In psychology , libido ( / l ɪ ˈ b iː d oʊ / ; from the Latin libīdō , 'desire') is psychic drive or energy, usually conceived of as sexual in nature, but sometimes conceived of as including other forms of desire . The term libido was originally developed by Sigmund Freud , the pioneering originator of psychoanalysis . With direct reference to Plato's Eros, the term initially referred only to specific sexual desire , later expanded to the concept of a universal psychic energy that drives all instincts and whose great reservoir is the id . The libido - in its abstract core differentiated partly according to its synthesising, partly to its analytical aspect called life- and death-drive - thus becomes the source of all natural forms of expression: the behaviour of sexuality as well as striving for social commitment ( maternal love instinct etc.), skin pleasure , food, knowledge and victory in the areas of species- and self-preservation .
60-401: Sex drive refers to libido, a person's drive for sexual activity. Sex Drive may also refer to: Sex drive In common or colloquial usage, a person's overall sexual drive is often referred to as that person's "libido". In this sense, libido is influenced by biological, psychological, and social factors. Biologically, the sex hormones and associated neurotransmitters that act upon
120-457: A common etiology, but collectively remain poorly-understood and lack effective treatments. Multiple studies have shown that with the exception of bupropion (Wellbutrin), trazodone (Desyrel) and nefazodone (Serzone), antidepressants generally will lead to lowered libido. SSRIs that typically lead to decreased libido are fluoxetine (Prozac), paroxetine (Paxil), fluvoxamine (Luvox), citalopram (Celexa) and sertraline (Zoloft). Lowering
180-419: A conscious state, observed that the process was strikingly difficult, and he began to suspect that there was some sort of psychic mechanism intervening to prevent access to consciousness. The intensity of his struggles to get patients to recall past events led him to conclude that there was some force that "prevented them from becoming conscious and compelled them to remain unconscious", and which actively "pushed
240-584: A decrease in their libido as they age due to decreased productions in testosterone. The American Medical Association has estimated that several million US women have a female sexual arousal disorder , though arousal is not at all synonymous with desire, so this finding is of limited relevance to the discussion of libido. Some specialists claim that women may experience low libido due to some hormonal abnormalities such as lack of luteinising hormone or androgenic hormones, although these theories are still controversial. Psychological repression Repression
300-442: A desire for sex, but not have the opportunity to act on that desire, or may on personal, moral or religious reasons refrain from acting on the urge . Psychologically, a person's urge can be repressed or sublimated . Conversely, a person can engage in sexual activity without an actual desire for it. Multiple factors affect human sex drive, including stress, illness, pregnancy, and others. A 2001 review found that, on average, men have
360-410: A direct impact on a woman's interest in sex. According to her, testosterone levels rise gradually from about the 24th day of a woman's menstrual cycle until ovulation on about the 14th day of the next cycle, and during this period the woman's desire for sex increases consistently. The 13th day is generally the day with the highest testosterone levels. In the week following ovulation, the testosterone level
420-709: A healthy sex drive, but this may start to decline in the early to mid-70s. Older adults generally develop a reduced libido due to declining health and environmental or social factors. In contrast to common belief, postmenopausal women often report an increase in sexual desire and an increased willingness to satisfy their partner. Women often report family responsibilities, health, relationship problems, and well-being as inhibitors to their sexual desires. Aging adults often have more positive attitudes towards sex in older age due to being more relaxed about it, freedom from other responsibilities, and increased self-confidence. Those exhibiting negative attitudes generally cite health as one of
480-1101: A higher desire for sex than women. Certain psychological or social factors can reduce the desire for sex. These factors can include lack of privacy or intimacy , stress or fatigue , distraction, or depression. Environmental stress, such as prolonged exposure to elevated sound levels or bright light , can also affect libido. Other causes include experience of sexual abuse, assault, trauma, or neglect, body image issues, and anxiety about engaging in sexual activity. Individuals with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) may find themselves with reduced sexual desire. Struggling to find pleasure, as well as having trust issues, many with PTSD experience feelings of vulnerability, rage and anger, and emotional shutdowns, which have been shown to inhibit sexual desire in those with PTSD. Reduced sex drive may also be present in trauma victims due to issues arising in sexual function. For women, it has been found that treatment can improve sexual function, thus helping restore sexual desire. Depression and libido decline often coincide, with reduced sex drive being one of
540-506: A long-term decrease in libido and overall sexual function, sometimes lasting for months or years after users of these drugs have stopped taking them. These long-lasting effects have been classified as iatrogenic medical disorders, respectively termed post-retinoid sexual dysfunction/post-Accutane syndrome (PRSD/PAS), post-finasteride syndrome (PFS) and post-SSRI sexual dysfunction (PSSD) . These three disorders share many overlapping symptoms in addition to reduced libido, and are thought to share
600-594: A person's sex drive vary considerably. Some boys and girls will start expressing romantic or sexual interest by age 10–12. The romantic feelings are not necessarily sexual, but are more associated with attraction and desire for another. For boys and girls in their preteen years (ages 11–12), at least 25% report "thinking a lot about sex". By the early teenage years (ages 13–14), however, boys are much more likely to have sexual fantasies than girls. In addition, boys are much more likely to report an interest in sexual intercourse at this age than girls. Masturbation among youth
660-410: A survey of experimental literature on "the relationships between feeling and memory" in an attempt to determine the relevance of laboratory findings to "that aspect of the theory of repression which posits a relationship between hedonic tone and conscious memory." However, according to MacKinnon and Dukes, because Meltzer had an inadequate grasp of psychoanalytic writing he misinterpreted Freud's view that
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#1732880662250720-432: A woman feel aroused. Also, during these days, estrogen levels decline, resulting in a decrease of natural lubrication . Although some specialists disagree with this theory, menopause is still considered by the majority a factor that can cause decreased sexual desire in women. The levels of estrogen decrease at menopause and this usually causes a lower interest in sex and vaginal dryness which makes sex painful. However,
780-465: Is a cause of lack of libido in women due to the loss of iron during the period. Smoking tobacco, alcohol use disorder , and the use of certain drugs can also lead to a decreased libido. Moreover, specialists suggest that several lifestyle changes such as exercising, quitting smoking , lowering consumption of alcohol or using prescription drugs may help increase one's sexual desire. Some people purposefully attempt to decrease their libido through
840-449: Is a fundamental instinct that is innate in all humans. Freud pointed out that these libidinal drives can conflict with the conventions of civilised behavior, represented in the psyche by the superego . It is this need to conform to society and control the libido that leads to tension and anxiety in the individual, prompting the use of ego defenses which channel the psychic energy of the unconscious drives into forms that are acceptable to
900-405: Is a hallmark of mental wellbeing. One of the issues Freud struggled with was the status of the childhood "memories" recovered from repression in his therapy. He concluded that "these scenes from infancy are not always true. Indeed, they are not true in the majority of cases, and in a few of them they are the direct opposite of the historical truth". Controversy arose in the late 20th century about
960-431: Is a key concept of psychoanalysis , where it is understood as a defense mechanism that "ensures that what is unacceptable to the conscious mind, and would if recalled arouse anxiety , is prevented from entering into it." According to psychoanalytic theory , repression plays a major role in many mental illnesses , and in the psyche of the average person. American psychologists began to attempt to study repression in
1020-605: Is a repression (a "successful" one: through the new type of discharge, the old one has become superfluous)'. The psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan stressed the role of the signifier in repression — 'the primal repressed is a signifier' — examining how the symptom is 'constituted on the basis of primal repression, of the fall, of the Unterdrückung , of the binary signifier ... the necessary fall of this first signifier'. Family therapy has explored how familial taboos lead to 'this screening-off that Freud called "repression"', emphasising
1080-472: Is common, with prevalence among the population generally increasing until the late 20s and early 30s. Boys generally start masturbating earlier, with less than 10% boys masturbating around age 10, around half participating by age 11–12, and over a substantial majority by age 13–14. This is in sharp contrast to girls where virtually none are engaging in masturbation before age 13, and only around 20% by age 13–14. People in their 60s and early 70s generally retain
1140-430: Is correlated to her menstrual cycle , with many women experiencing a heightened sexual desire in the several days immediately before ovulation , which is her peak fertility period, which normally occurs two days before and until two days after the ovulation. This cycle has been associated with changes in a woman's testosterone levels during the menstrual cycle. According to Gabrielle Lichterman, testosterone levels have
1200-461: Is governed primarily by activity in the mesolimbic dopamine pathway ( ventral tegmental area and nucleus accumbens ). Consequently, dopamine and related trace amines (primarily phenethylamine ) that modulate dopamine neurotransmission play a critical role in regulating libido. Other neurotransmitters, neuropeptides, and sex hormones that affect sex drive by modulating activity in or acting upon this pathway include: A woman's desire for sex
1260-619: Is no "mechanism" that represses unwanted thoughts. Since "all consciousness is conscious of itself" we will be aware of the process of repression, even if skilfully dodging an issue. The philosopher Thomas Baldwin stated in The Oxford Companion to Philosophy (1995) that Sartre's argument that Freud's theory of repression is internally flawed is based on a misunderstanding of Freud. The philosopher Roger Scruton argued in Sexual Desire (1986) that Freud's theory of repression disproves
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#17328806622501320-462: Is not encouraged by the staff or other residents. Lack of privacy and resident gender imbalance are the main factors lowering desire. Generally, for older adults, being excited about sex, good health, sexual self-esteem and having a sexually talented partner can be factors. Sexual desire disorders are more common in women than in men, and women tend to exhibit less frequent and less intense sexual desires than men. Erectile dysfunction may happen to
1380-456: Is possible to implant false memories in individuals and that it is possible to "come to doubt the validity of therapeutically recovered memories of sexual abuse ... [as] confabulations ". However, criminal prosecutors continue to present them as evidence in legal cases. There is debate about the possibility of the repression of psychological trauma . While some evidence suggests that "adults who have been through overwhelming trauma can suffer
1440-430: Is showing that even after ending a hormonal contraceptive method, SHBG levels remain elevated and no reliable data exists to predict when this phenomenon will diminish. Oral contraceptives lower androgen levels in users, and lowered androgen levels generally lead to a decrease in sexual desire. However, usage of oral contraceptives has shown to typically not have a connection with lowered libido in women. Males reach
1500-436: Is the lowest and as a result women will experience less interest in sex. Also, during the week following ovulation, progesterone levels increase, resulting in a woman experiencing difficulty achieving orgasm . Although the last days of the menstrual cycle are marked by a constant testosterone level, women's libido may get a boost as a result of the thickening of the uterine lining which stimulates nerve endings and makes
1560-406: Is unchecked by any kind of authority, moral or otherwise. Libido is appetite in its natural state. From the genetic point of view it is bodily needs like hunger, thirst, sleep, and sex, and emotional states or affects, which constitute the essence of libido." It is "the energy that manifests itself in the life process and is perceived subjectively as striving and desire." Duality (opposition) creates
1620-404: The nucleus accumbens (primarily testosterone , estrogen , and dopamine , respectively) regulate sex drive in humans. Sexual drive can be affected by social factors such as work and family; psychological factors such as personality and stress; also by medical conditions, medications, lifestyle, relationship issues, and age. Sigmund Freud , who is considered the originator of the modern use of
1680-407: The oral stage (exemplified by an infant's pleasure in nursing), then the anal stage (exemplified by a toddler's pleasure in controlling his or her bowels), then the phallic stage , through a latency stage in which the libido is dormant, to its reemergence at puberty in the genital stage ( Karl Abraham would later add subdivisions in both oral and anal stages.). Failure to adequately adapt to
1740-463: The Freudian theory, leads to repression" and that they "failed to develop under laboratory control the experiences which are subsequently to be tested for recall". In MacKinnon and Dukes's view, psychologists who wanted to study repression in the laboratory "faced the necessity of becoming clear about the details of the psychoanalytic formulation of repression if their researches were to be adequate tests of
1800-658: The almost equally conflicting data on cannabis' effects on sex drive as well, which may be dosage or frequency-dependent, due to different amounts of distinct cannabinoids in the plant, or based on individual enzyme properties responsible for metabolism of the drug. Evidence on alcohol 's effects on testosterone however invariably show a clear decrease, however (like amphetamine, albeit to a lesser degree); temporary increases in libido and related sexual behavior have long been observed during alcohol intoxication in both sexes, but likely most noticeable with moderation, particularly in males. Additionally, men often also naturally experience
1860-399: The claim, made by Karl Popper and Ernest Nagel , that Freudian theory implies no testable observation and therefore does not have genuine predictive power , since the theory has "strong empirical content" and implies testable consequences. The psychoanalyst Otto Fenichel stressed that 'if the disappearance of the original aim from consciousness is called repression, every sublimation
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1920-454: The demands of these different stages could result in libidinal energy becoming 'dammed up' or fixated in these stages, producing certain pathological character traits in adulthood. Swiss psychiatrist Carl Gustav Jung identified the libido with psychic energy in general. According to Jung, 'energy', in its subjective and psychological sense, is 'desire', of which sexual desire is just one aspect. Libido thus denotes "a desire or impulse which
1980-708: The dosage of SSRI medications has been shown to improve libido in some patients. Other users try enrolling in psychotherapy to solve depression-related issues of libido. However, the effectiveness of this therapy is mixed, with many reporting that it had no or little effect on sexual drive. Testosterone is one of the hormones controlling libido in human beings. Emerging research is showing that hormonal contraception methods like oral contraceptive pills (which rely on estrogen and progesterone together) are causing low libido in females by elevating levels of sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG). SHBG binds to sex hormones, including testosterone, rendering them unavailable. Research
2040-427: The ego and superego. Excessive use of ego defenses results in neurosis , so a primary goal of psychoanalysis is to make the drives accessible to consciousness , allowing them to be addressed directly, thus reducing the patient's automatic resort to ego defenses. Freud viewed libido as passing through a series of developmental stages in the individual, in which the libido fixates on different erogenous zones: first
2100-464: The energy (or libido) of the psyche, which Jung asserts expresses itself only through symbols. These symbols may manifest as "fantasy-images" in the process of psychoanalysis, giving subjective expression to the contents of the libido, which otherwise lacks any definite form. Desire, conceived generally as a psychic longing, movement, displacement and structuring, manifests itself in definable forms which are apprehended through analysis. A person may have
2160-432: The evidence that active memory suppression actually leads to decreased memory. It was found that in people with a repressive coping strategy , the willful avoidance of remembering certain memory contents leads to a significant reduction in memory performance for these contents. In addition, healthy people were better able to do this than anxious or depressed people. These results indicate that forgetting induced by suppression
2220-433: The experimental laboratory around 1930. However, psychoanalysts were at first uninterested in attempts to study repression in laboratory settings, and later came to reject them. Most psychoanalysts concluded that such attempts misrepresented the psychoanalytic concept of repression. The founder of psychoanalysis, Sigmund Freud , in seeking to move away from hypnosis and towards encouraging patients to remember their past in
2280-551: The grounds that their experimental techniques and laboratory controls had not been fully adequate, the psychoanalysts rejected them on the more sweeping grounds that whatever else these researches might be they simply were not investigations of repression." They relate that in 1934, when Freud was sent reprints of Rosenzweig's attempts to study repression, he responded with a dismissive letter stating that "the wealth of reliable observations" on which psychoanalytic assertions were based made them "independent of experimental verification." In
2340-470: The influence of the superego and the pressure of the repressed impulses, leading to behavior that is irrational, self-destructive , or antisocial. A psychoanalyst may try to ameliorate this behavior by seeking to discover the repressed aspects of the patient's mental processes and reintroducing them to their conscious awareness - "assuming the role of mediator and peacemaker ... to lift the repression". The philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre maintained that there
2400-670: The last decade" have largely abandoned the term "repression", choosing instead to refer to the phenomenon as "perceptual defense". They argue that this change of terminology has had a major effect on how the phenomenon is understood, and that psychoanalysts, who had attacked earlier studies of repression, did not criticize studies of perceptual defense in a similar fashion, instead neglecting them. They concluded by noting that psychologists remained divided in their view of repression, some regarding it as well-established, others as needing further evidence to support it, and still others finding it indefensible. A 2020 meta-analysis of 25 studies examined
2460-420: The levels of testosterone increase at menopause and this may be why some women may experience a contrary effect of an increased libido. Physical factors that can affect libido include endocrine issues such as hypothyroidism , the effect of certain prescription medications (for example flutamide ), and the attractiveness and biological fitness of one's partner, among various other lifestyle factors. Anemia
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2520-460: The main reasons. Stereotypes about aging adults and sexuality often regard seniors as asexual beings, doing them no favors when they try to talk about sexual interest with caregivers and medical professionals. Non-western cultures often follow a narrative of older women having a much lower libido, thus not encouraging any sort of sexual behavior for women. Residence in retirement homes has effects on residents' libidos. In these homes, sex occurs, but it
2580-548: The male testes , potentially leading to markedly lowered sexual desire subsequently due to hypogonadism . However, in contrast to this, other stimulants such as cocaine and even caffeine appear to lack negative impacts on testosterone levels, and may even increase their concentrations in the body. Studies on cannabis however seem to be exceptionally mixed, with some claiming decreased levels on testosterone, others reporting increased levels, and with some showing no measurable changes at all. This varying data seems to coincide with
2640-573: The pathogenetic experiences in question out of consciousness." Freud gave the name of repression to this hypothetical process. He would later call the theory of repression "the corner-stone on which the whole structure of psychoanalysis rests" ("On the History of the Psycho-Analytic Movement"). The psychologist and founder of pedagogy , Johann Friedrich Herbart , whose ideas had influenced Freud's psychiatry teacher Theodor Meynert , had used
2700-423: The peak of their sex drive in their teenage years , while females reach it in their thirties. The surge in testosterone hits the male at puberty resulting in a sudden and extreme sex drive which reaches its peak at age 15–16, then drops slowly over their lifetime. In contrast, a female's libido increases slowly during adolescence and peaks in their mid-thirties. Actual testosterone and estrogen levels that affect
2760-507: The penis because of lack of sexual desire, but these two should not be confused since the two can commonly occur simultaneously. For example, moderate to large recreational doses of cocaine , amphetamine or methamphetamine can simultaneously cause erectile dysfunction (evidently due to vasoconstriction ) while still significantly increasing libido due to heightened levels of dopamine. Although conversely, excessive or very regular/repeated high-dose amphetamine use may damage leydig cells in
2820-538: The psychoanalyst Ernest Jones in the American Journal of Psychology in 1911. Like other psychologists who attempted to submit the claims of psychoanalysis to experimental test, they did not immediately try to develop new techniques for that purpose, instead conducting surveys of the psychological literature to see whether "experiments undertaken to test other theoretical assertions" had produced results relevant to assessing psychoanalysis. In 1930, H. Meltzer published
2880-408: The psychologist Saul Rosenzweig and his co-author G. Mason criticized Meltzer, concluding that the studies he reviewed suffered from two basic problems: that the studies "worked with hedonic tone associated with sensory stimuli unrelated to the theory of repression rather than with conative hedonic tone associated with frustrated striving, which is the only kind of 'unpleasantnesss' which, according to
2940-483: The purpose of repression is to avoid "unpleasure", taking the term to mean simply something unpleasant, whereas for Freud it actually meant deep-rooted anxiety. Nevertheless, Meltzer pointed out shortcomings in the studies he reviewed, and in MacKinnon and Dukes's view he also "recognized that most of the investigations which he reviewed had not been designed specifically to test the Freudian theory of repression." In 1934,
3000-401: The repressed representative. In the primary repression phase, "it is highly probable that the immediate precipitating causes of primal repressions are quantitative factors such as ... the earliest outbreaks of anxiety, which are of a very intense kind". The child realizes that acting on some desires may bring anxiety . This anxiety leads to repression of the desire. When it is internalized,
3060-458: The same letter, Freud concluded that Rosenzweig's studies "can do no harm." MacKinnon and Dukes describe Freud's conclusion as a "first rather casual opinion", and state that most psychoanalysts eventually adopted a contrary view, becoming convinced that "such studies could indeed be harmful since they misrepresented what psychoanalysts conceived repression to be." Writing in 1962, MacKinnon and Dukes state that experimental studies "conducted during
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#17328806622503120-434: The sexual desires of any partner in a sexual relationship, if sustained and unresolved, may cause problems in the relationship . The infidelity of a partner may be an indication that a partner's changing sexual desires can no longer be satisfied within the current relationship. Problems can arise from disparity of sexual desires between partners, or poor communication between partners of sexual needs and preferences. Libido
3180-479: The status of such "recovered memories", particularly of child abuse, with many claiming that Freud had been wrong to ignore the reality of such recovered memories. While accepting "the realities of child abuse", the feminist Elaine Showalter considered it important that one "distinguishes between abuse remembered all along, abuse spontaneously remembered, abuse recovered in therapy, and abuse suggested in therapy". Memory researcher Elizabeth Loftus has shown that it
3240-544: The symptoms of depression . Those with depression often report the decline in libido to be far reaching and more noticeable than other symptoms. In addition, those with depression often are reluctant to report their reduced sex drive, often normalizing it with cultural/social values, or by the failure of the physician to inquire about it. Sexual desires are often an important factor in the formation and maintenance of intimate relationships in humans. A lack or loss of sexual desire can adversely affect relationships. Changes in
3300-471: The term 'repression' as early as 1824, in a discussion of unconscious ideas competing to get into consciousness. Freud considered that there was "reason to assume that there is a primal repression , a first phase of repression, which consists in the psychical (ideational) representative of the instinct being denied entrance into the conscious", as well as a second stage of repression, repression proper (an "after-pressure"), which affects mental derivatives of
3360-403: The term, defined libido as "the energy, regarded as a quantitative magnitude... of those instincts which have to do with all that may be comprised under the word 'love'." It is the instinctual energy or force, contained in what Freud called the id , the strictly unconscious structure of the psyche . He also explained that it is analogous to hunger, the will to power, and so on insisting that it
3420-698: The theory" but soon discovered that "to grasp clearly even a single psychoanalytic concept was an almost insurmountable task." MacKinnon and Dukes attribute this situation to the way in which Freud repeatedly modified his theory "without ever stating clearly just which of his earlier formulations were to be completely discarded, or if not discarded, how they were to be understood in the light of his more recent assertions." MacKinnon and Dukes write that, while psychoanalysts were at first only disinterested in attempts to study repression in laboratory settings, they later came to reject them. They comment that while "the psychologists had criticized each other's researches largely on
3480-399: The threat of punishment related to this form of anxiety becomes the superego , which intercedes against the desires of the id (which works on the basis of the pleasure principle ). Freud speculated that "it is perhaps the emergence of the super-ego which provides the line of demarcation between primal repression and after-pressure". Neurosis may occur when the personality develops under
3540-438: The usage of anaphrodisiacs . Aphrodisiacs, such as dopaminergic psychostimulants, are a class of drugs which can increase libido. On the other hand, a reduced libido is also often iatrogenic and can be caused by many medications, such as hormonal contraception , SSRIs and other antidepressants , antipsychotics , opioids , beta blockers and isotretinoin . Isotretinoin, finasteride and many SSRIs uncommonly can cause
3600-437: The way that 'keeping part of ourselves out of our awareness is a very active process ... a deliberate hiding of some feeling from our family'. According to the psychologist Donald W. MacKinnon and his co-author William F. Dukes, American psychologists began to attempt to study repression in the experimental laboratory around 1930. These psychologists were influenced by an exposition of the concept of repression published by
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