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89-424: 29, see text Serpula (also known as calcareous tubeworm , serpulid tubeworm , fanworm , or plume worm ) is a genus of sessile , marine annelid tube worms that belongs to the family Serpulidae . Serpulid worms are very similar to tube worms of the closely related sabellid family, except that the former possess a cartilaginous operculum that occludes the entrance to their protective tube after

178-405: A carotenoid pigment, is responsible for the bright red color of the crown of S. vermicularis . There are usually about 40 radioles in an adult. One of these radioles, called an operculum , is a highly specialized structure located on the dorsal part of the head. The operculum consists of a long, thick stalk with a cartilaginous , cone-shaped plug at the distal end. This plug can be used to seal

267-557: A species : see Botanical name and Specific name (zoology) . The rules for the scientific names of organisms are laid down in the nomenclature codes , which allow each species a single unique name that, for animals (including protists ), plants (also including algae and fungi ) and prokaryotes ( bacteria and archaea ), is Latin and binomial in form; this contrasts with common or vernacular names , which are non-standardized, can be non-unique, and typically also vary by country and language of usage. Except for viruses ,

356-416: A branchial "crown", a specialized mouth appendage which resembles a fan (for which the animals are given the name fanworms ). This crown, which can be extended for feeding and gas exchange, and rapidly retracted when threatened, consists of two bundles (one right and one left) of featherlike ' gills ', known as branchiae or radioles . Each of these bundles consists of a single row of radioles attached to

445-527: A branchial stalk and curved into a semicircle. These two semicircles form the funnel-shaped branchial crown. The mouth is at the apex of the funnel between the two branchial stalks. When extended, these heavily ciliated radioles trap particles of organic matter and transport it towards the mouth. While they are primarily feeding structures, the radioles also serve as respiratory organs. The radioles of different Serpula species are typically red, pink, or orange in color, with white transverse bands. Astaxanthin ,

534-643: A later homonym of a validly published name is a nomen illegitimum or nom. illeg. ; for a full list refer to the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants and the work cited above by Hawksworth, 2010. In place of the "valid taxon" in zoology, the nearest equivalent in botany is " correct name " or "current name" which can, again, differ or change with alternative taxonomic treatments or new information that results in previously accepted genera being combined or split. Prokaryote and virus codes of nomenclature also exist which serve as

623-621: A long time and redescribed as new by a range of subsequent workers, or if a range of genera previously considered separate taxa have subsequently been consolidated into one. For example, the World Register of Marine Species presently lists 8 genus-level synonyms for the sperm whale genus Physeter Linnaeus, 1758, and 13 for the bivalve genus Pecten O.F. Müller, 1776. Within the same kingdom, one generic name can apply to one genus only. However, many names have been assigned (usually unintentionally) to two or more different genera. For example,

712-427: A number of different steps within the carotenoid biosynthetic pathway. Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate and pyruvate , intermediates of photosynthesis , are converted to deoxy-D-xylulose 5-phosphate (DXP) catalyzed by DXP synthase (DXS). DXP reductoisomerase catalyzes the reduction by NADPH and subsequent rearrangement. The resulting MEP is converted to 4-(cytidine 5’-diphospho)-2-C-methyl-D-erythritol (CDP-ME) in

801-409: A reference for designating currently accepted genus names as opposed to others which may be either reduced to synonymy, or, in the case of prokaryotes, relegated to a status of "names without standing in prokaryotic nomenclature". An available (zoological) or validly published (botanical) name that has been historically applied to a genus but is not regarded as the accepted (current/valid) name for

890-461: A single enzyme, the bacterial phytoene desaturase (CRTI) for the catalysis. Plants and cyanobacteria however utilize four enzymes for this process. The first of these enzymes is a plant-type phytoene desaturase which introduces two additional double bonds into 15-cis-phytoene by dehydrogenation and isomerizes two of its existing double bonds from trans to cis producing 9,15,9’-tri-cis-ζ-carotene. The central double bond of this tri-cis-ζ-carotene

979-401: A special blood supply. The body surface in the larger serpulids, like Serpula , has a rich blood supply, and the water in contact with this surface is constantly renewed. It seems probable that the outer body surface of serpulids serves as a respiratory membrane , supplying oxygen to the underlying muscles by diffusion . The biochemistry of the blood of Serpula is especially unusual in that

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1068-427: A taxon; however, the names published in suppressed works are made unavailable via the relevant Opinion dealing with the work in question. In botany, similar concepts exist but with different labels. The botanical equivalent of zoology's "available name" is a validly published name . An invalidly published name is a nomen invalidum or nom. inval. ; a rejected name is a nomen rejiciendum or nom. rej. ;

1157-435: A tidal fashion. In the central circulatory system, the blood moves anteriorly from the tip of the abdomen to the front of the thorax through a sinus enveloping the alimentary canal , and posteriorly through a ventral blood vessel. The ventral vessel and the sinus communicate with each other by segmentally arranged ring vessels, and by a dorsal vessel, a transverse vessel, and a pair of circum esophageal vessels situated at

1246-455: A total of c. 520,000 published names (including synonyms) as at end 2019, increasing at some 2,500 published generic names per year. "Official" registers of taxon names at all ranks, including genera, exist for a few groups only such as viruses and prokaryotes, while for others there are compendia with no "official" standing such as Index Fungorum for fungi, Index Nominum Algarum and AlgaeBase for algae, Index Nominum Genericorum and

1335-407: Is a higher energy state and is essential in photoprotection. Light produces damaging species during photosynthesis, with the most damaging being reactive oxygen species (ROS). As these high energy ROS are produced in the chlorophyll the energy is transferred to the carotenoid’s polyene tail and undergoes a series of reactions in which electrons are moved between the carotenoid bonds in order to find

1424-402: Is a single branchial sinus through which blood flows in both directions, in a tidal fashion. The vessels of the peripheral system receive their blood from the central system, returning it back along the same channels (i.e., these channels serve in both afferent and efferent directions). The peripheral circulatory system has the following components: the two branchial vessels and their branches in

1513-468: Is a virulence factor with an antioxidant action that helps the microbe evade death by reactive oxygen species used by the host immune system. The basic building blocks of carotenoids are isopentenyl diphosphate (IPP) and dimethylallyl diphosphate (DMAPP). These two isoprene isomers are used to create various compounds depending on the biological pathway used to synthesize the isomers. Plants are known to use two different pathways for IPP production:

1602-441: Is cyclized; cyclization gives rise to carotenoid diversity, which can be distinguished based on the end groups. There can be either a beta ring or an epsilon ring, each generated by a different enzyme ( lycopene beta-cyclase [beta-LCY] or lycopene epsilon-cyclase [epsilon-LCY]). α-Carotene is produced when the all-trans lycopene first undergoes reaction with epsilon-LCY then a second reaction with beta-LCY; whereas β-carotene

1691-509: Is derived from herbicides applied to soil and binds to DXP synthase. This inhibits DXP synthase, preventing synthesis of DXP and halting the MEP pathway. The use of this toxin leads to lower levels of carotenoids in plants grown in the contaminated soil. Fosmidomycin , an antibiotic , is a competitive inhibitor of DXP reductoisomerase due to its similar structure to the enzyme. Application of said antibiotic prevents reduction of DXP, again halting

1780-437: Is directly related to their structure, especially the length of the conjugation. Xanthophylls are often yellow, giving their class name. Carotenoids also participate in different types of cell signaling. They are able to signal the production of abscisic acid , which regulates plant growth, seed dormancy , embryo maturation and germination , cell division and elongation, floral growth, and stress responses. The length of

1869-596: Is discouraged by both the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature and the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants , there are some five thousand such names in use in more than one kingdom. For instance, A list of generic homonyms (with their authorities), including both available (validly published) and selected unavailable names, has been compiled by the Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera (IRMNG). The type genus forms

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1958-455: Is eliminated from the CDP-ME2P molecule. MECDP is then converted to (e)-4-hydroxy-3-methylbut-2-en-1-yl diphosphate (HMBDP) via HMBDP synthase in the presence of flavodoxin and NADPH. HMBDP is reduced to IPP in the presence of ferredoxin and NADPH by the enzyme HMBDP reductase . The last two steps involving HMBPD synthase and reductase can only occur in completely anaerobic environments. IPP

2047-408: Is high in younger individuals, but this ratio reverses as the animal matures. Presumably this reflects a lower oxygen consumption in the adult worm, relative to the juveniles. Like other annelids, these worms possess well-developed nervous systems. The nervous system consists of a central brain in the upper part of the head, which is relatively large compared with that of other annelids. Extending from

2136-554: Is imperative that female birds carefully select high quality mates. Current literature supports the theory that vibrant carotenoid coloration is correlated with male quality—either though direct effects on immune function and oxidative stress, or through a connection between carotenoid metabolizing pathways and pathways for cellular respiration. It is generally considered that sexually selected traits, such as carotenoid-based coloration, evolve because they are honest signals of phenotypic and genetic quality. For instance, among males of

2225-400: Is isomerized by the zeta-carotene isomerase Z-ISO and the resulting 9,9'-di-cis-ζ-carotene is dehydrogenated again via a ζ-carotene desaturase (ZDS) . This again introduces two double bonds, resulting in 7,9,7’,9’-tetra-cis-lycopene. CRTISO , a carotenoid isomerase, is needed to convert the cis -lycopene into an all-trans lycopene in the presence of reduced FAD . This all-trans lycopene

2314-403: Is no correlation between consumption of foods high in carotenoids and vitamin A and the risk of Parkinson's disease . Humans and other animals are mostly incapable of synthesizing carotenoids, and must obtain them through their diet. Carotenoids are a common and often ornamental feature in animals. For example, the pink color of salmon , and the red coloring of cooked lobsters and scales of

2403-488: Is noted for appearing green in dilute solutions, though it appears light red when found in concentrated solutions. Its structure is very similar to erythrocruorin , each molecule being composed of more than a hundred interlinked 16-17 kDa myoglobin-like subunits arranged in a giant complex with a total weight exceeding 3600 kDa . This enormous macromolecule is free floating in the plasma, and not contained within red blood cells. The ratio of plasma hemoglobin to chlorocruorin

2492-513: Is produced by two reactions with beta-LCY. α- and β-Carotene are the most common carotenoids in the plant photosystems but they can still be further converted into xanthophylls by using beta-hydrolase and epsilon-hydrolase, leading to a variety of xanthophylls. It is believed that both DXS and DXR are rate-determining enzymes, allowing them to regulate carotenoid levels. This was discovered in an experiment where DXS and DXR were genetically overexpressed, leading to increased carotenoid expression in

2581-460: Is somewhat arbitrary. Although all species within a genus are supposed to be "similar", there are no objective criteria for grouping species into genera. There is much debate among zoologists about whether enormous, species-rich genera should be maintained, as it is extremely difficult to come up with identification keys or even character sets that distinguish all species. Hence, many taxonomists argue in favor of breaking down large genera. For instance,

2670-474: Is the type species , and the generic name is permanently associated with the type specimen of its type species. Should the specimen turn out to be assignable to another genus, the generic name linked to it becomes a junior synonym and the remaining taxa in the former genus need to be reassessed. In zoological usage, taxonomic names, including those of genera, are classified as "available" or "unavailable". Available names are those published in accordance with

2759-463: Is the tiny pygidium , on which the anus is located. A fecal groove extends the length of the ventral midline of the abdomen. The fecal groove spirals across to the dorsal position as it reaches the thoracic region. Vertical ciliary tracts in the grooves between adjacent abdominal segments move particles toward the abdominal fecal groove. Once in the abdominal fecal groove, further ciliary currents transport particulate matter (feces, gametes, etc.) from

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2848-414: Is then able to isomerize to DMAPP via IPP isomerase. Two GGPP molecules condense via phytoene synthase (PSY), forming the 15-cis isomer of phytoene . PSY belongs to the squalene/phytoene synthase family and is homologous to squalene synthase that takes part in steroid biosynthesis. The subsequent conversion of phytoene into all-trans- lycopene depends on the organism. Bacteria and fungi employ

2937-621: The International Code of Zoological Nomenclature ; the earliest such name for any taxon (for example, a genus) should then be selected as the " valid " (i.e., current or accepted) name for the taxon in question. Consequently, there will be more available names than valid names at any point in time; which names are currently in use depending on the judgement of taxonomists in either combining taxa described under multiple names, or splitting taxa which may bring available names previously treated as synonyms back into use. "Unavailable" names in zoology comprise names that either were not published according to

3026-799: The International Plant Names Index for plants in general, and ferns through angiosperms, respectively, and Nomenclator Zoologicus and the Index to Organism Names for zoological names. Totals for both "all names" and estimates for "accepted names" as held in the Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera (IRMNG) are broken down further in the publication by Rees et al., 2020 cited above. The accepted names estimates are as follows, broken down by kingdom: The cited ranges of uncertainty arise because IRMNG lists "uncertain" names (not researched therein) in addition to known "accepted" names;

3115-612: The Ochre Sea Star ( Pisaster ochraceous ). Serpula has lived since the Cretaceous period, according to fossils found in the Cretaceous Black Creek Formation of North Carolina . The funnel-shaped, symmetrical peristomium is fused with the prostomium to form the head, at the anterior end of the body. Worms of the genus Serpula have two photoreceptors or "eyespots" on the peristomium. The prostomium bears

3204-404: The platypus belongs to the genus Ornithorhynchus although George Shaw named it Platypus in 1799 (these two names are thus synonyms ) . However, the name Platypus had already been given to a group of ambrosia beetles by Johann Friedrich Wilhelm Herbst in 1793. A name that means two different things is a homonym . Since beetles and platypuses are both members of the kingdom Animalia,

3293-469: The French botanist Joseph Pitton de Tournefort (1656–1708) is considered "the founder of the modern concept of genera". The scientific name (or the scientific epithet) of a genus is also called the generic name ; in modern style guides and science, it is always capitalised. It plays a fundamental role in binomial nomenclature , the system of naming organisms , where it is combined with the scientific name of

3382-549: The ability to utilize these pigments for external coloration has evolved independently many times throughout avian evolutionary history. Carotenoid coloration exhibits high levels of sexual dimorphism , with adult male birds generally displaying more vibrant coloration than females of the same species. These differences arise due to the selection of yellow and red coloration in males by female preference . In many species of birds, females invest greater time and resources into raising offspring than their male partners. Therefore, it

3471-399: The animal has withdrawn into it. The most distinctive feature of worms of the genus Serpula is their colorful fan-shaped "crown". The crown, used by these animals for respiration and alimentation , is the structure that is most commonly seen by scuba divers and other casual observers. Following is a brief description of the cladistics and taxonomic classification of Serpula : While

3560-416: The anterior end of the thorax. The dorsal vessel in some of the larger serpulids, like Serpula , possesses a valve and a muscular sphincter , probably to prevent backflow of blood from the transverse vessel. The blood circulation in the periphery, especially the radiole, is especially unusual. Instead of venous and arterial blood flowing through afferent and efferent vessels within the radiole, there

3649-442: The base for higher taxonomic ranks, such as the family name Canidae ("Canids") based on Canis . However, this does not typically ascend more than one or two levels: the order to which dogs and wolves belong is Carnivora ("Carnivores"). The numbers of either accepted, or all published genus names is not known precisely; Rees et al., 2020 estimate that approximately 310,000 accepted names (valid taxa) may exist, out of

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3738-669: The bird species Parus major , the more colorfully ornamented males produce sperm that is better protected against oxidative stress due to increased presence of carotenoid antioxidants . However, there is also evidence that attractive male coloration may be a faulty signal of male quality. Among stickleback fish, males that are more attractive to females due to carotenoid colorants appear to under-allocate carotenoids to their germline cells. Since carotinoids are beneficial antioxidants, their under-allocation to germline cells can lead to increased oxidative DNA damage to these cells. Therefore, female sticklebacks may risk fertility and

3827-414: The blood contains not only hemoglobin, but also chlorocruorin . While all sabellids and serpulids employ chlorocruorin as an oxygen transport macromolecule, Serpula is the only genus that appears to possess both hemoglobin as well as chlorocruorin. Chlorocruorin is an oxygen-binding hemeprotein whose affinity for oxygen is weaker than that of most hemoglobins . A dichromatic compound, chlorocruorin

3916-514: The brain is a large ventral nerve cord running the length of the body. There are many supporting ganglia along the length of this cord (including pleural, pedal and cerebral ganglia), and a series of small nerves in each body segment. Signals transmitted through the pedal ganglia allow the worms to retract rapidly into their tube if threatened. Sexes are separate. Like other annelids, the coelom stores and provides nutrients for gametes. When they reproduce, they simply shed their gametes straight into

4005-418: The capillaries of the thoracic membrane and body wall continues, however. Under these circumstances, respiratory exchange is probably carried out between the blood in these vessels and the surrounding water, which is kept moving through the tube by vigorous pumping movements of the abdomen and also by the activity of the ciliary tracts. The well-developed longitudinal muscles of the body wall of serpulids lack

4094-590: The characteristic color to pumpkins , carrots , parsnips , corn , tomatoes , canaries , flamingos , salmon , lobster , shrimp , and daffodils . Over 1,100 identified carotenoids can be further categorized into two classes – xanthophylls (which contain oxygen) and carotenes (which are purely hydrocarbons and contain no oxygen). All are derivatives of tetraterpenes , meaning that they are produced from 8 isoprene units and contain 40 carbon atoms. In general, carotenoids absorb wavelengths ranging from 400 to 550 nanometers (violet to green light). This causes

4183-629: The compounds to be deeply colored yellow, orange, or red. Carotenoids are the dominant pigment in autumn leaf coloration of about 15-30% of tree species, but many plant colors, especially reds and purples, are due to polyphenols . Carotenoids serve two key roles in plants and algae: they absorb light energy for use in photosynthesis , and they provide photoprotection via non-photochemical quenching . Carotenoids that contain unsubstituted beta-ionone rings (including β-carotene , α-carotene , β-cryptoxanthin , and γ-carotene ) have vitamin A activity (meaning that they can be converted to retinol ). In

4272-435: The crown; the periesophageal vascular plexuses ; the vessels of the collar and lips; the vessels supplying the body wall, thoracic membrane, and parapodia . The single vessels in each radiole of the branchial crown, and the vessels of opercula, are all branches of the two branchial vessels. When the crown is retracted inside the tube, the radioles and operculum cease to function as a respiratory organ. The movement of blood in

4361-555: The cytosolic mevalonic acid pathway (MVA) and the plastidic methylerythritol 4-phosphate (MEP). In animals, the production of cholesterol starts by creating IPP and DMAPP using the MVA. For carotenoid production plants use MEP to generate IPP and DMAPP. The MEP pathway results in a 5:1 mixture of IPP:DMAPP. IPP and DMAPP undergo several reactions, resulting in the major carotenoid precursor, geranylgeranyl diphosphate (GGPP). GGPP can be converted into carotenes or xanthophylls by undergoing

4450-407: The depths of the tube, through the thoracic segment to the aperture where it can be released to the sea. Worms of the genus Serpula have a very unusual dual circulatory system, consisting of a central system of large vessels through which a continuous true circulation of blood is maintained, and also a peripheral system of small, predominantly blind-ending vessels which alternately empty and fill in

4539-468: The development of monoclonal antibodies to trans- lycopene it was possible to localise this carotenoid in different animal and human cells. Beta-carotene , found in pumpkins , sweet potato , carrots and winter squash , is responsible for their orange-yellow colors. Dried carrots have the highest amount of carotene of any food per 100-gram serving, measured in retinol activity equivalents (provitamin A equivalents). Vietnamese gac fruit contains

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4628-432: The disappearance of chlorophyll. Carotenoids are responsible for the brilliant yellows and oranges that tint deciduous foliage (such as dying autumn leaves ) of certain hardwood species as hickories , ash , maple , yellow poplar , aspen , birch , black cherry , sycamore , cottonwood , sassafras , and alder . Carotenoids are the dominant pigment in autumn leaf coloration of about 15-30% of tree species. However,

4717-482: The eye, lutein , meso -zeaxanthin , and zeaxanthin are present as macular pigments whose importance in visual function, as of 2016, remains under clinical research . Carotenoids are produced by all photosynthetic organisms and are primarily used as accessory pigments to chlorophyll in the light-harvesting part of photosynthesis. They are highly unsaturated with conjugated double bonds , which enables carotenoids to absorb light of various wavelengths . At

4806-421: The fatty tissues of animals, and exclusively carnivorous animals obtain the compounds from animal fat. In the human diet, absorption of carotenoids is improved when consumed with fat in a meal. Cooking carotenoid-containing vegetables in oil and shredding the vegetable both increase carotenoid bioavailability . The most common carotenoids include lycopene and the vitamin A precursor β-carotene. In plants,

4895-446: The form "author, year" in zoology, and "standard abbreviated author name" in botany. Thus in the examples above, the genus Canis would be cited in full as " Canis Linnaeus, 1758" (zoological usage), while Hibiscus , also first established by Linnaeus but in 1753, is simply " Hibiscus L." (botanical usage). Each genus should have a designated type , although in practice there is a backlog of older names without one. In zoology, this

4984-727: The generic name (or its abbreviated form) still forms the leading portion of the scientific name, for example, Canis lupus lupus for the Eurasian wolf subspecies, or as a botanical example, Hibiscus arnottianus ssp. immaculatus . Also, as visible in the above examples, the Latinised portions of the scientific names of genera and their included species (and infraspecies, where applicable) are, by convention, written in italics . The scientific names of virus species are descriptive, not binomial in form, and may or may not incorporate an indication of their containing genus; for example,

5073-519: The genus Serpula are benthic , sedentary suspension feeders . They secrete and inhabit a permanent calcareous tube attached to hard substrata. As they do not travel outside their tubes, these worms do not have any specialized appendages for swimming. Worms of the genus Serpula are commonly found attached to submerged rocks, shells, and even boats in many coastal areas around the world. They are found at depths ranging from intertidal to at least 800 meters. Predators include predatory starfish such as

5162-522: The genus Serpula are filter feeders , and possess a complete digestive system. Like other polychaetes, Serpula excrete with fully developed nephridia . Click here to see more photographs of various specimens of the genus Serpula . Genus The composition of a genus is determined by taxonomists . The standards for genus classification are not strictly codified, so different authorities often produce different classifications for genera. There are some general practices used, however, including

5251-517: The genus by taxonomists. Worldwide, very common. Pacific , Atlantic , and Indian oceans, Mediterranean Sea , North Sea , Red Sea . Species of the genus Serpula are common on the west coast of North America from Alaska to Baja California , but are rarely if ever found on the east coast of the United States . They are common in Europe and Africa . Like most tube-building polychaetes, worms of

5340-418: The head, between the upper lip and a median dorsal papilla. The anterior end of the fecal groove passes over it and urine is released from it into the waste current. Like all serpulids and sabellids, they have only a single pair of metanephridia , which empty via this nephridiopore. The thoracic region of the body consists of seven chaetigers (segments bearing chaetae). Chaetae are small appendages that aid

5429-401: The higher taxonomy is fairly well understood, the lower taxonomy within the genus Serpula is somewhat confusing, and not yet thoroughly worked out. Earlier sources have described as many as 77 different species and subspecies. However, there are currently only 29 recognized species in the genus Serpula . The number and names of these species may soon change as a result of an ongoing revision of

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5518-446: The highest known concentration of the carotenoid lycopene . Although green, kale , spinach , collard greens , and turnip greens contain substantial amounts of beta-carotene. The diet of flamingos is rich in carotenoids, imparting the orange-colored feathers of these birds. Reviews of preliminary research in 2015 indicated that foods high in carotenoids may reduce the risk of head and neck cancers and prostate cancer . There

5607-432: The idea that a newly defined genus should fulfill these three criteria to be descriptively useful: Moreover, genera should be composed of phylogenetic units of the same kind as other (analogous) genera. The term "genus" comes from Latin genus , a noun form cognate with gignere ('to bear; to give birth to'). The Swedish taxonomist Carl Linnaeus popularized its use in his 1753 Species Plantarum , but

5696-628: The largest component, with 23,236 ± 5,379 accepted genus names, of which 20,845 ± 4,494 are angiosperms (superclass Angiospermae). By comparison, the 2018 annual edition of the Catalogue of Life (estimated >90% complete, for extant species in the main) contains currently 175,363 "accepted" genus names for 1,744,204 living and 59,284 extinct species, also including genus names only (no species) for some groups. The number of species in genera varies considerably among taxonomic groups. For instance, among (non-avian) reptiles , which have about 1180 genera,

5785-406: The lizard genus Anolis has been suggested to be broken down into 8 or so different genera which would bring its ~400 species to smaller, more manageable subsets. Carotenoid Carotenoids ( / k ə ˈ r ɒ t ɪ n ɔɪ d / ) are yellow, orange, and red organic pigments that are produced by plants and algae , as well as several bacteria, archaea, and fungi . Carotenoids give

5874-403: The most (>300) have only 1 species, ~360 have between 2 and 4 species, 260 have 5–10 species, ~200 have 11–50 species, and only 27 genera have more than 50 species. However, some insect genera such as the bee genera Lasioglossum and Andrena have over 1000 species each. The largest flowering plant genus, Astragalus , contains over 3,000 species. Which species are assigned to a genus

5963-571: The most balanced (lowest energy) state for the carotenoid. Carotenoids defend plants against singlet oxygen , by both energy transfer and by chemical reactions. They also protect plants by quenching triplet chlorophyll. By protecting lipids from free-radical damage, which generate charged lipid peroxides and other oxidised derivatives, carotenoids support crystalline architecture and hydrophobicity of lipoproteins and cellular lipid structures, hence oxygen solubility and its diffusion therein. Like some fatty acids , carotenoids are lipophilic due to

6052-424: The multiple conjugated double bonds determines their color and photophysics. After absorbing a photon, the carotenoid transfers its excited electron to chlorophyll for use in photosynthesis. Upon absorption of light, carotenoids transfer excitation energy to and from chlorophyll . The singlet-singlet energy transfer is a lower energy state transfer and is used during photosynthesis. The triplet-triplet transfer

6141-428: The name could not be used for both. Johann Friedrich Blumenbach published the replacement name Ornithorhynchus in 1800. However, a genus in one kingdom is allowed to bear a scientific name that is in use as a generic name (or the name of a taxon in another rank) in a kingdom that is governed by a different nomenclature code. Names with the same form but applying to different taxa are called "homonyms". Although this

6230-399: The opening of the tube after the animal has retreated inside. The operculum, which is usually red in color, secretes a mucus which seems to possess antibiotic properties. It is not unusual for the animal to have two opercula. Both serpulid and sabellid worms have radioles, but sabellids (such as Sabella pavonina ) lack an operculum. A single median nephridiopore is located dorsally on

6319-550: The peristomium. These glands open onto the "ventral shields", which are wide glandular pads on the ventral side of the anterior thoracic segments. The ventral shields secrete organic material and use this, combined with the calcium secreted by the glands, to form a paste from which the tube is made. These white calcareous tubes are made of both calcite and aragonite . They are usually smooth with faint longitudinal ridges, curved but not strongly coiled, and are rarely more than 12 cm in length. The tube appears to be shaped by

6408-406: The presence of CTP using the enzyme MEP cytidylyltransferase. CDP-ME is then converted, in the presence of ATP , to 2-phospho-4-(cytidine 5’-diphospho)-2-C-methyl-D-erythritol (CDP-ME2P). The conversion to CDP-ME2P is catalyzed by CDP-ME kinase . Next, CDP-ME2P is converted to 2-C-methyl-D-erythritol 2,4-cyclodiphosphate (MECDP). This reaction occurs when MECDP synthase catalyzes the reaction and CMP

6497-399: The presence of long unsaturated aliphatic chains. As a consequence, carotenoids are typically present in plasma lipoproteins and cellular lipid structures. Carotenoids are located primarily outside the cell nucleus in different cytoplasm organelles, lipid droplets , cytosomes and granules. They have been visualised and quantified by raman spectroscopy in an algal cell. With

6586-526: The provisions of the ICZN Code, e.g., incorrect original or subsequent spellings, names published only in a thesis, and generic names published after 1930 with no type species indicated. According to "Glossary" section of the zoological Code, suppressed names (per published "Opinions" of the International Commission of Zoological Nomenclature) remain available but cannot be used as the valid name for

6675-524: The reds, the purples, and their blended combinations that decorate autumn foliage usually come from another group of pigments in the cells called anthocyanins . Unlike the carotenoids, these pigments are not present in the leaf throughout the growing season, but are actively produced towards the end of summer. Dietary carotenoids and their metabolic derivatives are responsible for bright yellow to red coloration in birds. Studies estimate that around 2956 modern bird species display carotenoid coloration and that

6764-417: The resulting seedlings. Also, J-protein (J20) and heat shock protein 70 (Hsp70) chaperones are thought to be involved in post-transcriptional regulation of DXS activity, such that mutants with defective J20 activity exhibit reduced DXS enzyme activity while accumulating inactive DXS protein. Regulation may also be caused by external toxins that affect enzymes and proteins required for synthesis. Ketoclomazone

6853-759: The same time, the terminal groups regulate the polarity and properties within lipid membranes . Most carotenoids are tetraterpenoids , regular C 40 {\displaystyle {\ce {C40}}} isoprenoids . Several modifications to these structures exist: including cyclization , varying degrees of saturation or unsaturation, and other functional groups . Carotenes typically contain only carbon and hydrogen, i.e., they are hydrocarbons . Prominent members include α-carotene , β-carotene , and lycopene , are known as carotenes . Carotenoids containing oxygen include lutein and zeaxanthin . They are known as xanthophylls . Their color, ranging from pale yellow through bright orange to deep red,

6942-497: The specific name particular to the wolf. A botanical example would be Hibiscus arnottianus , a particular species of the genus Hibiscus native to Hawaii. The specific name is written in lower-case and may be followed by subspecies names in zoology or a variety of infraspecific names in botany . When the generic name is already known from context, it may be shortened to its initial letter, for example, C. lupus in place of Canis lupus . Where species are further subdivided,

7031-412: The standard format for a species name comprises the generic name, indicating the genus to which the species belongs, followed by the specific epithet, which (within that genus) is unique to the species. For example, the gray wolf 's scientific name is Canis lupus , with Canis ( Latin for 'dog') being the generic name shared by the wolf's close relatives and lupus (Latin for 'wolf') being

7120-409: The sweet floral smells present in black tea , aged tobacco , grape , and many fruits are due to the aromatic compounds resulting from carotenoid breakdown. Some carotenoids are produced by bacteria to protect themselves from oxidative immune attack. The aureus (golden) pigment that gives some strains of Staphylococcus aureus their name is a carotenoid called staphyloxanthin . This carotenoid

7209-403: The taxon is termed a synonym ; some authors also include unavailable names in lists of synonyms as well as available names, such as misspellings, names previously published without fulfilling all of the requirements of the relevant nomenclatural code, and rejected or suppressed names. A particular genus name may have zero to many synonyms, the latter case generally if the genus has been known for

7298-566: The values quoted are the mean of "accepted" names alone (all "uncertain" names treated as unaccepted) and "accepted + uncertain" names (all "uncertain" names treated as accepted), with the associated range of uncertainty indicating these two extremes. Within Animalia, the largest phylum is Arthropoda , with 151,697 ± 33,160 accepted genus names, of which 114,387 ± 27,654 are insects (class Insecta). Within Plantae, Tracheophyta (vascular plants) make up

7387-419: The ventral shields and by a collar which is just behind the head. There is a median, longitudinal, ciliated, thoracic fecal groove on the dorsal midline of the thorax. It is a broad, shallow, relatively indistinct trough running the length of the thorax and ending at the head. Worms of the genus Serpula have a distinct abdominal region, composed of up to 190 very short, wide segments. The terminal body region

7476-453: The viability of their offspring by choosing redder, but more deteriorated partners with reduced sperm quality. Products of carotenoid degradation such as ionones , damascones and damascenones are also important fragrance chemicals that are used extensively in the perfumes and fragrance industry. Both β-damascenone and β-ionone although low in concentration in rose distillates are the key odor-contributing compounds in flowers. In fact,

7565-429: The virus species " Salmonid herpesvirus 1 ", " Salmonid herpesvirus 2 " and " Salmonid herpesvirus 3 " are all within the genus Salmonivirus ; however, the genus to which the species with the formal names " Everglades virus " and " Ross River virus " are assigned is Alphavirus . As with scientific names at other ranks, in all groups other than viruses, names of genera may be cited with their authorities, typically in

7654-546: The water where the ova and spermatozoa become part of the zooplankton and are carried by the currents to new sites, where the juvenile worms settle into the substrate. Length of the planktonic stage is unknown but comparison with other serpulids suggests it may be between six days and two months, although in other species the period has been shown to vary with season, salinity or food availability, and delayed settling may cause reduced discrimination of substrata during settling (see ten Hove, 1979 for additional references). Worms of

7743-412: The worm with mobility. The first of these segments is the collar segment (peristomium), to which the prostomium is attached. The peristomium bears an elaborate, delicate, membranous collar that overlaps the margins of the aperture of the tube and covers the opening of the tube when the head is extended. There is a pair of calcium-secreting glands located near the midventral line on the posterior end of

7832-488: The xanthophyll lutein is the most abundant carotenoid and its role in preventing age-related eye disease is currently under investigation. Lutein and the other carotenoid pigments found in mature leaves are often not obvious because of the masking presence of chlorophyll . When chlorophyll is not present, as in autumn foliage, the yellows and oranges of the carotenoids are predominant. For the same reason, carotenoid colors often predominate in ripe fruit after being unmasked by

7921-403: The yellow morph of common wall lizards are due to carotenoids. It has been proposed that carotenoids are used in ornamental traits (for extreme examples see puffin birds) because, given their physiological and chemical properties, they can be used as visible indicators of individual health, and hence are used by animals when selecting potential mates. Carotenoids from the diet are stored in

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