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64-511: In 1916, tres player and director Ricardo Martínez from Santiago de Cuba founded the Cuarteto Oriental together with Guillermo Castillo ( botija ), Gerardo Martínez (lead vocals and claves ) and Felipe Neri Cabrera ( maracas ). In 1917, they left Oriente to record four tracks for Columbia Records in Havana . The songs are listed in a Columbia catalog for 1921, but are probably lost. However,

128-501: A lower pitch and vice versa. Originally, drums were tuned by adjusting knots and tension ropes on the drumhead, or, more commonly, where the drum heads were tacked or nailed to the top of the shell, by careful heating of the head. Modern congas, developed in the early 1950s, use a screw-and-lug tension head system, which makes them easier to tune (or detune). This modern type of tension system was pioneered in Cuba by Carlos "Patato" Valdés and in

192-436: A population of 507,167 people. Santiago de Cuba was the seventh village founded by Spanish conquistador Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar on 25 July 1515. The settlement was destroyed by fire in 1516, and was immediately rebuilt. This was the starting point of the expeditions led by Juan de Grijalba and Hernán Cortés to the coasts of Mexico in 1518, and in 1538 by Hernando de Soto 's expedition to Florida. The first cathedral

256-490: A septet since 1927, the band didn't release music as the Septeto Habanero until 1945. Due to the advent of conjuntos and big bands , the band remained largely inactive between 1931 and 1945, making recordings only in a session on September 17, 1940. In the early 1930s the band experienced important line-up changes, with Guillermo Castillo and Carlos Godínez leaving in 1934. The following year, director Gerardo Martínez left

320-421: A single drum. Following numerous innovations in conga drumming and construction during the mid-20th century, as well as its internationalization, it became increasingly common for drummers to play two or three drums. Congas have become a popular instrument in many forms of Latin music such as son (when played by conjuntos ), descarga , Afro-Cuban jazz , salsa , songo , merengue and Latin rock . Although

384-411: A very common variant sounds a single open tone with the third stroke of clave (ponche), and two tones preceding the three-side of clave. The specific alignment between clave and this tumbao is critical. Another common variant uses two drums and sounds bombo (1a) on the tumba (3-side of the clave ). For example: There is also the bolero rhythm that is used for ballads. The conga part is similar to

448-699: Is completed. The main tertiary education institution is the University of Santiago de Cuba ( Universidad de Oriente – Santiago de Cuba , UO). Santiago de Cuba is twinned with: Tumbadora The conga , also known as tumbadora , is a tall, narrow, single-headed drum from Cuba. Congas are staved like barrels and classified into three types: quinto (lead drum, highest), tres dos or tres golpes (middle), and tumba or salidor (lowest). Congas were originally used in Afro-Cuban music genres such as conga (hence their name) and rumba , where each drummer would play

512-455: Is from the guaguancó “La polémica” by Los Muñequitos de Matanzas (1988). This passage moves between the main modes of playing (A, B, C). The A section is the basic lock or ride , as it is known in North America. It spans one clave (measure). An alternate phrase (B) is also one measure in length. Cross-beats , the basis of the third section (C), contradict the meter. By alternating between

576-473: Is interesting, because they use some of the original instruments of the son, including the botija and a unique "square bongó". The main set of recordings by the Sexteto Habanero were made between 1925 and 1931. The line-up in these recordings was modernized with respect to the original sextet, as the group appreciated that the double bass was a musically more suitable instrument than the botijuela , which

640-659: Is named in his honor. The mural relief portrait on the building façade depicts Juan Almeida Bosque , a commander of insurgent forces in the Cuban Revolution. It is the birthplace of the world-famous Bacardi brand, which was started by Facundo Bacardi Masso in 1862. It now houses a museum that displays the extensive art collection of the Bacardí family. Santiago de Cuba is well known for its cultural life. Some of Cuba's most famous musicians, including Compay Segundo , Ibrahim Ferrer and Eliades Ochoa (all of whom participated in

704-580: Is of high quality, considering the technical limitations of the time. The group won first prize in the Concurso de Sones in 1925 and 1926. On March 21, 1927, Enrique Hernández joined the Habanero on cornet , turning the sexteto into a septeto . Hernández was replaced by trumpeter Félix Chappottín in February 1928. Chappottín would remain with the band until 1930, when he was replaced by José Interián. The Habanero

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768-402: Is that head tension can greatly impact the ease or unease of the player, and generally a looser drumhead can lead to hand injury more than a tighter one, because a looser drumhead has less rebound and more muffling effect (hence potentially bruising joints and bones under spirited playing). Also, producing a crisp slap tone is nearly impossible on a loose head. During tuning it is suggested to "let

832-508: Is the most populated municipality of Cuba. The city has developed at the foot of the bay and is surrounded on land by the Sierra Maestra . It has a hot and humid climate. The landscapes includes the complexity of urban elements, and natural greenery and marine settings, all at the same time. It has an irregular offset to the bay, which contributed to the development of an urban setting where the avenues and streets are steep or descend. Under

896-549: Is the potential for more variation of which notes are chosen; however, tuning between or during compositions is rare in live performance. With only two drums, it is common to find them tuned a perfect fourth apart (the interval between the first two notes of " Here Comes the Bride ") as is the tradition in western classical music for the timpani . Having three drums (typically the tumba , conga , and quinto ) invites experimentation and individual customization. Some congueros like using

960-486: The Köppen climate classification , Santiago de Cuba has a tropical savanna climate with no significant wet and dry periods through the year. In the 2012 population census the city of Santiago de Cuba recorded a population of 431,272 people. Santiago is served by Antonio Maceo Airport . Cubana de Aviación connects the city with Havana , Port Au Prince , and Santo Domingo , with other airlines connecting to other cities in

1024-471: The Moncada Barracks by a small contingent of rebels led by Fidel Castro . Shortly after this disastrous incident, País began talking with students and young working people informally, drawing around him what became an extremely effective urban revolutionary alliance. He and his followers developed highly organized cells, coordinating a large-scale urban resistance that became instrumental in the success of

1088-432: The intervals of a major chord (e.g. F, A, C). Some players use the second inversion of a major chord (e.g. G, C, E); and some prefer a major second between the quinto and conga , with a perfect 4th descending to the tumba . Raul Rekow of Santana often plays five conga drums and tunes them to the opening phrase of a Latin tune. There are four basic strokes in conga drumming: Other strokes can be used to enhance

1152-459: The 1960s, the conga became a prominent instrument in Haitian popular music styles such as konpa , yeye and mini-djaz . Conjuntos and orchestras playing Colombian dance music have incorporated cumbia rhythms, traditionally played on tambores known as alegre and llamador, to the conga drums. The standard Colombian cumbia rhythm is simple and played slowly; it goes 1-2-2-1, also heard as 1-2-1-2. In

1216-515: The 1990s. Cruz's creations offered clever counterpoints to the bass and chorus. Many of his marchas span two or even four claves in duration, something very rarely done previously. He also made more use of muted tones in his tumbaos, all the while advancing the development of . The example on the right is one of Cruz's inventos ('musical inventions'), a band adaptation of the Congolese-based Afro-Cuban folkloric rhythm makuta . He played

1280-604: The Caribbean and North America. The public transport in the city, as in Havana, is carried out by two divisions, Omnibus Metropolitanos (OM) and Metrobus. The Metrobus serves the inner-city urban area, with a maximum distance of 20 km (12 mi). Omnibus Metropolitanos (OM) connects the adjacent towns and municipalities in the metropolitan area with the city center, with a maximum distance of 40 km (25 mi). Ferrocarriles de Cuba railways and ASTRO inter-city buses connect

1344-487: The Congos, they are often struck with one hand and one mallet. Most modern congas have a staved wooden or fiberglass shell and a screw-tensioned drumhead. Since the 1950s, congas are usually played in sets of two to four, except for traditional rumba and conga , in which each drummer plays one conga. The drums are played with the fingers and palms of the hands. Typical congas stand approximately 75 centimetres (30 in) from

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1408-483: The Cuban Revolution. País' group prepared carefully, accruing weapons, collecting money and medical supplies. They published a cheap newsletter that reported news critical of the government, attempting to counter Batista's censorship of the mainline press. In the summer of 1955, País's organization merged with Castro's 26 July Movement. País became the leader of the new organization in Oriente province . Two years later he

1472-460: The Dominican Republic, the fast merengue rhythm, which goes 1 2-1-2, can be played on the conga. It can also be heard as 1-2-1-2 1-2-1-2-1-2. Essentially, it is the rhythm of the tambora applied to conga. In merengue típico (or cibaeño ), the rhythm is usually more complex and less standardized; it can range from simply hitting the conga on a fourth beat to playing full patterns that mark

1536-531: The Habanero's rival band, Septeto Nacional . Rafael Hernández "El Picher" often replaced Barroso on lead vocals and maracas, while José Manuel Carriera Incharte "El Chino" ( bongosero in the Nacional) possibly played instead of Agustín Gutiérrez in some sessions. The group's recordings in the 1925 to 1931 era were made in New York City and originally released as 78 rpm singles, now available on LP and CD. The music

1600-660: The United States by Cándido Camero . Historically, terminology for the drums varies between genres and countries. In ensembles that traditionally employ a large number of drums, such as comparsas and rumba groups, a detailed naming system is used, which has been taken up by major conga manufacturers. The drums are listed from largest to smallest diameter (drumhead sizes vary considerably by manufacturer, model, and style): In conjuntos that play son cubano , as well as in charangas and other ensembles where one or two congas were introduced to complement other rhythmic instruments,

1664-554: The appropriate moment (Santos 1985). In several songo arrangements, the tumbadora ('conga') part sounds the typical tumbao on the low-pitched drum, while replicating the quinto (lead drum) of guaguancó on the high-pitched drum. The quinto-like phrases can continually change, but they are based upon a specific counter- clave motif. [See: "Songo Patterns on Congas" (Changuito). Tomás Cruz developed several adaptations of folkloric rhythms when working in Paulito FG 's timba band of

1728-721: The band since 1952), changing its name to Conjunto Típico Habanero. In 1983, the Conjunto Típico Habanero reverted its name definitively to Septeto Habanero, still with Manolo Furé as lead singer and claves player. In 1995, the band recorded an album for its 75th anniversary entitled 75 Años después . The band was actually as octet (and remains so), featuring Manolo Furé (lead vocals, claves), Germán Pedro Ibáñez (guitar), José Antonio Pérez (vocals and maracas), Digno Marcelino Pérez (vocals and güiro), Felipe Ferrer (tres), Bárbaro Teuntor García (trumpet), Faustino Sánchez Illa (electric bass) and Ricardo Ferro Vicente (bongos). After

1792-464: The band to form a new group, Conjunto Típico Habanero . Throughout the 1940s, the Conjunto Típico Habanero would remain linked to the Septeto Habanero, as Martínez made recordings with the Septeto in the mid 1940s (there were sessions in 1945, 1946 and 1948). After the death of Martínez in 1958, the Septeto Habanero incorporated a tumbadora , güiro and another trumpet under the direction of Manolo Furé (in

1856-500: The bottom of the shell to the head. The drums may be played while seated. Alternatively, the drums may be mounted on a rack or stand to permit the player to play while standing. While they originated in Cuba, their incorporation into the popular and folk music of other countries has resulted in diversification of terminology for the instruments and the players. In Cuba, congas are called tumbadoras . Conga players are called congueros , while rumberos refers to those who dance following

1920-500: The city preoccupied with the holiday, Castro chose 26 July to enter undetected into the city to assault the Moncada Barracks. During Carnival, traditional conga music is played in the streets on a traditional pentatonic trumpet, called the trompeta china . A relatively high number of residents of the city adhere to Afro-Cuban religions, most notably santería . The city hosts an important community of descendants of immigrants from

1984-564: The city with Havana's Central Railway Station and with most other main cities of Cuba. The main railway station , also known as "General Senén Casas", is an important hub of the national railways. Located in the city centre, near the harbour, it was completely rebuilt in 1997. The city of Santiago is also crossed by the Carretera Central highway and by the southern section of the A1 motorway , largely unbuilt, that will link it with Havana when it

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2048-653: The city's eclectic cultural mix, already rich with Spanish and African culture. Some of the women and children were impressed into slavery again, although they had been free. In 1809, after Napoleon Bonaparte 's forces invaded Spain, French citizens were ordered out of Cuba. Most went to the United States, and thousands settled in New Orleans, with the freedmen increasing its African culture, as most had been born in Africa. The ethnic French whites and free people of color, generally with longer ties to French culture, added their flavor to

2112-459: The communities of Antonio Maceo, Bravo, Castillo Duany, Daiquirí , El Caney , El Cobre , El Cristo, Guilera, Leyte Vidal, Moncada and Siboney . Historically Santiago de Cuba was the second-most important city on the island after Havana, and remains the second-largest. It is on a bay connected to the Caribbean Sea and an important sea port . In the 2022, the city of Santiago de Cuba recorded

2176-636: The culture of the city as well. Near the end of the century, during the Spanish–American War , Santiago was the site of the major defeat of Spanish troops at San Juan Hill on 1 July 1898. After capturing the surrounding hills, United States General William Rufus Shafter laid siege to the city. Spain later surrendered to the United States after Admiral William T. Sampson destroyed the Spanish Atlantic fleet just outside Santiago's harbor on 3 July 1898. Cuba had declared independence from Spain but

2240-633: The death of Furé, guitarist and singer Germán Pedro "Pedrito" Ibáñez , who joined the band in 1962, became the director until his death in 2007. In November 1997, the band recorded Orgullo de los soneros , an album released by Lusafrica in 1998. The line-up in these recordings featured Germán Pedro Ibáñez (guitar and director), José Antonio Pérez (vocals and claves), Emilio Moret (vocals and güiro), Digno Marcelino Pérez (vocals and maracas), Felipe Ferrer (tres), Servando Arango (trumpet), Faustino Sánchez Illa (double bass) and Ricardo Ferro Vincente (bongos). Their second album on Lusafrica, Celebrando sus 80 años ,

2304-404: The departure of Ricardo Martínez, who was then replaced by Godínez. In 1920, the band renamed itself Sexteto Habanero. Thus, the founding members of the Sexteto Habanero were Guillermo Castillo ( guitar and director), Carlos Godínez (tres), Gerardo Martínez (lead vocals and claves), Antonio Bacallao (botija), Óscar Sotolongo (square bongó) and Felipe Neri Cabrera (maracas). The instrumental set-up

2368-526: The drum he played (which everyone called a conga drum at the time) was similar to the type of drum known as bokú used in his hometown, Santiago de Cuba. The word conga came from the rhythm la conga used during carnaval (carnival) in Cuba. The drums used in carnaval could have been referred to as tambores de conga since they played the rhythm la conga , and thus translated into English as conga drums . Conga drums are classified according to their size, which correlates to their pitch: larger drumheads have

2432-425: The drum speak" and to conform tuning reasonably closely to the natural resonance (pitch) that the cavity of the drum interior presents. This resonance can be heard by singing or playing loud notes near the drum opening (this is true of tuning any drum) and noticing which pitch decays slowest - that will either be the fundamental (resonant) frequency or one of its simple overtones. When two or more drums are used, there

2496-442: The drum until it makes a pleasing sound and then tighten a little more to reach a uniform desired pitch. It is very important to ensure that tuning is uniform around the drumhead, which can be checked by placing one finger pad in the center of the head and tapping the head near the edge above each lug location to detect any change, adjusting as necessary. Uniform tightness will help "let the drum speak". Another important consideration

2560-549: The drums are named like the bongos: macho (male) and hembra (female), for the higher and lower-pitched drums, respectively; an additional drum would be called tercera (third). These correspond to the tumba and conga in rumba ensembles. When the quinto is played by conjuntos it retains its name. Congas, being percussive instruments, do not have to be tuned to any particular note in purely percussive settings. However, when playing with harmonic instruments, they may be tuned to specific notes. Congas are often tuned using

2624-402: The early 19th century from what is now Haiti. Some aspects of the religious " vodún " heritage of the city can be traced back to this community. The city features several historic architectural styles, from Baroque to neoclassical . Many colonial buildings have huge windows and balconies, where people can enjoy views of the steep streets and wooded hills. Preserved historical treasures include

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2688-518: The exact origins of the conga drum are unknown, researchers agree that it was developed by Cuban people of African descent during the late 19th century or early 20th century. Its direct ancestors are thought to be the yuka and makuta (of Bantu origin) and the bembé drums (of Yoruba origin). In Cuba and Latin America, congas are primarily played as hand drums . In Trinidadian calypso and soca , congas are sometimes struck with mallets , while in

2752-484: The film Buena Vista Social Club ) and trova composer Ñico Saquito (Benito Antonio Fernández Ortiz) were born in the city or in one of the villages surrounding it. They have contributed to the typical, country-like music of the city. Santiago de Cuba is well known for its traditional music, most notably son , from which salsa has been derived. The city celebrates Carnival in July, although it typically precedes Lent. With

2816-598: The first Spanish dwelling in the Americas , the first cathedral in Cuba, Cobre mine , the first copper mine opened in the Americas; and the first Cuban museum. The local citadel of San Pedro de la Roca is inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List as "the most complete, best-preserved example of Spanish-American military architecture , based on Italian and Renaissance design principles". The Baconao Park

2880-417: The late 1930s, and became a staple of mambo bands of the 1940s. The primary strokes are sounded with open tones, on the last offbeats (2&, 2a) of a two-beat cycle. The fundamental accent—2& is referred to by some musicians as ponche . The basic tumbao sounds slaps (triangle noteheads) and open tones (regular noteheads) on the "and" offbeats. There are many variations on the basic tumbao. For example,

2944-403: The lock and the cross, the quinto creates larger rhythmic phrases that expand and contract over several clave cycles. Los Muñequintos quintero Jesús Alfonso (1949–2009) described this phenomenon as a man getting “drunk at a party, going outside for a while, and then coming back inside.” The basic son montuno conga pattern is called marcha , or tumbao . The conga was first used in bands during

3008-449: The marcha. Beginning in the late 1960s, band conga players began incorporating elements from folkloric rhythms, especially rumba. Changuito and Raúl "el Yulo" Cárdenas of Los Van Van pioneered this approach of the songo era. This relationship between the drums is derived from the style known as rumba . The feeling of the high drum part is like the quinto in rumba, constantly punctuating, coloring, and accenting, but not soloing until

3072-489: The oldest known recordings in the sexteto format. According to Díaz Ayala, the band in these recordings featured Carlos Godínez ( tres and director), María Teresa Vera (lead vocals and claves), Manuel Corona (guitar and second vocals), "Sinsonte" (third vocals and maracas), Alfredo Boloña (bongos) and a sixth musician, possibly Rafael Zequeira. In 1919, the discrepancies within the Sexteto Típico Oriental led to

3136-407: The open tone. In general, the particular note will depend on the make, model, and size of the conga drum. The drum should be tuned so that the bass tone resonates, the open tone rings, and the slap pierces through the musical mix. If the tuning is too loose, the bass and slap tones will sound "flabby"; too tight, and the drums will sound unnatural and "pinched". With a single drum, it is easy to tighten

3200-406: The path of the players. The term "conga" was popularized in the 1930s, when Latin music swept the United States. Cuban son and New York jazz fused together to create what was then termed mambo , but later became known as salsa . In that same period, the popularity of the conga line helped to spread this new term. Desi Arnaz also played a role in the popularization of conga drums. However,

3264-465: The pattern on three congas on the Paulito song "Llamada anónima." Listen: "Llamada Anónima" by Paulito F.G. The conga repertoire includes many other rhythms found in genres such as danzón , mambo and cha-cha-cha , as well as foreign styles that have adopted Afro-Cuban percussion such as Jamaican reggae , Brazilian samba and bossa nova , and American soul , funk , Latin jazz and Latin rock . In

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3328-619: The same group expanded to a sextet in 1918, with Castillo now on guitar, Antonio Bacallao on botija and Óscar Sotolongo on bongos . They renamed themselves Sexteto Típico Oriental . Meanwhile, members of the Victor record label decided to make son recordings at the Hotel Inglaterra in Havana, hiring musician Carlos Godínez to organize a band. Only two of the six recordings they made ("Mujer bandolera" and "Rosa, qué linda eres") have been issued on CD. Credited to Sexteto Habanero Godínez , these are

3392-438: The sound. The moose call is also done on the bongos . To bend the pitch of the congas, a conguero sometimes uses his elbow to shift around on and apply pressure to different parts of the head; this causes the note to change. This is not a traditional stroke, but it is common in modern salsa and rumba. Guaguancó uses three congas. The smallest conga is the lead drum known as quinto. The following nine-measure quinto excerpt

3456-527: The summer of 1803 during the last days of the Haitian slave revolt, which had started in 1791 . Other refugees had emigrated from Saint-Domingue earlier in the revolution. Haiti declared its independence as a republic in 1804. The French were withdrawing surviving troops after suffering heavy losses from warfare and yellow fever . The immigrants, who included freedmen as France had abolished slavery on Saint-Domingue, struggled to maintain their freedom in Cuba, which

3520-426: The timbral palette of the instrument. They are not used by all drummers, but have become the hallmark of congeros such as Tata Güines . The deslizado , moose call or glissando is done by rubbing the third finger, supported by the thumb, across the head of the drum. The finger is sometimes moistened with saliva or sweat, and sometimes a little coat of beeswax is put on the surface of the conga head to help make

3584-428: Was abandoned by them and most other son groups. By 1925 the band's line-up featured Gerardo Martínez as the new leader, also singing and playing double bass; Guillermo Castillo on guitar and vocals; Felipe Neri Cabrera on maracas and vocals; and two new members: Agustín Gutiérrez on bongó (replaced Sotolongo in 1923 and left in 1928), and Abelardo Barroso as lead vocalist and maraquero , both of whom would also play with

3648-539: Was betrayed to the police and was fatally shot after his capture. On 1 January 1959, Fidel Castro proclaimed the victory of the Cuban Revolution from a balcony on Santiago de Cuba's city hall. The ashes of País were interred in Santa Ifigenia Cemetery, where Marti had been buried. Santiago de Cuba was the hometown of poet José María Heredia . The Teatro Heredia, which hosts theater and cultural events,

3712-639: Was built in the city in 1528. From 1522 until 1589, Santiago was the capital of the Spanish colony of Cuba. The city was plundered by French forces in 1553, and by English forces in 1603 . More than 50 years later the English raided again in 1662 under Christopher Myngs . The city had a huge influx of French and British immigrants in the late-18th and early-19th centuries. Some eighteen thousand Saint Dominican refugees, both ethnic French whites and free people of color, and African freedmen , came from Saint-Domingue in

3776-529: Was dedicated to Pedrito Ibáñez and Servando Arango "El Chino", who had recently died. Santiago de Cuba Santiago de Cuba is the second-largest city in Cuba and the capital city of Santiago de Cuba Province . It lies in the southeastern area of the island, some 870 km (540 mi) southeast of the Cuban capital of Havana . The municipality extends over 1,023.8 km (395.3 sq mi), and contains

3840-549: Was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage Biosphere Reserve List in 1987. Santiago de Cuba is located in the southeast of the island at coordinates 20° 01' 17.42" N 75° 49' 45.75" W, some 870 km (540 mi) of the capital, Havana . Historically Santiago de Cuba has been the second-largest city in Cuba, behind Havana. It features a bay connected to the Caribbean Sea and is a major port . The municipality of Santiago de Cuba, its capital city,

3904-471: Was occupied by US troops for several years. Historians suggest they were there to ensure the sugar economy continued to be productive. José Martí , a Cuban poet, writer, and national hero, is buried in Santa Ifigenia Cemetery in this city. Santiago was the home of the 20th-century revolutionary hero Frank País . On 26 July 1953, the Cuban Revolution began with an ill-prepared armed attack on

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3968-538: Was one of the first septetos , preceded only by the Septeto Apolo (featuring pianist Orestes López ) and Septeto Orquídea (featuring Chappottín). In October 1929, a performance of the Septeto was filmed in Ybor City , Florida , for the movie Hell Harbor . This footage, which features Óscar Sotolongo's son, Andrés Sotolongo, on bongos, ranks among the earliest pieces of film documenting son cubano . Although de facto

4032-725: Was released in March 2000 for the band's 80th anniversary with the same line-up. In 2010, their 90th anniversary album 90 años: Orgullo de los soneros was nominated for the Latin Grammy Award for Best Traditional Tropical Album . The album was recorded between February and March 2009 with the following line-up: Felipe Ferrer (tres and director), Juan A. Jústiz (vocals and güiro), José Antonio Pérez (vocals), Emilio Moret (vocals and maracas), Ernesto Laza (bongó and bell), Ibrahim Aties (baby bass), Digno Marcelino Pérez (vocals and claves), Gilberto Azcuy (trumpet) and Jaime Gracián (manager). The album

4096-508: Was still a slave society. Cuba initially allowed only white refugees, women of color, children, and loyal "domestics" to land; French troops and all men of color over the age of thirteen were held off shore, to be rapidly deported to the mainland, as they were considered a revolutionary threat. Some French soldiers joined other refugees in Charleston, South Carolina , or New York City; others went to New Orleans . The refugees who stayed added to

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