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65-869: The Sexual Compulsivity Scale ( SCS ) - Sexual Sensation Seeking and Sexual Compulsivity Scale - is a psychometric measure of a high libido, hypersexuality and sexual addiction . It was developed by Seth Kalichman . It consists of statements that must be rated on how much the taker agrees with them. Scores on the SCS have been found to predict a range of health outcomes. Psychometric Practitioners are described as psychometricians, although not all who engage in psychometric research go by this title. Psychometricians usually possess specific qualifications, such as degrees or certifications, and most are psychologists with advanced graduate training in psychometrics and measurement theory. In addition to traditional academic institutions, practitioners also work for organizations such as

130-470: A granular level psychometric research is concerned with the extent and nature of multidimensionality in each of the items of interest, a relatively new procedure known as bi-factor analysis can be helpful. Bi-factor analysis can decompose "an item's systematic variance in terms of, ideally, two sources, a general factor and one source of additional systematic variance." Key concepts in classical test theory are reliability and validity . A reliable measure

195-404: A high school student's knowledge deduced from a less difficult test. Scores derived by classical test theory do not have this characteristic, and assessment of actual ability (rather than ability relative to other test-takers) must be assessed by comparing scores to those of a "norm group" randomly selected from the population. In fact, all measures derived from classical test theory are dependent on

260-433: A number of different forms of validity. Criterion-related validity refers to the extent to which a test or scale predicts a sample of behavior, i.e., the criterion, that is "external to the measuring instrument itself." That external sample of behavior can be many things including another test; college grade point average as when the high school SAT is used to predict performance in college; and even behavior that occurred in

325-455: A popular therapy of the time. Ernst Weber died in 1878 in Leipzig, Germany. Weber described the just-noticeable difference or jnd as follows: “in observing the disparity between things that are compared, we perceive not the difference between the things, but the ratio of this difference to the magnitude of things compared.” In other words, we are able to distinguish the relative difference, not

390-453: A professor at the University of Wittenberg. Weber became a doctor, specializing in anatomy and physiology. Two of his younger brothers, Wilhelm and Eduard, were also influential in academia, both as scientists with one specializing in physics and the other in anatomy. Ernst became a lecturer and a professor at the University of Leipzig and stayed there until his retirement. Ernst Heinrich Weber

455-695: A scientist who advanced the development of psychometrics. In 1859, Darwin published his book On the Origin of Species . Darwin described the role of natural selection in the emergence, over time, of different populations of species of plants and animals. The book showed how individual members of a species differ among themselves and how they possess characteristics that are more or less adaptive to their environment. Those with more adaptive characteristics are more likely to survive to procreate and give rise to another generation. Those with less adaptive characteristics are less likely. These ideas stimulated Galton's interest in

520-474: A series of experiments on the physics of fluids with his younger brother Wilhelm. This research was the first detailed account of hydrodynamic principles in the circulation of blood. Weber continued his research on blood and in 1827, he made another significant finding. Weber explained the elasticity of blood vessels in the movement of blood in the aorta in a continuous flow to the capillaries and arterioles. This technique helped map sensitivity and touch acuity on

585-422: A statistical thinking. Precisely here we see the cancer of testology and testomania of today." More recently, psychometric theory has been applied in the measurement of personality , attitudes , and beliefs , and academic achievement . These latent constructs cannot truly be measured, and much of the research and science in this discipline has been developed in an attempt to measure these constructs as close to

650-554: Is Wundt's influence that paved the way for others to develop psychological testing. In 1936, the psychometrician L. L. Thurstone , founder and first president of the Psychometric Society, developed and applied a theoretical approach to measurement referred to as the law of comparative judgment , an approach that has close connections to the psychophysical theory of Ernst Heinrich Weber and Gustav Fechner . In addition, Spearman and Thurstone both made important contributions to

715-429: Is a lack of consensus on appropriate procedures for determining the number of latent factors . A usual procedure is to stop factoring when eigenvalues drop below one because the original sphere shrinks. The lack of the cutting points concerns other multivariate methods, also. Multidimensional scaling is a method for finding a simple representation for data with a large number of latent dimensions. Cluster analysis

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780-488: Is adjusted with the Spearman–Brown prediction formula to correspond to the correlation between two full-length tests. Perhaps the most commonly used index of reliability is Cronbach's α , which is equivalent to the mean of all possible split-half coefficients. Other approaches include the intra-class correlation , which is the ratio of variance of measurements of a given target to the variance of all targets. There are

845-440: Is an "experience of divergence of two points when stimulation is moved over insensitive areas and convergence of two points when moved over sensitive areas". Weber’s use of multivariate experiment, precise measurements, and research on sensory psychology and sensory physiology laid the groundwork for accepting experimental psychology as a field and providing new ideas for fellow 19th century psychologists to expand. Weber's work on

910-519: Is an approach to finding objects that are like each other. Factor analysis, multidimensional scaling, and cluster analysis are all multivariate descriptive methods used to distill from large amounts of data simpler structures. More recently, structural equation modeling and path analysis represent more sophisticated approaches to working with large covariance matrices . These methods allow statistically sophisticated models to be fitted to data and tested to determine if they are adequate fits. Because at

975-449: Is considered one of the founders of experimental psychology . He was an influential and important figure in the areas of physiology and psychology during his lifetime and beyond. His studies on sensation and touch, along with his emphasis on good experimental techniques led to new directions and areas of study for future psychologists, physiologists, and anatomists. Ernst Weber was born into an academic background, with his father serving as

1040-401: Is difficult, and that such measurements are often misused by laymen, such as with personality tests used in employment procedures. The Standards for Educational and Psychological Measurement gives the following statement on test validity : "validity refers to the degree to which evidence and theory support the interpretations of test scores entailed by proposed uses of tests". Simply put, a test

1105-434: Is needed in order to tell a difference. Weber’s Law, as labeled by Gustav Theodor Fechner , established that sensory events can be related mathematically to measurable relative changes in physical stimulus values. Weber’s law is invalid when the stimulus approaches the upper or lower limits of a sensory modality. Fechner took inspiration from Weber’s Law and developed what we know today as Fechner’s Law, claiming that there

1170-632: Is no widely agreed upon theory. Some of the better-known instruments include the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory , the Five-Factor Model (or "Big 5") and tools such as Personality and Preference Inventory and the Myers–Briggs Type Indicator . Attitudes have also been studied extensively using psychometric approaches. An alternative method involves the application of unfolding measurement models,

1235-568: Is not valid unless it is used and interpreted in the way it is intended. Two types of tools used to measure personality traits are objective tests and projective measures . Examples of such tests are the: Big Five Inventory (BFI), Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI-2), Rorschach Inkblot test , Neurotic Personality Questionnaire KON-2006 , or Eysenck Personality Questionnaire . Some of these tests are helpful because they have adequate reliability and validity , two factors that make tests consistent and accurate reflections of

1300-430: Is often cited as the pioneer or father of experimental psychology. He was the first to conduct true psychological experiments that held validity. While most psychologists of the time conducted work from behind a desk, Weber was actively conducting experiments, manipulating only one variable at a time in order to gain more accurate results. This paved the way for the field of psychology as an experimental science and opened

1365-498: Is one that measures a construct consistently across time, individuals, and situations. A valid measure is one that measures what it is intended to measure. Reliability is necessary, but not sufficient, for validity. Both reliability and validity can be assessed statistically. Consistency over repeated measures of the same test can be assessed with the Pearson correlation coefficient, and is often called test-retest reliability. Similarly,

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1430-409: Is related to measures of other constructs as required by theory. Content validity is a demonstration that the items of a test do an adequate job of covering the domain being measured. In a personnel selection example, test content is based on a defined statement or set of statements of knowledge, skill, ability, or other characteristics obtained from a job analysis . Item response theory models

1495-444: Is that measurement is "the assignment of numerals to objects or events according to some rule." This definition was introduced in a 1946 Science article in which Stevens proposed four levels of measurement . Although widely adopted, this definition differs in important respects from the more classical definition of measurement adopted in the physical sciences, namely that scientific measurement entails "the estimation or discovery of

1560-620: The Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing , which describes standards for test development, evaluation, and use. The Standards cover essential topics in testing including validity, reliability/errors of measurement, and fairness in testing. The book also establishes standards related to testing operations including test design and development, scores, scales, norms, score linking, cut scores, test administration, scoring, reporting, score interpretation, test documentation, and rights and responsibilities of test takers and test users. Finally,

1625-545: The Educational Testing Service and Psychological Corporation . Some psychometric researchers focus on the construction and validation of assessment instruments, including surveys , scales , and open- or close-ended questionnaires . Others focus on research relating to measurement theory (e.g., item response theory , intraclass correlation ) or specialize as learning and development professionals. Psychological testing has come from two streams of thought:

1690-576: The Rasch model are employed, numbers are not assigned based on a rule. Instead, in keeping with Reese's statement above, specific criteria for measurement are stated, and the goal is to construct procedures or operations that provide data that meet the relevant criteria. Measurements are estimated based on the models, and tests are conducted to ascertain whether the relevant criteria have been met. The first psychometric instruments were designed to measure intelligence . One early approach to measuring intelligence

1755-581: The Standards cover topics related to testing applications, including psychological testing and assessment , workplace testing and credentialing , educational testing and assessment , and testing in program evaluation and public policy. In the field of evaluation , and in particular educational evaluation , the Joint Committee on Standards for Educational Evaluation has published three sets of standards for evaluations. The Personnel Evaluation Standards

1820-496: The Rasch model, and the broader class of models to which it belongs, was explicitly founded on requirements of measurement in the physical sciences. Psychometricians have also developed methods for working with large matrices of correlations and covariances. Techniques in this general tradition include: factor analysis , a method of determining the underlying dimensions of data. One of the main challenges faced by users of factor analysis

1885-491: The University of Wittenberg in 1811. He went on to receive his MD in 1815 from the University of Halle. Weber spent his entire academic career at the University of Leipzig. He completed his Habilitation in 1817 and became an assistant in J.C. Clarus ’ medical clinic in the same year. He became professor of comparative anatomy in 1818 and chair of human anatomy at the university in 1821. Ernst Weber’s first direct contribution to psychology came in 1834 when trying to describe

1950-458: The absolute difference between items. Or, we can distinguish between stimuli having a constant ratio, not a constant difference. This ratio is known as the Weber fraction. Weber’s first work with the jnd had to do with differences in weight. He stated that the jnd is the "minimum amount of difference between two weights necessary to tell them apart". He found that the finest discrimination between weights

2015-473: The accuracy topic. For example, the student accuracy standards help ensure that student evaluations will provide sound, accurate, and credible information about student learning and performance. Because psychometrics is based on latent psychological processes measured through correlations , there has been controversy about some psychometric measures. Critics, including practitioners in the physical sciences , have argued that such definition and quantification

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2080-436: The body using compass technique. Points of a compass would be set at varying distances in order to see at what distance are the points of the compass perceived as two separate points instead of one single point. Weber also wrote about and tested other ideas on sensation including a terminal threshold, which is the highest intensity an individual could sense before the sensation could not be detected any longer. Weber’s Illusion

2145-399: The central nervous system, auditory system, anatomy and function of brain, circulation, etc., and a large portion of research on sensory physiology and psychology. The following items are part of Weber’s contributions the experimental psychology : Studied flow and movement of waves in liquids and elastic tubes. Weber discovered laws and applied them to circulation. In 1821, Weber launched

2210-577: The committee also included several psychologists. The committee's report highlighted the importance of the definition of measurement. While Stevens's response was to propose a new definition, which has had considerable influence in the field, this was by no means the only response to the report. Another, notably different, response was to accept the classical definition, as reflected in the following statement: These divergent responses are reflected in alternative approaches to measurement. For example, methods based on covariance matrices are typically employed on

2275-440: The common sensibility") led E. B. Titchener to call the work "the foundation stone of experimental psychology". The book that described blood circulation research, Wellenlehre, auf Experimenten gegrϋndet (English: "Wave Theory, Founded on Experiments") became instantly recognized as very important to physics and physiology. This research lead the way for future investigating, although it was not formally published until 1850 with

2340-426: The culmination of the rest of his research on blood in a book entitled, Ueber die Anwendung der Wellenlehre auf die Lehre vom Kreislauf des Blutes und insbesondere auf die Pulslehre (English: "Concerning the application of the wave theory to the theory of the circulation of the blood and, in particular, on the pulse teaching"). Joint works with his brothers Wilhelm Eduard Weber and Eduard Friedrich Weber : Weber

2405-519: The development of modern tests. The origin of psychometrics also has connections to the related field of psychophysics . Around the same time that Darwin, Galton, and Cattell were making their discoveries, Herbart was also interested in "unlocking the mysteries of human consciousness" through the scientific method. Herbart was responsible for creating mathematical models of the mind, which were influential in educational practices for years to come. E.H. Weber built upon Herbart's work and tried to prove

2470-418: The disciplines is required. Kept independent, they can give only wrong answers or no answers at all regarding certain important problems." Psychometrics addresses human abilities, attitudes, traits, and educational evolution. Notably, the study of behavior, mental processes, and abilities of non-human animals is usually addressed by comparative psychology , or with a continuum between non-human animals and

2535-447: The early theoretical and applied work in psychometrics was undertaken in an attempt to measure intelligence . Galton often referred to as "the father of psychometrics," devised and included mental tests among his anthropometric measures. James McKeen Cattell , a pioneer in the field of psychometrics, went on to extend Galton's work. Cattell coined the term mental test , and is responsible for research and knowledge that ultimately led to

2600-440: The equivalence of different versions of the same measure can be indexed by a Pearson correlation , and is called equivalent forms reliability or a similar term. Internal consistency, which addresses the homogeneity of a single test form, may be assessed by correlating performance on two halves of a test, which is termed split-half reliability ; the value of this Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient for two half-tests

2665-417: The existence of a psychological threshold, saying that a minimum stimulus was necessary to activate a sensory system . After Weber, G.T. Fechner expanded upon the knowledge he gleaned from Herbart and Weber, to devise the law that the strength of a sensation grows as the logarithm of the stimulus intensity. A follower of Weber and Fechner, Wilhelm Wundt is credited with founding the science of psychology. It

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2730-421: The first, from Darwin , Galton , and Cattell , on the measurement of individual differences and the second, from Herbart , Weber , Fechner , and Wundt and their psychophysical measurements of a similar construct. The second set of individuals and their research is what has led to the development of experimental psychology and standardized testing. Charles Darwin was the inspiration behind Francis Galton,

2795-499: The most general being the Hyperbolic Cosine Model (Andrich & Luo, 1993). Psychometricians have developed a number of different measurement theories. These include classical test theory (CTT) and item response theory (IRT). An approach that seems mathematically to be similar to IRT but also quite distinctive, in terms of its origins and features, is represented by the Rasch model for measurement. The development of

2860-411: The name of universal psychometrics , has also been proposed. el pensamiento psicologico especifico, en las ultima decadas, fue suprimido y eliminado casi totalmente, siendo sustituido por un pensamiento estadistico. Precisamente aqui vemos el cáncer de la testología y testomania de hoy. Ernst Heinrich Weber Ernst Heinrich Weber (24 June 1795 – 26 January 1878) was a German physician who

2925-441: The past, for example, when a test of current psychological symptoms is used to predict the occurrence of past victimization (which would accurately represent postdiction). When the criterion measure is collected at the same time as the measure being validated the goal is to establish concurrent validity ; when the criterion is collected later the goal is to establish predictive validity . A measure has construct validity if it

2990-445: The premise that numbers, such as raw scores derived from assessments, are measurements. Such approaches implicitly entail Stevens's definition of measurement, which requires only that numbers are assigned according to some rule. The main research task, then, is generally considered to be the discovery of associations between scores, and of factors posited to underlie such associations. On the other hand, when measurement models such as

3055-535: The quality of any test as a whole within a given context. A consideration of concern in many applied research settings is whether or not the metric of a given psychological inventory is meaningful or arbitrary. In 2014, the American Educational Research Association (AERA), American Psychological Association (APA), and National Council on Measurement in Education (NCME) published a revision of

3120-664: The ratio of some magnitude of a quantitative attribute to a unit of the same attribute" (p. 358) Indeed, Stevens's definition of measurement was put forward in response to the British Ferguson Committee, whose chair, A. Ferguson, was a physicist. The committee was appointed in 1932 by the British Association for the Advancement of Science to investigate the possibility of quantitatively estimating sensory events. Although its chair and other members were physicists,

3185-409: The relationship between latent traits and responses to test items. Among other advantages, IRT provides a basis for obtaining an estimate of the location of a test-taker on a given latent trait as well as the standard error of measurement of that location. For example, a university student's knowledge of history can be deduced from his or her score on a university test and then be compared reliably with

3250-455: The rest of animals by evolutionary psychology . Nonetheless, there are some advocators for a more gradual transition between the approach taken for humans and the approach taken for (non-human) animals. The evaluation of abilities, traits and learning evolution of machines has been mostly unrelated to the case of humans and non-human animals, with specific approaches in the area of artificial intelligence . A more integrated approach, under

3315-404: The sample tested, while, in principle, those derived from item response theory are not. The considerations of validity and reliability typically are viewed as essential elements for determining the quality of any test. However, professional and practitioner associations frequently have placed these concerns within broader contexts when developing standards and making overall judgments about

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3380-559: The sensation of touch ( De Pulsu, Resorptione, Auditu et Tactu . Leipzig 1834). He was professor of physiology and anatomy from 1840 to 1866, and returned to the position of professor of anatomy from 1866 to 1871. In his later life, Weber became less involved in testing and experimenting, although he was still interested in sensory physiology. Ernst Heinrich Weber retired from the University of Leipzig in 1871. He continued to work with his brother, Eduard and their work with nerve stimulation and muscle suppression lead to inhibitory responses as

3445-427: The smallest distance between two points where a person determines that it is two points and not one, was Weber’s first discovery. Weber’s work made a significant impact on the field of experimental psychology , as he was one of the first scientist to test his ideas on humans. His meticulous notes and new ideas of testing subjects described in his book Der tastsinn und das gemeingefühl (English: "The sense of touch and

3510-491: The study of human beings and how they differ one from another and how to measure those differences. Galton wrote a book entitled Hereditary Genius which was first published in 1869. The book described different characteristics that people possess and how those characteristics make some more "fit" than others. Today these differences, such as sensory and motor functioning (reaction time, visual acuity, and physical strength), are important domains of scientific psychology. Much of

3575-597: The tactile senses was published in Latin as De Subtilitate Tactus (1834), and in German as Der Tastsinn und das Gemeingefühl in 1846. Both works were translated into English by Ross and Murray as E.H.Weber: The Sense of Touch (Academic Press, 1978) and reprinted as E.H.Weber on the Tactile Senses (Erlbaum, Taylor & Francis, 1996). Weber proposed there was a threshold of sensation in each individual. The two-point threshold ,

3640-414: The theory and application of factor analysis , a statistical method developed and used extensively in psychometrics. In the late 1950s, Leopold Szondi made a historical and epistemological assessment of the impact of statistical thinking on psychology during previous few decades: "in the last decades, the specifically psychological thinking has been almost completely suppressed and removed, and replaced by

3705-464: The true score as possible. Figures who made significant contributions to psychometrics include Karl Pearson , Henry F. Kaiser, Carl Brigham , L. L. Thurstone , E. L. Thorndike , Georg Rasch , Eugene Galanter , Johnson O'Connor , Frederic M. Lord , Ledyard R Tucker , Louis Guttman , and Jane Loevinger . The definition of measurement in the social sciences has a long history. A current widespread definition, proposed by Stanley Smith Stevens ,

3770-555: The underlying construct. The Myers–Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), however, has questionable validity and has been the subject of much criticism. Psychometric specialist Robert Hogan wrote of the measure: "Most personality psychologists regard the MBTI as little more than an elaborate Chinese fortune cookie." Lee Cronbach noted in American Psychologist (1957) that, "correlational psychology, though fully as old as experimentation,

3835-466: The way for the development of even more accurate and intense research methods. One of Weber’s greatest influences was on Gustav Fechner . Weber was appointed the Dozent of Psychology at the University of Leipzig the same year that Fechner enrolled. Weber’s work with sensation inspired Fechner to further the work and go on to develop Weber’s law. At the time of his sensation work, Weber did not fully realize

3900-477: Was a logarithmic relation between stimulus intensity and perceived intensity. Fechner’s Law was more advanced than Weber's Law, partly because Fechner had developed new methods for measuring just-noticeable differences in different sense modalities, making the measured results more accurate. For most of his career, Weber worked with his brothers, Wilhelm and Eduard, and partner Gustav Theodor Fechner. Throughout these working relationships, Weber completed research on

3965-460: Was born on 24 June 1795 in Wittenberg, Saxony, Holy Roman Empire. He was son to Michael Weber, a professor of theology at the University of Wittenberg. At a young age, Weber became interested in physics and the sciences after being heavily influenced by Ernst Chladni , a physicist often referred to as the “father of acoustics”. Weber completed secondary school at Meissen and began studying medicine at

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4030-635: Was published in 1988, The Program Evaluation Standards (2nd edition) was published in 1994, and The Student Evaluation Standards was published in 2003. Each publication presents and elaborates a set of standards for use in a variety of educational settings. The standards provide guidelines for designing, implementing, assessing, and improving the identified form of evaluation. Each of the standards has been placed in one of four fundamental categories to promote educational evaluations that are proper, useful, feasible, and accurate. In these sets of standards, validity and reliability considerations are covered under

4095-400: Was slower to mature. It qualifies equally as a discipline, however, because it asks a distinctive type of question and has technical methods of examining whether the question has been properly put and the data properly interpreted." He would go on to say, "The correlation method, for its part, can study what man has not learned to control or can never hope to control ... A true federation of

4160-619: Was the test developed in France by Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon . That test was known as the Test Binet-Simon  [ fr ] .The French test was adapted for use in the U. S. by Lewis Terman of Stanford University, and named the Stanford-Binet IQ test . Another major focus in psychometrics has been on personality testing . There has been a range of theoretical approaches to conceptualizing and measuring personality, though there

4225-525: Was when they differed by 8–10%. For example, if you were holding a 100 g block, the second block would need to weigh at least 108 g in order to be distinguishable. Weber also suspected that a constant fraction applied for all senses, but is different for each sense. When comparing the differences in line length, there must be at least 0.01 difference in order to distinguish the two. When comparing music pitch, there must be at least 0.006 vibrations per second difference. So for every sense, some increase in intensity

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