsoon came, Seydi Ali Reis had the troops embarked and the 15 galleys set sail towards Egypt. They were accompanied by the frigate of Sherifi Pasha until reaching the Strait of Hormuz . On the way to Hormuz , Seydi Ali Reis stopped at the ports of Arabia and Persia such as Bahrain , Dizful , Shushter , Bushehr , Qatif , Kish and Barhata . There was no sign of any Portuguese presence in

976-579: A nobleman named Nasir-ul-Mulk who simultaneously declared himself as the new sultan and captured the stronghold of Burudj . In the meantime, Nasir-ul-Mulk had offered the coastal ports of Gujarat to the Portuguese in exchange for their support against the young Sultan Ahmed who immediately collected an army to march on Burudj. When the sultan was informed of the arrival of the Ottomans, he took 200 gunners and other men from their troops and advanced towards Burudj. On

1098-453: A total of 25 vessels. The two fleets almost immediately engaged each other, and one of the Portuguese galleons was sunk during the initial exchange of cannon fire. The bitter fighting, which caused serious damage on both sides, continued until sunset, when the Portuguese commander ordered retreat with the signal-gun and withdrew his forces towards the Strait of Hormuz. The night was calm and the wind

1220-696: A trading center between the Mediterranean Sea and Mesopotamia. For centuries, Aleppo was the largest city in the Syrian region , and the Ottoman Empire 's third-largest after Constantinople (now Istanbul ) and Cairo . The city's significance in history has been its location at one end of the Silk Road , which passed through Central Asia and Mesopotamia . When the Suez Canal was inaugurated in 1869, much trade

1342-463: A very small remuneration they guaranteed their perfect safety. The Muslims of Ahmedabad gave Seydi Ali Reis two such Bhats as an escort, and so, about the middle of Safar of the said year, Seydi Ali Reis started his overland journey to the Ottoman Empire. Seydi Ali Reis and his few remaining men first headed towards Lahore , before they went to Delhi for receiving the permission of passing through

SECTION 10

#1732869966152

1464-580: A visit he paid to the city in 1675, when there was a colony of Western European merchants living there. The city remained Ottoman until the empire's collapse, but was occasionally riven with internal feuds as well as attacks of cholera from 1823. Around 20–25 percent of the population died of plague in 1827. In 1850, a Muslim mob attacked Christian neighbourhoods, tens of Christians were killed and several churches looted. Though this event has been portrayed as driven by pure sectarian principles, Bruce Masters argues that such analysis of this period of violence

1586-524: Is too shallow and neglects the tensions that existed among the population due to the commercial favor afforded to certain Christian minorities by the Tanzimat Reforms during this time which played a large role in creating antagonism between previously cooperative groups of Muslim and Christians in the eastern quarters of the city. By 1901, the city's population was around 110,000. In October 1918, Aleppo

1708-578: The Mir'ât ül Memâlik (The Mirror of Countries, 1557) in this period. He also wrote many poems, under the nickname Kâtib-i Rumî (Bookman of Anatolia). Seydi Ali Reis died in Constantinople in January 1563. Mirat ul Memalik Mirat ul Memalik (The Mirror of Countries) is a historical book written in 1557 by Ottoman admiral Seydi Ali Reis about his travels in South Asia , Central Asia , and

1830-542: The Aleppo Eyalet ; the rest of what later became Syria was part of either the eyalets of Damascus, Tripoli, Sidon or Raqqa. Following the Ottoman provincial reform of 1864 Aleppo became the centre of the newly constituted Vilayet of Aleppo in 1866. Aleppo's agriculture was well-developed in the Ottoman period. Archaeological excavations revealed water mills in its river basin. Contemporary Chinese source also suggests Aleppo in

1952-514: The Armenian ruler Hethum I . The city was poorly defended by Turanshah, and as a result the walls fell after six days of siege, and the citadel fell four weeks later. The Muslim population was massacred and many Jews were also killed. The Christian population was spared. Turanshah was shown unusual respect by the Mongols, and was allowed to live because of his age and bravery. The city was then given to

2074-820: The Ayyubid dynasty . When the Ayyubids were toppled in Egypt by the Mamluks , the Ayyubid emir of Aleppo An-Nasir Yusuf became sultan of the remaining part of the Ayyubid Empire. He ruled Syria from his seat in Aleppo until, on 24 January 1260, the city was taken by the Mongols under Hulagu in alliance with their vassals the Frankish knights of the ruler of Antioch Bohemond VI and his father-in-law

2196-600: The Indian Ocean , Arabian Sea , Red Sea , and Persian Gulf . But after two marine battles against the Portuguese fleet and a great storm named the elephant typhoon ( tufan’ı fil ) by the locals, his remaining six galleys drifted to India . The fleet was unserviceable, resulting in his return home overland with 50 men. Seydi Ali Reis then arrived at the royal court of the Mughal Emperor Humayun in Delhi , where he met

2318-657: The Middle Assyrian Empire , whose king renovated the temple of Hadad which was discovered in 2003. In 2003, a statue of a king named Taita bearing inscriptions in Luwian was discovered during excavations conducted by German archeologist Kay Kohlmeyer in the Citadel of Aleppo . The new readings of Anatolian hieroglyphic signs proposed by the Hittitologists Elisabeth Rieken and Ilya Yakubovich were conducive to

2440-562: The Middle East . This book, which is now considered one of the earliest travel books of Turkish literature , was written in the Ottoman Turkish and Chagatai language ( seyahatname ) both of which are now extinct Turkic languages. Seydi Ali Reis was an Ottoman admiral sent by Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent to counter the Portuguese piracy and attacks on Muslim pilgrim ships in

2562-554: The Ottoman Empire in 1516 as part of the vast expansion of the Ottoman borders during the reign of Selim I . The city then had around 50,000 inhabitants, or 11,224 households according to an Ottoman census. In 1517, Selim I obtained a fatwa from Sunnite religious leaders and unleashed violence on the Alawites , killing 9,400 men, which is known as the Massacre of the Telal . It was the centre of

SECTION 20

#1732869966152

2684-714: The Roman Emperor Constantius II . After the Council of Seleucia of 359, called by Constantius, Meletius of Antioch was transferred from Sebastea to Beroea but in the following year was promoted to Antioch. His successor in Beroea, Anatolius, was at a council in Antioch in 363. Under the persecuting Emperor Valens , the bishop of Beroea was Theodotus, a friend of Basil the Great . He was succeeded by Acacius of Beroea , who governed

2806-710: The Sublime Porte the price agreed upon for the sale (see also: Mughal Weapons ). After receiving a confirmatory note, both from Khudavend Khan and Adil Khan, Seydi Ali Reis started on his journey to Ahmedabad in the end of November 1554, accompanied by Mustafa Agha, the Kethüda (chief officer) of the Janissaries, and Ali Agha, the captain of the gunners (both of whom had remained faithful to Seydi Ali Reis), together with about 50 men. A few days took them from Burudj to Belodra , and from there they proceeded to Champanir . After

2928-578: The Syrian Revolt erupted in southern Syria in 1925, the French held in Aleppo State new elections that were supposed to lead to the breaking of the union with Damascus and restore the independence of Aleppo State. The French were driven to believe by pro-French Aleppine politicians that the people in Aleppo were supportive of such a scheme. After the new council was elected, however, it surprisingly voted to keep

3050-647: The Turcoman troops who were defending Aleppo. The Mamluk garrisons fled to Hama , until Baibars came north again with his main army, and the Mongols retreated. On 20 October 1280, the Mongols took the city again, pillaging the markets and burning the mosques. The Muslim inhabitants fled for Damascus, where the Mamluk leader Qalawun assembled his forces. When his army advanced following the Second Battle of Homs in October 1281,

3172-565: The Umayyad Caliphate . In 944, it became the seat of an independent Emirate under the Hamdanid prince Sayf al-Dawla , and enjoyed a period of great prosperity, being home to the great poet al-Mutanabbi and the philosopher and polymath al-Farabi . In 962, the city was sacked by the Byzantine general Nikephoros Phokas . Subsequently, the city and its emirate became a temporary vassal of

3294-579: The episcopal see of Beroea, which was in the Roman province of Syria Prima , are recorded in extant documents. The first whose name survives is that of Saint Eustathius of Antioch , who, after being bishop of Beroea, was transferred to the important metropolitan see of Antioch shortly before the 325 First Council of Nicaea . His successor in Beroea Cyrus was for his fidelity to the Nicene faith sent into exile by

3416-507: The old city of Aleppo , show that the area was occupied by Amorites by the latter part of the third millennium BC. That is also the time at which Aleppo is first mentioned in cuneiform tablets unearthed in Ebla and Mesopotamia , which speak of it as part of the Amorite state of Yamhad , and note its commercial and military importance. Such a long history is attributed to its strategic location as

3538-628: The 'land of Ḥalab,' was one of the most powerful in the Near East during the reign of Yarim-Lim I , who formed an alliance with Hammurabi of Babylonia against Shamshi-Adad I of Assyria . Yamḥad was devastated by the Hittites under Mursili I in the 16th century BC. However, it soon resumed its leading role in the Levant when the Hittite power in the region waned due to internal strife. Taking advantage of

3660-685: The 15 Ottoman galleys anchored there, which were previously under the command of Piri Reis , to the chief homeport of the Ottoman Indian Ocean Fleet at Suez , on the Red Sea . Most of the 15 galleys were damaged in the previous encounters with the Portuguese fleet in the Indian Ocean. Seydi Ali Reis had the ships repaired and fitted them with new cannons, using the limited amount of resources and supplies which were available in Basra at that time. About

3782-432: The 4-year salary (ulufe) which Seydi Ali Reis was entitled to during his absence to be also paid. In 1560, Rüstem Pasha pushed for Seydi Ali Reis to be reappointed the admiral of the Indian Ocean fleet, but the governor of Egypt Sofu Hadım Ali Pasha blocked this move. Instead, Sefer Reis was promoted to the supreme command of the Ottoman Empire's entire Indian Ocean fleet . Seydi Ali Reis wrote his famous books such as

Seydi Ali Reis - Misplaced Pages Continue

3904-566: The 5th century. In Late Antiquity , Beroea was the second largest Syrian city after Antioch , the capital of Roman Syria and the third largest city in the Roman world. Archaeological evidence indicates a high population density for settlements between Antioch and Beroea right up to the 6th century. This agrarian landscape still holds the remains of large estate houses and churches such as the Church of Saint Simeon Stylites . The names of several bishops of

4026-507: The Arabian shore. Due to the strong currents and winds, both fleets were dragged eastwards during the encounter. Towards the night, the fleet of Seydi Ali Reis, including the Portuguese ships which were captured and towed behind the remaining Ottoman galleys, reached the Bay of Oman, but was not allowed to land by the locals. Seydi Ali Reis thus set sail eastwards, towards the open seas, and finally reached

4148-616: The Byzantine Empire. For the next few decades, the city was disputed by the Fatimid Caliphate and Byzantine Empire , with the nominally independent Hamdanids in between, eventually falling to the Fatimids in 1017. In 1024, Salih ibn Mirdas launched an attack on Fatimid Aleppo, and after a few months was invited into the city by its population. The Mirdasid dynasty then ruled the city until 1080, interrupted only in 1038–1042, when it

4270-685: The Citadel of Aleppo. The two mosques inside the Citadel are known to have been converted by the Mirdasids during the 11th century from churches originally built by the Byzantines. The Sasanian Persians led by King Khosrow I pillaged and burned Aleppo in 540, then they invaded and controlled Syria briefly in the early 7th century. Soon after Aleppo was taken by the Muslims under Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah in 637. It later became part of Jund Qinnasrin under

4392-445: The Great took over the city in 333 BC. Seleucus Nicator established a Hellenic settlement in the site between 301 and 286 BC. He called it Beroea (Βέροια), after Beroea in Macedon ; it is sometimes spelled as Beroia. Beroea is mentioned in 1 Macc. 9:4. Northern Syria was the center of gravity of the Hellenistic colonizing activity, and therefore of Hellenistic culture in the Seleucid Empire . As did other Hellenized cities of

4514-411: The Hebrew word for 'milk' or vice versa, as well as offering a possible explanation for the modern-day Arabic nickname of the city, al-Shahbāʾ ( Arabic : الشهباء ), which means "the white-colored mixed with black" and allegedly derives from the white marble found at Aleppo. According to a folk etymology related by the twelfth century CE Rabbi Pethahiah of Regensburg and the traveler Ibn Battuta ,

4636-411: The Holy League of Charles V under the command of Andrea Doria at the Battle of Preveza (1538). He also commanded several ships of the fleet of Sinan Pasha and Turgut Reis which conquered Tripoli in Libya from Spain and the Knights of Malta in 1551. He later took part in the Ottoman naval campaigns on the western coasts of the Mediterranean Sea. Seydi Ali Reis was subsequently promoted to

4758-415: The Mongols again retreated, back across the Euphrates . In October 1299, Ghazan captured the city, joined by his vassal Armenian King Hethum II , whose forces included some Templars and Hospitallers . In 1400, the Mongol-Turkic leader Tamerlane captured the city again from the Mamluks. He massacred many of the inhabitants, ordering the building of a tower of 20,000 skulls outside the city. After

4880-434: The Mongols at the Battle of Ain Jalut on 3 September 1260. The Mamluks won a decisive victory, killing the Mongols' Nestorian Christian general Kitbuqa , and five days later they had retaken Damascus. Aleppo was recovered by the Muslims within a month, and a Mamluk governor placed to govern the city. Hulagu sent troops to try to recover Aleppo in December. They were able to massacre a large number of Muslims in retaliation for

5002-422: The Ottoman Empire, never attempted to settle a factor, or agent, in Damascus, despite having had permission to do so. Aleppo served as the company's headquarters until the late 18th century. As a result of the economic development, many European states had opened consulates in Aleppo during the 16th and the 17th centuries, such as the consulate of the Republic of Venice in 1548, the consulate of France in 1562,

Seydi Ali Reis - Misplaced Pages Continue

5124-619: The Ottoman admiral. The Portuguese demanded that Seydi Ali Reis should be given up to them, but their request was refused. It turned out that a runaway Christian gunner from one of the ships of Seydi Ali Reis had enlisted on the ship of the Portuguese envoy, and, knowing a good deal about the affairs of the Ottomans, he had undertaken to prevent their departure from India after the holiday of Kurban (Eid). The troops of Seydi Ali Reis began to lose hope for return and became more and more dissatisfied. In Surat, Khudavend Khan had been paying them from 50 to 60 paras per day, and in Burudj, Adil Khan had done

5246-468: The Ottoman period had well-developed animal husbandry. During his travels to the Levant in the 17th century, French traveler Jacques Goujon recounted how the Maronite community in Aleppo, facing financial difficulties and considering conversion to Islam due to their inability to pay the jizya tax , was aided by the Franciscans who bought their church, enabling them to meet their tax obligations. Moreover, thanks to its strategic geographic location on

5368-457: The Ottomans. Seydi Ali Reis wrote a letter to the native Prince Jelaleddin to ask for a pilot, upon which a first-class pilot was sent to him, with the assurance that he was thoroughly trustworthy and entirely devoted to the interests of the Ottomans. With a favorable wind Seydi Ali Reis left the port of Gwadar and again steered for Yemen . They had been at sea for several days, and had arrived nearly opposite to Zofar and Shar, when suddenly from

5490-406: The Philistines, as do archaeologists Benjamin Sass and Kay Kohlmeyer. Gershon Galil suggests that King David halted the Arameans' expansion into the Land of Israel on account of his alliance with the southern Philistine kings, as well as with Toi, king of Ḥamath, who is identified with Tai(ta) II, king of Palistin (the northern Sea Peoples). During the early years of the 1st millennium BC, Aleppo

5612-401: The Popular Party presented a constitution draft that called Damascus a "temporary capital." The first coup d'état in modern Syrian history was carried out in March 1949 by an army officer from Aleppo, Hussni Zaim . However, lured by the absolute power he enjoyed as a dictator, Zaim soon developed a pro-Egyptian, pro-Western orientation and abandoned the cause of union with Iraq. This incited

5734-399: The Portuguese governor of Muscat, came out of the harbour with a fleet of 12 large ships and 22 galleons - 34 vessels in all. They carried a large number of troops. Soon the Portuguese and Ottoman forces confronted each other and both sides lost 5 vessels during the battle, the surviving crews of which were taken by the intact ships of the respective fleets, while some of them managed to land on

5856-422: The Portuguese, had hired assassins to kill Seydi Ali Reis; who were, however, discovered by the guard and fled. Meanwhile, Sultan Ahmed had taken the stronghold of Burudj and sent two of his officers, Khudavend and Djihanghir, with elephants and troops to Surat , while he proceeded to Ahmedabad , where a youth, called Ahmed, a relative of Sultan Ahmed, had in the meantime raised a revolt. A battle followed, in which

5978-426: The Seleucid kingdom, Beroea probably enjoyed a measure of local autonomy, with a local civic assembly or boulē composed of free Hellenes. Beroea remained under Seleucid rule until 88 BC when Syria was conquered by the Armenian king Tigranes the Great and Beroea became part of the Kingdom of Armenia . After the Roman victory over Tigranes, Syria was handed over to Pompey in 64 BC, at which time they became

6100-427: The Sultan was in Edirne ( Adrianople ), Seydi Ali Reis headed there and presented the letters sent to Suleiman by the 18 sultans and rulers of the countries that he passed through during his long and difficult voyage back home. Sultan Suleiman received Seydi Ali Reis with understanding and compassion, and appointed him as the Müteferrika of the Dergâh-ı âlî , with a daily salary of 80 akçe . The Sultan also ordered

6222-415: The advance of Malik-Shah or because the Fatimids were besieging Damascus. In 1087, Aq Sunqur al-Hajib became the Seljuk governor of Aleppo under Sultan Malik Shah I. During his bid for the Seljuk throne, Tutush had Aq Sunqur executed and after Tutush died in battle, the town was ruled by his son Ridwan . The city was besieged by Crusaders led by the King of Jerusalem Baldwin II in 1124–1125, but

SECTION 50

#1732869966152

6344-468: The appearance of an "enormously large fish (probably a whale ) about the size of two galley lengths, or more perhaps", which the pilot declared to be a good omen. The color of the water suddenly changed to pure white, and at the sight of it the pilot broke forth into loud lamentations: he declared they were approaching whirlpools and eddies. Seydi Ali Reis mentions in the Mir'ât ül Memâlik ("The Mirror of Countries") that such whirlpools were found only on

6466-535: The area, and the escort ship of Sherifi Pasha was sent back to Basra with the news that the Strait of Hormuz was safely passed. The 15 galleys of Seydi Ali Reis then proceeded by the coasts of Djilgar and Djadi on the Arabian Sea , past the towns of Keizzar/Leime, and 40 days after his departure from Basra, i.e., on the 10th day of the month of Ramadan , in the forenoon, suddenly encountered the Portuguese fleet (dispatched from its homeport in Goa ) which consisted of 4 large ships, 3 galleons, 6 guard ships and 12 galleys -

6588-414: The bishop of Beroea Antoninus for rejecting the Council of Chalcedon. The last known bishop of the see is Megas, who was at a synod called by Patriarch Menas of Constantinople in 536. After the Arab conquest, Beroea ceased to be a residential bishopric, and is today listed by the Roman Catholic Church as a titular see . Very few physical remains have been found from the Roman and Byzantine periods in

6710-411: The bottom had to be ripped up to find the outlet so as to reduce the water. Towards the afternoon the weather had cleared a little, and they found themselves about 2 miles off the port of Daman , in Gujarat , India . The other ships had already arrived, but some of the galleys were waterlogged not far from the shore, and they had thrown overboard oars, boats, and casks, the wreckage of which eventually

6832-420: The capital of a large and wealthier state with which it would have been hard for Damascus to compete. The State of Aleppo as drawn by France contained most of the fertile area of Syria: the fertile countryside of Aleppo in addition to the entire fertile basin of river Euphrates . The state also had access to sea via the autonomous Sanjak of Alexandretta . On the other hand, Damascus, which is basically an oasis on

6954-417: The capital of an independent kingdom closely related to Ebla , known as Armi , although this identification is contested. The main temple of the storm god Hadad was located on the citadel hill in the center of the city, when the city was known as the city of Hadad . Naram-Sin of Akkad mentioned his destruction of Ebla and Armanum , in the 23rd century BC. However, the identification of Armani in

7076-422: The city but found it too strongly defended, hence John II moved the army southward to take nearby fortresses. On 11 October 1138, a deadly earthquake ravaged the city and the surrounding area. Although estimates from this time are very unreliable, it is believed that 230,000 people died, making it the seventh deadliest earthquake in recorded history. In 1183, Aleppo came under the control of Saladin and then

7198-411: The city are currently undergoing reconstruction. An estimated 31,000 people were killed in Aleppo during the conflict. Modern-day English-speakers commonly refer to the city as Aleppo . It was known in antiquity as Khalpe , Khalibon , and to the Greeks and Romans as Beroea ( Βέροια ). During the Crusades , and again during the Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon of 1923–1946, the name Alep

7320-448: The city as a vassal to Mitanni and was attacked by Tudhaliya I of the Hittites as a retaliation for his alliance to Mitanni. Later the Hittite king Suppiluliumas I permanently defeated Mitanni, and conquered Aleppo in the 14th century BC. Suppiluliumas installed his son Telepinus as king and a dynasty of Suppiluliumas descendants ruled Aleppo until the Late Bronze Age collapse . However, Talmi-Šarruma, grandson of Suppiluliumas I, who

7442-433: The city to Sultan Malik-Shah I . When the latter delayed his arrival, Hassan contacted the Sultan's brother Tutush. However, after Tutush defeated Suleiman ibn Qutulmish , who had intended to take Aleppo for himself, in the battle of Ain Salm , Hassan went back on his commitment. In response, Tutush attacked the city and managed to get hold of parts of the walls and towers in July 1086, but he left in September, either due to

SECTION 60

#1732869966152

7564-418: The city, and his brother Khwaja Sanos Chelebi , who monopolized Aleppine silk trade and were important patrons of the Armenians. However, the prosperity Aleppo experienced in the 16th and 17th century started to fade as silk production in Iran went into decline with the fall of the Safavid dynasty in 1722. By mid-century, caravans were no longer bringing silk from Iran to Aleppo, and local Syrian production

7686-416: The coasts of Abyssinia and in the neighborhood of Sindh in the Bay of Debal (modern Karachi , Pakistan ), and hardly ever a ship was known to escape their fury. After drifting for the entire night and day that followed, the water finally rose, the storm somewhat abated, and the ship veered right round. The next morning the fleet of Seydi Ali Reis slackened speed and drew in the sails. A stalwart sailor

7808-399: The coasts of Djash , in the province of Kerman , Iran . Despite the length of the coast, Seydi Ali Reis could find no harbour, and the Ottoman galleys roamed about for two days before they reached Kish-i Mehran . As the evening was far advanced the Ottomans could not land immediately, but had to spend another night at sea. In the morning, a dry wind carried off many of the crew, and at last,

7930-414: The compass, information on stars, sun and moon calendars, wind and sea currents, as well as portolan information regarding the ports, harbours, coastal settlements and islands in the various regions of the Ottoman Empire . His books are translated into numerous languages including English , French , Italian , German , Greek , Arabic , Persian , Urdu , Russian and Bengali and are considered among

8052-432: The conclusion that the country ruled by Taita was called Palistin . This country extended in the 11th-10th centuries BC from the Amouq Valley in the west to Aleppo in the east down to Maharda and Shaizar in the south. Due to the similarity between Palistin and Philistines, Hittitologist John David Hawkins (who translated the Aleppo inscriptions) hypothesizes a connection between the Syro-Hittite states Palistin and

8174-401: The consulate of England in 1583 and the consulate of the Netherlands in 1613. The Armenian community of Aleppo also rose to prominence in this period as they moved into the city to take up trade and developed the new quarter of Judayda. The most outstanding among Aleppine Armenian merchants during the late 16th and early 17th centuries were Khwaja Petik Chelebi , the richest merchant in

8296-408: The death of Kitbuqa, but after a fortnight could make no other progress and had to retreat. The Mamluk governor of the city became insubordinate to the central Mamluk authority in Cairo, and in Autumn 1261 the Mamluk leader Baibars sent an army to reclaim the city. In October 1271, the Mongols led by general Samagar took the city again, attacking with 10,000 horsemen from Anatolia , and defeating

8418-401: The famous Ottoman admiral and cartographer Piri Reis and admiral Koca Murat Reis , who had also participated in the Battle of Preveza in 1538. Seydi Ali Reis departed from Aleppo on 7 December 1553 and, after visiting numerous religious sites and important cities in the region, finally arrived at Basra on the Persian Gulf towards the beginning of February 1554. His mission was to take

8540-424: The federation was Subhi Barakat , an Antioch -born politician from Aleppo. The federation ended in December 1924, when France merged Aleppo and Damascus into a single Syrian State and separated the Alawite State again. This action came after the federation decided to merge the three federated states into one and to take steps encouraging Syria's financial independence, steps which France viewed as too much. When

8662-416: The finest literary works dating from the Ottoman period. Seydi Ali Reis was born in the Galata across the Golden Horn from Constantinople as the son of a Turkish family which had its origins in Sinop on the Black Sea coast of Turkey . His grandfather was the Tersâne Kethüdâsı (Commander of the Ottoman Imperial Naval Arsenal ) during the reign of Sultan Mehmed II , while his father, Hüseyin Reis,

8784-412: The forces of Seydi Ali Reis approached the harbor of Sheba . There the Ottomans came across a brigantine, laden with spoils, whose watchman sighted and hailed the Ottoman galleys. The captain of the brigantine supplied the ships of Seydi Ali Reis with water, invigorating the Ottoman soldiers who had completely run out of supplies. Escorted by the brigantine's captain, the galleys of Seydi Ali Reis entered

8906-566: The former Emir of Homs , al-Ashraf , and a Mongol garrison was established in the city. Some of the spoils were also given to Hethum I for his assistance in the attack. The Mongol Army then continued on to Damascus , which surrendered, and the Mongols entered the city on 1 March 1260. In September 1260, the Egyptian Mamluks negotiated for a treaty with the Franks of Acre which allowed them to pass through Crusader territory unmolested, and engaged

9028-542: The fringes of the Syrian Desert , had neither enough fertile land nor access to sea. Basically, Gouraud wanted to satisfy Aleppo by giving it control over most of the agricultural and mineral wealth of Syria so that it would never want to unite with Damascus again. The limited economic resources of the Syrian states made the option of completely independent states undesirable for France, because it threatened an opposite result:

9150-533: The future Mughal emperor Akbar , who was 12 years old at the time. He returned to the Ottoman Empire over Muslim states in South Asia ; Afghanistan , Central Asia , and Iran . But he delayed his return because of the war between the Ottoman Empire and the Safavid Empire in Iran. Finally, following the treaty of Amasya in 1555, he was able to return home and present his book Mirat ul Memalik about his journey to

9272-451: The harbour of Gwadar . The people there were Baluch and their chief was Malik Jelaleddin, the son of Malik Dinar. The Governor of Gwadar came on board Seydi Ali's ship and assured him of his unalterable devotion to Suleiman the Magnificent . He promised that henceforth, if at any time the Ottoman fleet should come to Hormuz, he would undertake to send 50 or 60 boats to supply them with provisions, and in every possible way to be of service to

9394-456: The idea of a united Syria after the Battle of Maysaloun . By separating Aleppo from Damascus, Gouraud wanted to capitalize on a traditional state of competition between the two cities and turn it into political division. The people in Aleppo were unhappy with the fact that Damascus was chosen as capital for the new nation of Syria. Gouraud sensed this sentiment and tried to address it by making Aleppo

9516-417: The idol-worshippers who dwelt there, the Ottomans drew in their sails and continued on their course. Meanwhile, the wind had risen again, and as the men had no control over the rudder, large handles had to be affixed with long double ropes fastened to them. Each rope was taken hold of by four men, and so with great exertion they managed to control the rudder. No one could keep on his feet on deck, so of course it

9638-518: The immigration of numerous "Levantine" (European-origin) families who dominated international trade. Aleppo's mixed commercial tribunal ( ticaret mahkamesi ), one of the first in the Ottoman Empire, was set up around 1855. Reference is made to the city in 1606 in William Shakespeare's Macbeth . The witches torment the captain of the ship the Tiger , which was headed to Aleppo from England and endured

9760-526: The inscription of Naram-Sim as Armi in the Eblaite tablets is heavily debated, as there was no Akkadian annexation of Ebla or northern Syria. In the Old Babylonian and Old Assyrian Empire period, Aleppo's name appears in its original form as Ḥalab (Ḥalba) for the first time. Aleppo was the capital of the important Amorite dynasty of Yamḥad . The kingdom of Yamḥad (c. 1800–1525 BC), alternatively known as

9882-566: The lands of the Timurid Mughal Sultan Humayun , who hosted them with similar hospitality and politeness, whose equally generous work offer was kindly refused by Seydi Ali Reis and his men. In February 1556 Seydi Ali Reis departed for Kabul , from where he headed first to Semerkand and later to Bukhara , where his men were attacked by a group of Uzbeks . Despite this initial hostility across Transoxiana , Seydi Ali Reis and his men were warmly welcomed and hosted for 15 days by

10004-659: The later years of the century, creating a long-running famine which by 1798 killed half of its inhabitants." The economy of Aleppo was badly hit by the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869. This, in addition to political instability that followed the implementation of significant reforms in 1841 by the central government, contributed to Aleppo's decline and the rise of Damascus as a serious economic and political competitor with Aleppo. The city nevertheless continued to play an important economic role and shifted its commercial focus from long-distance caravan trade to more regional trade in wool and agricultural products. This period also saw

10126-413: The mainland. Many of his crewmen decided to stay there and enter the service of Malik Esed, and Seydi Ali Reis sailed to Surat with the few loyal crewmen who remained on board of his ship. They reached Surat 3 full months after departing from Basra . Seydi Ali Reis established good relations with Sultan Ahmad Shah III , the 12-year-old new ruler of Gujarat whose ascension to the throne was challenged by

10248-488: The modern city occupies its ancient site. The earliest occupation of the site was around 8,000 BC, as shown by excavations in Tallet Alsauda. Aleppo appears in historical records as an important city much earlier than Damascus . The first record of Aleppo comes from the third millennium BC, in the Ebla tablets when Aleppo was referred to as Ha-lam (𒄩𒇴). Some historians, such as Wayne Horowitz , identify Aleppo with

10370-400: The name derives from Hebrew : חלב , lit.   'milk' or Arabic : ḥaleb , lit.   'milk' because Abraham milked his sheep there to feed the poor. From the 11th century, it was common Rabbinic usage to apply the term " Aram-Zobah " to the area of Aleppo, and many Syrian Jews continue to do so. Aleppo has scarcely been touched by archaeologists, since

10492-435: The pilot suddenly exclaimed: "On your guard! a whirlpool in front!" the anchors were quickly lowered, but the ship was dragged down with great force and nearly submerged. The rowers had left their seats, the panic-stricken crew threw off their clothes, and, clinging some to casks and some to jacks, had taken leave of one another. Seydi Ali Reis also stripped entirely, gave his slaves their liberty, and vowed to give 100 florins to

10614-412: The poor of Mecca in case of survival. By that time two more anchors broke off and were lost, the ship gave a terrible jerk, and in another instant they were clear of the breakers. The pilot declared that, had they been wrecked off Fisht-Kidsur, a place between Diu and Daman , nothing could have saved them. Once more the sails were set, and Seydi Ali Reis decided to head towards India - duly taking note of

10736-560: The power vacuum in the region, Baratarna , king of the Hurrian kingdom of Mitanni instigated a rebellion that ended the life of Yamhad's last king Ilim-Ilimma I in c. 1525 BC, Subsequently, Parshatatar conquered Aleppo and the city found itself on the frontline in the struggle between the Mitanni, the Hittites and Egypt . Niqmepa of Alalakh who descends from the old Yamhadite kings controlled

10858-627: The province (as well as the Kurds) supported the Turks in this war against the French, including the leader of the Hananu Revolt , Ibrahim Hananu , who directly coordinated with Atatürk and received weaponry from him. The outcome, however, was disastrous for Aleppo, because as per the Treaty of Lausanne , most of the Province of Aleppo was made part of Turkey with the exception of Aleppo and Alexandretta ; thus, Aleppo

10980-765: The ranks of Azepler Kâtibi , Tersâne Kethüdâsı (Commander of the Ottoman Imperial Naval Arsenal) and Hassa Donanma Reisi (Commander of the Ottoman Central Fleet). While Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent was at his winter residence in Aleppo towards the end of 1552, he appointed Seydi Ali Reis as the new Commander of the Ottoman Indian Ocean Fleet, based in Suez ( Egypt ), with other homeports in Aden ( Yemen ) and Basra ( Iraq ). His predecessors in this rank included

11102-502: The result was respected. This was the last time that independence was proposed for Aleppo. Bad economic situation of the city after the separation of the northern countryside was exacerbated further in 1939 when Alexandretta was annexed to Turkey as Hatay State , thus depriving Aleppo of its main port of Iskenderun and leaving it in total isolation within Syria. The increasing disagreements between Aleppo and Damascus led eventually to

11224-465: The ruler of Bukhara, Seid Burhan. Seydi Ali Reis later headed to Khwarezm , Khorasan , Iraq and Anatolia , finally reaching Constantinople after two years and three months of voyage since their departure from Surat in India . Once in Constantinople, Seydi Ali Reis wanted to reach Suleiman the Magnificent and declare his apologies for the natural disaster that his fleet had to deal with. Learning that

11346-578: The same. At last their pent-up feelings burst forth and they argued as follows: "It is now nearly two years since we have received any pay, our goods are lost, and the ships dismantled; the hulks are old, and our return to Egypt is practically made impossible." The end was that the greater part of the crewmen of Seydi Ali Reis took service in Gujarat, where they decided to stay. The deserted ships, with all their tools and implements, were given over to Khudavend Khan, under condition that he should immediately remit to

11468-532: The see for over 50 years and was at the First Council of Constantinople in 381 and the Council of Ephesus in 431. In 438, he was succeeded by Theoctistus, who participated in the Council of Chalcedon in 451 and was a signatory of the joint letter that the bishops of the province of Syria Prima sent in 458 to Emperor Leo I the Thracian about the murder of Proterius of Alexandria . In 518, Emperor Justin I exiled

11590-532: The situation. This decline may have helped to preserve the old city of Aleppo, its medieval architecture and traditional heritage. It won the title of the Islamic Capital of Culture 2006 and has had a wave of successful restorations of its historic landmarks. The battle of Aleppo occurred in the city during the Syrian Civil War , and many parts of the city had suffered massive destruction. Affected parts of

11712-645: The split of the National Block into two factions: the National Party , established in Damascus in 1946, and the People's Party , established in Aleppo in 1948 by Rushdi al-Kikhya , Nazim Qudsi and Mustafa Bey Barmada . An underlying cause of the disagreement, in addition to the union with Iraq, was Aleppo's intention to relocate the capital from Damascus. The issue of the capital became an open debate matter in 1950 when

11834-488: The states collapsing and being forced back into unity. This was why France proposed the idea of a Syrian federation that was realized in 1923. Initially, Gouraud envisioned the federation as encompassing all the states, even Lebanon. In the end however, only three states participated: Aleppo, Damascus , and the Alawite State . The capital of the federation was Aleppo at first, but it was relocated to Damascus. The president of

11956-609: The sultan in 1557. This book is now considered one of the earliest travel books in Ottoman literature . Aleppo Aleppo ( / ə ˈ l ɛ p oʊ / ə- LEP -oh ; Arabic : ﺣَﻠَﺐ , ALA-LC : Ḥalab , IPA: [ˈħalab] ) is a city in Syria , which serves as the capital of the Aleppo Governorate , the most populous governorate of Syria . With an estimated population of 2,098,000 residents as of 2021, it

12078-485: The third day of the fighting, Seydi Ali Reis and his men -who were left behind- were attacked by the Portuguese captains of Goa, Diu, Shiyul, Besai, and the Provador; five in all, commanding 7 large galleons and 80 other ships. The Ottoman fleet went ashore, pitched their tents, and threw up entrenchments; for two whole months Seydi Ali Reis and his men were busy preparing for battle. The tyrant Nasir-ul-Mulk, who had joined with

12200-449: The tides and currents, and having made a careful study of the charts, he had come to the conclusion that they could not be very far off from the Indian mainland. He examined the hold of the ship and found that the storeroom was submerged, in some places up to the walls, in some places higher still. They had shipped much water, and all hands set to work at once to bale it out. In one or two places

12322-570: The trade route between Anatolia and the east, Aleppo rose to high prominence in the Ottoman era, at one point being second only to Constantinople in the empire. By the middle of the 16th century, Aleppo had displaced Damascus as the principal market for goods coming to the Mediterranean region from the east. This is reflected by the fact that the Levant Company of London , a joint-trading company founded in 1581 to monopolize England's trade with

12444-475: The union with Damascus. Syrian nationalists had waged a massive anti-secession public campaign that vigorously mobilized the people against the secession plan, thus leaving the pro-French politicians no choice but to support the union. The result was a big embarrassment for France, which wanted the secession of Aleppo to be a punitive measure against Damascus, which had participated in the Syrian Revolt, however,

12566-413: The usurper was wounded, Hasan Ehan, one of his adherents, killed, and his army put to fight. As Sultan Ahmed reascended his throne, and, as Nasir-ul-Mulk died of vexation over his misfortunes, peace was once more restored in Gujarat. When the Portuguese heard of this, they sent an envoy to Khudavand Khan to say that they did not mind so much about Surat, but that their hostility was chiefly directed towards

12688-618: The west arose a great storm known as the Fil Tufanı (Elephant Typhoon). The Ottoman fleet were driven back and were unable to set the sails, not even the trinquetla (stormsail). Night and day were both alike, and because of the frailty of the ships all ballast had to be thrown overboard. For ten days the storm raged continuously and the rain came down in torrents. Seydi Ali Reis did all he could to encourage and cheer his companions, and advised them above all things to be brave, and never to doubt that all would end well. A welcome diversion occurred in

12810-544: The withdrawal of the Mongols, all the Muslim population returned to Aleppo. On the other hand, Christians who left the city during the Mongol invasion, were unable to resettle back in their own quarter in the old town, a fact that led them to establish a new neighbourhood in 1420, built at the northern suburbs of Aleppo outside the city walls, to become known as al-Jdeydeh quarter ("new district" Arabic: جديدة ). Aleppo became part of

12932-505: The worst. It seemed a miracle that of the 3 ships lying there, thrown on their sides, the whole crew eventually got safely to land. After landing at Gujarat, Seydi Ali Reis proceeded to the Fortress of Daman and received permission from Malik Esed, the Governor of Daman to whom he accepted to leave the armament of his ships, the permission for himself and his men to freely roam the coastline and

13054-593: Was captured by Prince Feisal 's Sherifial Forces and the 5th Cavalry Division of the Allied forces from the Ottoman Empire during the World War I . At the end of war, the Treaty of Sèvres made most of the Province of Aleppo part of the newly established nation of Syria , while Cilicia was promised by France to become an Armenian state. However, Kemal Atatürk annexed most of the Province of Aleppo as well as Cilicia to Turkey in his War of Independence . The Arab residents in

13176-463: Was Syria's largest city until its population was surpassed by Damascus , the capital of Syria, the largest city in Syria's northern governorates and also one of the largest cities in the Levant region. Aleppo is one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world ; it may have been inhabited since the sixth millennium BC. Excavations at Tell as-Sawda and Tell al-Ansari, just south of

13298-605: Was an accomplished poet. Within time he became a high-ranking officer at the naval arsenal and was promoted to the rank of Reis (used both for Captain and Admiral during the Ottoman period). Starting from the Siege of Rhodes (1522) , Seydi Ali Reis participated in every major naval campaign of the Ottoman Navy in the Mediterranean Sea . He commanded the left wing of the Ottoman fleet of Hayreddin Barbarossa Pasha which defeated

13420-483: Was borne ashore by the rapidly rising tide. Seydi Ali Reis and his men were obliged to lie for another five days and five nights, exposed to a strong spring-tide, accompanied by floods of rain; for they were now in the monsoon , or "rainy season" of India, and there was nothing for it but to submit to their fate. During all this time they never once saw the sun by day, nor the stars by night; they could neither use their clocks nor their compasses, and all on board anticipated

13542-644: Was cut from its northern satellites and from the Anatolian cities beyond on which Aleppo depended heavily in commerce. Moreover, the Sykes-Picot division of the Near East separated Aleppo from most of Mesopotamia , which also harmed the economy of Aleppo. The State of Aleppo was declared by French General Henri Gouraud in September 1920 as part of a French plan to make Syria easier to administer by dividing it into several smaller states. France became more concerned about

13664-417: Was diverted to sea and Aleppo began its slow decline. At the fall of the Ottoman Empire after World War I , Aleppo lost its northern hinterland to modern Turkey , as well as the important Baghdad Railway connecting it to Mosul . In the 1940s, it lost its main access to the sea, by Antakya and İskenderun , also to Turkey. The growth in importance of Damascus in the past few decades further exacerbated

13786-447: Was favourable as the Ottoman fleet sailed towards Khorfakkan , where Seydi Ali Reis replenished his ships with water, before reaching Oman ( Sohar ). Seventeen days after the encounter with the Portuguese fleet, Seydi Ali Reis reached Muscat and Qalhat on the night of Kadir Gecesi , an important night in the holy month of Ramadan . In the morning that followed, Captain Kuya, the son of

13908-400: Was impossible to walk across. The noise was deafening; and the crewmen could not hear their own voices. The only means of communication with the sailors was by inarticulate words, and neither the captain nor boatswain could for a single instant leave his post. After an exhausting voyage, Seydi Ali Reis and his men reached Gujarat in India - which part of it, however, they did not know. When

14030-494: Was in the hands of the Fatimid commander-in-chief in Syria, Anushtakin al-Dizbari , and in 1057–1060, when it was ruled by a Fatimid governor, Ibn Mulhim . Mirdasid rule was marked by internal squabbles between different Mirdasid chieftains that sapped the emirate's power and made it susceptible to external intervention by the Byzantines, Fatimids, Uqaylids , and Turkoman warrior bands. In late 1077, Seljuk emir Tutush I launched

14152-788: Was incorporated into the Aramean realm of Bit Agusi , which held its capital at Arpad . Bit Agusi along with Aleppo and the entirety of the Levant was conquered by the Assyrians in the 8th century BC and became part of the Neo-Assyrian Empire during the reign of Tiglath-Pileser III until the late 7th century BC, before passing through the hands of the Neo-Babylonians and the Achaemenid Persians . The region remained known as Aramea and Eber Nari throughout these periods. Alexander

14274-462: Was insufficient for Europe's demand. European merchants left Aleppo and the city went into an economic decline that was not reversed until the mid-19th century when locally produced cotton and tobacco became the principal commodities of interest to the Europeans. According to Halil İnalcık , "Aleppo ... underwent its worst catastrophe with the wholesale destruction of its villages by Bedouin raiding in

14396-508: Was not conquered after receiving protection by forces of Aqsunqur al Bursuqi arriving from Mosul in January 1125. In 1128, Aleppo became capital of the expanding Zengid dynasty , which ultimately conquered Damascus in 1154. In 1138, Byzantine emperor John II Komnenos led a campaign, which main objective was to capture the city of Aleppo. On 20 April 1138, the Christian army including Crusaders from Antioch and Edessa launched an attack on

14518-722: Was the Kethüdâ (Commander) of the Bahriye Dârü's-Sınaası (Naval Industries Center) in Galata , at the northern shore of the Golden Horn . His father's career as a high-ranking seaman and naval engineer had an important influence on the future of Seydi Ali, who, at a young age, started working at the naval arsenal. Apart from his interest in seamanship, Seydi Ali also received a decent education on positive sciences such as mathematics, astronomy and geography. He also excelled in literature and theology, and

14640-538: Was the king of Aleppo, had fought on the Hittite side, along with king Muwatalli II during the Battle of Kadesh against the Egyptian army led by Ramesses II . Aleppo had cultic importance to the Hittites as the center of worship of the Storm-God . This religious importance continued after the collapse of the Hittite empire at the hands of the Assyrians and Phrygians in the 12th century BC, when Aleppo became part of

14762-459: Was tied to the mast, whereby the post at the foot of the mizzenmast was weighted down, and the sailrope slightly raised. Taking a survey of their surroundings, the sailor caught sight of an idol-temple on the coast of Djamher . The sails were drawn in a little more; the ships passed Formyan and Menglir , and directing their course toward Somnath , they passed by that place also. Finally Seydi Ali Reis came to Diu , but for fear of being attacked by

14884-619: Was used. Aleppo represents the Italianised version of this. The original ancient name, Ḥalab , has survived as the current Arabic name of the city. It is of obscure origin. Some have proposed that Ḥalab means "iron" or "copper" in the Amorite language since the area served as a major source of these metals in antiquity. Another possibility is that Ḥalab means 'white', as this is the word for 'white' in Aramaic. This may explain how Ḥalab became

#151848