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93-526: Lynne Kanavel Whitesides is a Mormon feminist and is noted for speaking on the Mother in Heaven . Whitesides was the first of the group to experience church discipline and was disfellowshipped September 14, 1993. Though technically still a member, Whitesides claims that she "exploded" out of the church and her marriage in 1993, and she now considers herself a practitioner of Native American philosophies. Avraham Gileadi

186-588: A " Second Manifesto ", calling for all polygamous marriages in the church to cease, and established excommunication as the consequence for those who disobeyed. Several small "fundamentalist" groups, seeking to continue the practice, split from the LDS Church, including the Apostolic United Brethren (AUB) and the Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (FLDS Church). Meanwhile,

279-476: A Latter-day Saint, a stance he maintained until his death in 2021. Except for Whitesides, all of the September Six were excommunicated . Whitesides was disfellowshipped , a lesser sanction that does not formally expel one from church membership. To date, three of the September Six have retained or regained church membership: Avraham Gileadi and Maxine Hanks, who were rebaptized, and Lynne Whitesides, who remains

372-826: A Mormon woman who was the director of the United States Women's Bureau , proposed the idea of the Presidential Commission on the Status of Women in 1960, later signed into law in 1961. After the consolidation of the Relief Society Magazine into the Ensign in 1970, an independent publication calling itself Exponent II was started in 1974 by several Cambridge, Massachusetts –area women, including Claudia Bushman , Laurel Thatcher Ulrich , Judy Dushku and Susan Paxman (later Booth-Forbes) . The magazine focused on

465-405: A case. Under LDS Church policy, a man whose sealed wife has died does not have to request any permission beyond having a current temple recommend and an interview with his bishop to get final permission for a living ordinance, to be married in the temple and sealed to another woman, unless the new wife's circumstance requires a cancellation of sealing. However, a woman whose sealed husband has died

558-562: A controversial book, Strangers in Paradox: Explorations in Mormon Theology (1990), and in 1992, he co-founded The Mormon Alliance . He later wrote the book The Sanctity of Dissent (1994) and its sequel, The Sacrament of Doubt (2007). He was excommunicated from the LDS Church on September 19, 1993. The reasons for his excommunication, as reportedly given by church leaders, were apostasy and false teaching. According to Toscano,

651-437: A course that seemed to be agonizingly more and more clear. As he explained to church members a year later, the choice was between, on the one hand, continuing to practice polygamy and thereby losing the temples , "stopping all the ordinances therein" and, on the other, ceasing to practice polygamy in order to continue performing the essential ordinances for the living and the dead. Woodruff hastened to add that he had acted only as

744-403: A deathbed affidavit telling her she was Smith's daughter. LDS Church president Brigham Young had 51 wives, and 56 children by 16 of those wives. LDS Church apostle Heber C. Kimball had 43 wives, and had 65 children by 17 of those wives. Mormons responded to polygamy with mixed emotions. One historian notes that Mormon women often struggled with the practice and a belief in the divinity of

837-477: A desire while she was living. In cases where the wishes of the deceased sister on this matter are not known, her family should be consulted." That same year veiling of women during part of the temple endowment ceremony was discontinued. Plural marriage Polygamy (called plural marriage by Latter-day Saints in the 19th century or the Principle by modern fundamentalist practitioners of polygamy )

930-406: A disfellowshipped member. While the LDS Church sometimes announces that a prominent member has been excommunicated, the default policy is to refuse to publicly discuss details about the reasons for any excommunication, even if details of the proceedings are made public by that person. Other than the summons sent to each of the six (specifying that their behavior was "contrary to the laws and order of

1023-765: A geneticist with the Sorenson Molecular Genealogy Foundation stated that they had shown "with 99.9 percent accuracy" that five of these individuals were in fact not Smith descendants: Mosiah Hancock (son of Clarissa Reed Hancock), Oliver Buell (son of Prescindia Huntington Buell), Moroni Llewellyn Pratt (son of Mary Ann Frost Pratt), Zebulon Jacobs (son of Zina Diantha Huntington Jacobs Smith ), and Orrison Smith (son of Fanny Alger ). The remaining seven have yet to be conclusively tested, including Josephine Lyon, for whom current DNA testing using mitochondrial DNA cannot provide conclusive evidence either way. Lyon's mother, Sylvia Sessions Lyon, left her daughter

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1116-407: A marriage ceremony had taken place (only that a couple had lived together), was a misdemeanor punishable by a $ 300 fine and six months imprisonment. It also revoked the right of polygamists to vote or hold office and allowed them to be punished without due process. Even if people did not practice polygamy, they would have their rights revoked if they confessed a belief in it. In August, Rudger Clawson

1209-518: A newly appointed territorial governor to replace Brigham Young, dispatched 2,500 federal troops to Utah to seat the new governor, thus setting in motion a series of misunderstandings in which the Mormons felt threatened. In 1862, the Morrill Anti-Bigamy Act became law. The Act criminalized the practice of polygamy, unincorporated the church, and limited the church's real estate holdings. The Act

1302-524: A non-member. She wrote on Mormon issues, including editing the multi-volume Case Reports of the Mormon Alliance , an ongoing collection of interviews with Mormons who believe they were unfairly disciplined by the church. After her husband's death in 2018, Anderson's bishop approached her about reinstatement, the first ecclesiastical leader in the twenty-four years since she was excommunicated to do so. The stake high council and regional council recommended to

1395-536: A prominent leader in the church, was denied a non-voting seat in the U.S. House of Representatives due to his polygamous relations. This revived the issue of polygamy in national politics. One month later, the Edmunds Act was passed by Congress, amending the Morrill Act and made polygamy a felony punishable by a $ 500 fine and five years in prison. "Unlawful cohabitation", in which the prosecution did not need to prove that

1488-434: A second wife. A deceased woman may also be sealed to multiple men, but only through vicarious sealing if they are also deceased. In the case where a man's first wife dies, and the man remarries, and both of the marriages involve a sealing , LDS authorities teach that in the afterlife, the man will enter a polygamous relationship with both wives. Current apostles Russell M. Nelson and Dallin H. Oaks are examples of such

1581-610: A woman pray in General Conference. The following April, Jean A. Stevens became the first woman to pray in an LDS Church general conference session. In 2013, Kate Kelly , Lorie Winder Stromberg, and Hannah Wheelwright founded the Ordain Women organization and website to host profiles of individuals calling for the ordination of Mormon women. On June 23, 2014, Kelly's bishop informed her that she had been excommunicated in absentia . The letter states that Kelly's excommunication

1674-464: Is a Hebrew scholar and literary analyst, who is considered theologically conservative. Following his 1981 Ph.D. in ancient studies from Brigham Young University , he published a new interpretive translation of the Book of Isaiah in 1988 and a study of its eschatological prophecies in 1991. Mormon scholars, including Hugh Nibley , Truman G. Madsen and Ellis Rasmussen , praised his work, but his argument that

1767-603: Is the most moral form of marriage. Polygamy was sometimes explained as a way to prevent men from falling into sexual temptation, while monogamy was immoral and increased the likelihood of sexual temptation. Some who practiced polygamy defended it as a religious practice that was taught in the Bible. Top leaders used the examples of the polygamy of God the Father and Jesus Christ in defense of it and these teachings on God and Jesus' polygamy were widely accepted among Latter-day Saints by

1860-580: The Ensign and served as editor for the Journal of Mormon History from 1991 to May 2009. She was excommunicated September 23 for apostasy, allegedly because of her article "The LDS Intellectual Community and Church Leadership: A Contemporary Chronology" in Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought . She also wrote chapter 9, "The Grammar of Inequity" in the book Women and Authority: Re-emerging Mormon Feminism (1992). Anderson continued to attend LDS Church services as

1953-621: The 1890 Manifesto that officially abandoned the practice. He wrote chapter 17, "Mormon Women Have Had the Priesthood Since 1843" in the book Women and Authority: Re-emerging Mormon Feminism (1992). He was excommunicated September 26. Quinn was summoned to a disciplinary council to answer charges of "conduct unbecoming a member of the Church and apostasy," including " 'very sensitive and highly confidential' matters that were not related to Michael's historical writings." Anderson has suggested that

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2046-550: The 2004 US presidential election by Lisa Butterworth and four of her friends as a place to discuss liberal, feminist views. Caroline Kline, Jana Remy, Emily Clyde Curtis, and Deborah Farmer Kris founded The Exponent blog, an offshoot of the print publication, in January 2006. In July 2012, Hannah Wheelwright founded the Young Mormon Feminists blog. Neylan McBaine founded The Mormon Women Project in 2010 and serves as

2139-585: The Relief Society , encouraged by its president, Emma Smith , also wrote their experiences that disproved Bennett's statements. They also began a petition in support of Joseph Smith's character which they delivered to the Governor of Illinois. Mormon polygamy was one of the leading moral issues of the 19th Century in the United States, perhaps second only to slavery in importance. Spurred by popular indignation,

2232-628: The Republican platform even referred to polygamy and slavery as "the twin relics of barbarism." " " Joseph Smith , founder of the Latter-day Saint movement, first introduced polygamy privately in the 1830s. Later, in 1852, Orson Pratt , , a member of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles , publicly announced and defended the practice at the request of then-church president Brigham Young . Throughout

2325-504: The Smoot hearings made it clear that polygamy had not been completely extinguished. The ambiguity was ended in the General Conference of April 1904, when Smith issued the " Second Manifesto ", an emphatic declaration that prohibited new polygamous marriages and proclaimed that offenders would be subject to church discipline . It declared that any who participated in additional plural marriages, and those officiating, would be excommunicated from

2418-626: The Utah Territory was at the forefront of women's suffrage ; in 1870, it became one of the first states or territories in the Union to grant women the vote, though the federal government removed the franchise from women in 1887 via the Edmunds–Tucker Act . The sociologist Laura Vance has noted that Relief Society publications in the early twentieth century promoted ideas and ideals that were consistent with contemporary feminism. Esther Peterson ,

2511-494: The "allusion to Michael's sexual orientation, which Michael had not yet made public, was unmistakable." Quinn afterwards published several critical studies of Mormon hierarchy, including his three-volume work of The Mormon Hierarchy: Origins of Power , The Mormon Hierarchy: Extensions of Power , and The Mormon Hierarchy: Wealth and Corporate Power. He also authored the 1996 book Same-Sex Dynamics Among Nineteenth-Century Americans: A Mormon Example , which argues that homosexuality

2604-497: The 1940s and 1950s. In 1943, the First Presidency learned that apostle Richard R. Lyman was cohabitating with a woman other than his legal wife. As it turned out, in 1925 Lyman had begun a relationship which he defined as a polygamous marriage. Unable to trust anyone else to officiate, Lyman and the woman exchanged vows secretly. By 1943, both were in their seventies. Lyman was excommunicated on November 12, 1943. The Quorum of

2697-408: The 1990s after September 1993. However, Mormon feminists were starting to use other means of communication, like listservs, to continue dialogue without the threat of ecclesiastical discipline. Joanna Brooks left the church in the aftermath of the September Six, but later came back and spoke out for women's rights within the LDS Church. The Feminist Mormon Housewives group blog was started during

2790-553: The 19th and early 20th centuries, the LDS Church and the United States remained at odds over the issue. The church defended polygamy as a matter of religious freedom, while the federal government, in line with prevailing public opinion, sought to eradicate it. Polygamy likely played a role in the Utah War of 1857–1858, as Republican critics portrayed Democratic President James Buchanan as weak in opposing both polygamy and slavery. In 1862,

2883-545: The Equal Rights Amendment and was excommunicated; a December 1979 excommunication letter claimed that Johnson was charged with a variety of misdeeds, including hindering the worldwide missionary program, damaging internal Mormon social programs, and teaching false doctrine. Also in 1979, the Alice Reynolds forum was forbidden from discussing the amendment in the Alice Reynolds reading room at Brigham Young University;

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2976-497: The FLDS Church) continues to practice polygamy. Although the LDS Church has abandoned the practice of plural marriage, it has not abandoned the underlying doctrines of polygamy. It is still the practice of monogamous Mormon couples to be sealed to one another. However, in some circumstances, men and women may be sealed to multiple spouses. Most commonly, a man may be sealed to multiple wives: if his first wife dies, he may be sealed to

3069-553: The First Presidency that she be reinstated, but on August 27, 2019, they received a denial without an explanation. Anderson continued to attend weekly church services and published in 2020 a collection of essays regarding inclusiveness and gender inequality in her book Mercy Without End: Toward a More Inclusive Church . She died on October 29, 2023. D. Michael Quinn was a Mormon historian. Among other studies, he documented LDS Church-sanctioned polygamy from 1890 until 1904, after

3162-572: The Isaiah prophecies pointed to a human "Davidic king" who would emerge in the Last Days , apart from Jesus Christ, was controversial, and his second book was pulled from the shelves by its publisher, church-owned Deseret Book . The reasons for his excommunication on September 15 are unclear. According to Margaret Toscano (whose husband was among the September Six and who would also later be excommunicated), Gileadi's "books interpreting Mormon scripture challenged

3255-565: The LDS Church continues its policy of excommunicating members found practicing polygamy, and today actively seeks to distance itself from fundamentalist groups that continue the practice. On its website, the church states that "the standard doctrine of the church is monogamy" and that polygamy was a temporary exception to the rule. Adherents of various churches and groups from the larger Latter Day Saint movement continue to practice polygamy. Historian Richard van Wagoner reports that Smith developed an interest in polygamy after studying parts of

3348-461: The LDS Church: eternity-only and time-and-eternity. Eternity-only polygamous marriages applied only in the afterlife and time-and-eternity marriages applied both in mortal life and in the afterlife. Smith had sexual relations with some of his wives; others, he had no sexual relations with. Polygamy was taught as being essential for salvation . Polygamy was seen as "more important than baptism" and

3441-645: The Latter-day Saints at the General Conference and unanimously approved. While many church leaders in 1890 regarded the Manifesto as inspired, there were differences among them about its scope and permanence. Contemporary opinions include the contention that the manifesto was more related to an effort to achieve statehood for the Utah territory. Some leaders were reluctant to terminate a long-standing practice that

3534-637: The Lord directed. In 1879, the Supreme Court ruled that a defendant cannot claim a religious obligation as a valid defense to a crime and upheld the Morrill Anti-Bigamy Act in Reynolds v. United States . The Court said that while holding a religious belief was protected under the First Amendment right of freedom of religion, practicing a religious belief that broke the law was not. Reynolds vs. United States

3627-533: The Morrill Anti-Bigamy Act for refusing to stop practicing polygamy. The act stripped away some of Utah's powers and gave the federal government greater control over the territory. Among other powers, the act gave US district courts jurisdiction in the Utah Territory for all court cases. The Poland Act was a significant threat to Mormons practicing polygamy as it allowed for men who had multiple wives to be criminally indicted . In February 1882, George Q. Cannon ,

3720-601: The Morrill Anti-Bigamy Act in Reynolds v. United States . The Wade, Cragin, and Cullom Bills were anti-bigamy legislation that failed to pass in the US Congress. The bills were all intended to enforce the Morrill Act's prohibition on polygamy with more punitive measures. The Wade Bill of 1866 had the power to dismantle local government in Utah. Three years after the Wade Bill failed, the Cragin Bill, which would have eliminated

3813-549: The Old Testament in which prophets had more than one wife. In the 1830s or early 1840s, Latter Day Saint movement founder Joseph Smith secretly initiated a practice of religious polygamy among select members of the Church of Christ he founded. In Nauvoo, Illinois, Smith introduced ecclesiastical leaders to the practice of polygamy, and he married several plural wives. On July 12, 1843, Smith dictated and had recorded what he said

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3906-644: The September Six and were also involved in disciplinary actions during 1993. Mormon feminism Mormon feminism is a feminist religious social movement concerned with the role of women within Mormonism . Mormon feminists commonly advocate for a more significant recognition of Heavenly Mother , the ordination of women , gender equality , and social justice grounded in Mormon theology and history. Mormon feminism advocates for more representation and presence of women as well as more leadership roles for women within

3999-524: The Twelve provided the newspapers with a one-sentence announcement, stating that the ground for excommunication was violation of the law of chastity . Over time, many of those who rejected the LDS Church's relinquishment of polygamy formed small, close-knit communities in areas of the Rocky Mountains. These groups continue to practice "the Principle". In the 1940s, LDS Church apostle Mark E. Petersen coined

4092-653: The U.S. Congress passed the Morrill Anti-Bigamy Act , prohibiting polygamous marriage in the territories. Despite the law, many Latter-day Saints continued to practice polygamy, believing it was protected by the First Amendment . However, in 1879, the U.S. Supreme Court upheld the Morrill Act’s constitutionality in Reynolds v. United States , asserting that while laws could not interfere with religious belief, they could regulate religious practices. In 1890, when it became clear that Utah would not be admitted to

4185-495: The U.S. government took a number of steps against polygamy; these were of varying effectiveness. Anti-polygamy laws began to be passed ten years after the church publicly announced the practice of polygamy. The first legislative attempt to discourage polygamy in Utah was presented in the 33rd Congress. The bill was debated in May 1854. The bill included the provision that any man who had more than one wife would not be able to own land in

4278-631: The Union while polygamy was still practiced, church president Wilford Woodruff issued the 1890 Manifesto , officially terminating the practice of polygamy within the LDS Church. Although this manifesto did not dissolve existing polygamous marriages, relations with the United States markedly improved after 1890, such that Utah was admitted as a U.S. state in 1896. After the manifesto, some church members continued to enter into polygamous marriages, but these eventually stopped in 1904 when church president Joseph F. Smith disavowed polygamy before Congress and issued

4371-599: The Utah Territory. This bill was defeated in the House of Representatives after multiple representatives argued that the federal government did not have the authority to legislate morals in the states. As the church settled in what became the Utah Territory, it eventually was subjected to the power and opinion of the United States. Friction first began to show in the James Buchanan administration and federal troops arrived (see Utah War ). Buchanan, anticipating Mormon opposition to

4464-574: The actual reason was insubordination in refusing to curb his sharp criticism of Church leaders' preference for legalism, ecclesiastical tyranny, white-washed Mormon history, and hierarchical authoritarianism, which privilege the image of the corporate church above its commitment to its members, to the teachings and the revelations of founder Joseph Smith , and to the gospel of Jesus Christ. In 2007, Toscano wrote that he lost his faith "like losing your eyesight after an accident." He regrets that church leaders have disregarded his criticisms of what he considers

4557-459: The church announced that its female employees could wear "professional pantsuits and dress slacks" while at work; dresses and skirts had previously been required. It also announced at the same time that women who gave birth while working for the church would receive six weeks of paid maternity leave, and that all new parents regardless of sex would also be given a week of paid leave "to bond with their new child(ren) from birth or adoption." In 2018,

4650-413: The church declared that their female missionaries could wear dress slacks if they wanted, except when attending the temple and during Sunday worship services, baptismal services, and mission leadership and zone conferences. In the temple endowment , women were previously urged to be a priestess "unto her husband," while men were promised they will be priests to God. In January 2019, that was removed from

4743-527: The church publicly opposed the Cullom Bill. Op-eds in church-owned newspapers declared the bill as unjust and dangerous to Mormons. The introduction of the Cullom Bill led to protests by Mormons, particularly Mormon women. Women organized indignation meetings to voice their disapproval of the bill. The strong reaction of Mormon women surprised many onlookers and politicians. Outside of the church, Mormon women were seen as weak and oppressed by their husbands and

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4836-537: The church were opposed to polygamy as they saw the practice as a violation of American values and morals. Opponents of polygamy believed that polygamy forced wives into submission to their husbands and some described polygamy as a form of slavery. The overall opposition to polygamy led the Republican Party's platform to refer to it as one of the "relics of barbarianism". Sensational and often violent novels provided fictional stories about polygamy which fueled

4929-511: The church"), the church is silent on why a member was disciplined. Such disciplinary proceedings are typically undertaken locally, initiated by leaders at the ward or stake level, although at least one of the September Six suggested his excommunication was orchestrated by higher-ranking church leaders. Procedures pertaining to the organization of these disciplinary councils are found in the church's scriptural Doctrine and Covenants section 102 as well as in its administrative handbook. During

5022-409: The church's growing anti-intellectualism, homophobia, misogyny, and elitism. Toscano's wife, Margaret, faced her own disciplinary council for her doctrinal and feminist views and was excommunicated on November 30, 2000. Some view her excommunication as constituting a "seventh" member of the September Six, as she was summoned in 1993, but ecclesiastical focus shifted to her husband. Margaret's discipline

5115-798: The church's website states that early Mormons believed that they would receive blessings from God by obeying the commandment of polygamy. Among historians, there is disagreement as to the precise number of wives Smith married. D. Michael Quinn reports 46, George D. Smith 38, Todd M. Compton 33 (plus eight "possible wives"), and Stewart Davenport 37. It is unclear how many of the wives Smith had sexual relations with. Some contemporary accounts from Smith's time indicate that he engaged in sexual relations with some of his wives. As of 2007 , there were at least twelve early Latter Day Saints who, based on historical documents and circumstantial evidence, had been identified as potential Smith offspring stemming from polygamous marriages. In 2005 and 2007 studies,

5208-481: The church, Orson Pratt, defended polygamy by arguing that the practice was a result of divine revelation and that it was protected under the US Constitution as a religious freedom. Following the public announcement of polygamy, members of the church published pamphlets and literature defending the practice. Mormon missionaries were also directed to defend polygamy. The majority of Americans who were not members of

5301-528: The church. Those disagreeing with the Second Manifesto included apostles Matthias F. Cowley and John W. Taylor , who both resigned from the Quorum of the Twelve . Cowley retained his membership in the church, but Taylor was later excommunicated. Although the Second Manifesto ended the official practice of new polygamous marriages, existing ones were not automatically dissolved. Many Mormons, including prominent church leaders, maintained their polygamy into

5394-530: The club subsequently found a different place to meet. In 1993, Maxine Hanks , Lynne Kanavel Whitesides , and Lavina Fielding Anderson spoke out for women's rights and were excommunicated from the LDS Church as a part of the " September Six ". Two other prominent feminist writers, Janice Merrill Allred and her sister Margaret Toscano , were also involved in courts at the time, but not excommunicated until 1995 and 2000 respectively. To some, it seemed like Mormon feminism went underground or disappeared during

5487-569: The eastern United States as he lectured about the church. In his lectures, Bennett included claims of sexual misconduct among church leaders, secret rituals, and violence. In 1842, Bennett published a book entitled The History of the Saints: Or, An Exposé of Joe Smith and Mormonism which includes alleged stories of sexual misconduct by Smith and other church leaders. The church responded to Bennett's claims about Smith by gathering affidavits and printing contradictory evidence in newspapers. The women of

5580-426: The editor. This project supports feminist views within an orthodox and believing framework. In December 2012, a group led by Stephanie Lauritzen organized the first Wear Pants to Church Day, where women broke with cultural conventions and wore dress pants to church. This event initiated a wave of public activism by Mormon feminists. It was followed by Let Women Pray, which asked LDS Church leaders to consider letting

5673-401: The endowment process, in accordance with other changes that included more lines for Eve in their ritual performance of the Book of Genesis . Also in 2019, a letter from the church's First Presidency stated that "Veiling an endowed woman's face prior to burial is optional." It had previously been required. The letter went on to say that such veiling, "may be done if the sister expressed such

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5766-471: The exclusive right of leaders to define doctrine," but Gileadi himself disputes that characterization. The church (through Gileadi's Stake President and related membership council ) reversed the original disciplinary action against him and expunged it from the church's records, which is now treated as if it never happened. Gileadi is currently an active member of the church. Paul Toscano is a Salt Lake City attorney who co-authored, with Margaret Merrill Toscano,

5859-629: The experiences of Mormon women from a feminist perspective. However, in the 1970s, the LDS Church came out against the Equal Rights Amendment . The LDS Church in Utah requested that ten women from each ward attend the Utah International Women's Year in 1977 to support the church's position on the Equal Rights Amendment and other women's issues. The fourteen thousand attendees, mostly Mormon women recruited in their wards, voted on platforms before hearing their discussion and rejected all

5952-451: The hierarchical structure of the church. It also promotes fostering healthy cultural attitudes concerning women and girls. The modern form of the movement has roots that go back to the founding of Mormonism, including the largely independent operation of the female Relief Society , blessings by women in early church history , and the women's suffrage movement in the western United States . The first wave of Mormon feminism embraced many of

6045-517: The idea of a Heavenly Mother and equal status for women. Women were first included in Mormon prayer circles on September 28, 1843. The Woman's Exponent was a periodical published from 1872 until 1914 in Salt Lake City whose purpose was to uplift and strengthen women of the LDS Church and to educate those not of the Mormon faith about the women of Mormonism. With some help from the Relief Society ,

6138-596: The ideas of liberal feminism that were a product of the Enlightenment , i.e., "the authority of individual reason, equality of the sexes, [and] rational/legal concerns such as the right to vote." In the early history of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church), early feminist assertions surfaced in the 1840s with the founding of the Female Relief Society of Nauvoo , Illinois, with Emma Hale Smith as its first president. Eliza R. Snow promoted

6231-625: The late 1850s. In 1853, Jedediah M. Grant —who later become a member of the First Presidency —stated that the top reason behind the persecution of Christ and his disciples was due to their practice of polygamy. Two months later, apostle Orson Pratt taught in a church periodical that "We have now clearly shown that God the Father had a plurality of wives", and that after her death, Mary (the mother of Jesus) may have become another eternal polygamous wife of God. He also stated that Christ had multiple wives— Mary of Bethany , Martha , and Mary Magdalene —as further evidence in defense of polygamy. In

6324-598: The men of the church. The political activism in support of polygamy of Mormon women was unexpected from a group that had been portrayed as powerless. Following the failure of the Wade, Cragin, and Collum Bills, the Poland Act was an anti-bigamy prosecution act that was successfully enacted by the 43rd United States Congress . The Poland Act, named after its sponsor in the US House of Representatives , attempted to prosecute Utah under

6417-457: The national resolutions —even those that did not advocate a moral position opposed to that of the LDS Church. In 1978, the LDS church encouraged nine thousand female members in greater Las Vegas, Nevada, to canvass their neighborhoods with anti–Equal Rights Amendment pamphlets and encouraged all members to vote. Nevada did not ratify the amendment. Sonia Johnson fought against the church in support of

6510-463: The necessity of practicing polygamy in order to receive salvation. Members of the church in St George, Utah report being taught in the late 1800s that there is no "exaltation" without polygamy. In a church-owned newspaper, an article speculates that men and women who refuse to practice polygamy will have a lesser station in the afterlife. Polygamy was also explained as being a commandment of God that

6603-476: The next two years the apostle Orson Hyde also stated during two general conference addresses that Jesus practiced polygamy and repeated this in an 1857 address. In a teaching manual published by the church in 2015, the practice of polygamy is described as a "test of faith" that brought Latter-day Saints closer to God. Other recent church documents point to an increase in children as being why Mormons believe God commanded them to practice polygamy. An article on

6696-404: The night with the Lord regarding the path that should be pursued. The result was a 510-word handwritten manuscript which stated his intentions to comply with the law and denied that the church continued to solemnize or condone polygamous marriages. The document was later edited by George Q. Cannon of the First Presidency and others to its present 356 words. On October 6, 1890, it was presented to

6789-434: The polygamy commandment was often necessary in accepting it. Records indicate that future church leaders, such as Brigham Young, John Taylor , and Heber C. Kimball , greatly opposed polygamy initially. Documents left by Mormon women describe personal spiritual experiences that led them to accept polygamy. Another historian notes that some Mormon women expressed appreciation for polygamy and its effects. An early leader of

6882-460: The practice of polygamy is to increase the Mormon population by childbirth. In the Millennial Star , a church owned and operated newspaper, an article teaches that monogamous marriages result in offspring that are physically and mentally lesser than offspring of polygamous marriages. An early church leader argued that polygamy has historically been the main form of marriage and that polygamy

6975-484: The practice of polygamy was required before the Second Coming of Christ . Brigham Young said that any male member of the church who was commanded to practice polygamy and refused would be damned. Other leaders of the church taught that men who refused to have multiple wives were not obeying God's commandments and that they should step down from their priesthood callings. Church president Joseph F. Smith also spoke about

7068-568: The public's dislike for the practice and Mormons. However, some non-Mormons held more positive views of polygamy. For example, after surveying the Utah Territory, Captain Howard Stansbury concluded that most polygamous marriages were successful and there were good feelings between families. John C. Bennett was a member of the church and close friend of Joseph Smith who was disfellowshipped and later excommunicated for adultery. Following his excommunication, Bennett began to travel around

7161-408: The right to a jury for bigamy trials, was introduced but not passed. After that, the Cullom Bill was introduced. One of the most concerning parts of the Cullom Bill for polygamists was that, if passed, anyone who practiced any type of non-monogamous relationship would not be able to become a citizen of the United States, vote in elections, or receive the benefits of the homestead laws. The leadership of

7254-487: The teachings and practiced polygamy. The number of members aware of polygamy grew until the church started openly practicing polygamy in early 1852, eight years after Smith's death. According to some historians and then-contemporary accounts, by this time, polygamy was openly taught and practiced. The doctrine authorizing polygamy was canonized and first published in the 1876 version of the church's Doctrine and Covenants . There were two types of polygamous marriages in

7347-467: The term " Mormon fundamentalist " to describe such people. Fundamentalists either practice as individuals, as families, or as part of organized denominations. Today, the LDS Church objects to the use of the term "Mormon fundamentalists" and suggests using the term "polygamist sects" to avoid confusion about whether the main body of Mormon believers teach or practice polygamy. The Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (also referred to as

7440-654: The territorial government, and many members and leaders were being actively pursued as fugitives. Without being able to appear publicly, the leadership was left to navigate "underground". Following the passage of the Edmunds–Tucker Act, the church found it difficult to operate as a viable institution. After visiting priesthood leaders in many settlements, church president Wilford Woodruff left for San Francisco on September 3, 1890, to meet with prominent businessmen and politicians. He returned to Salt Lake City on September 21, determined to obtain divine confirmation to pursue

7533-489: The time of the September Six, Handbook 1 , which was only available to ecclesiastical leaders, was in use. In 2020, the church publicly published a revised handbook, General Handbook: Serving in the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints . The 2020 Handbook changes some language and procedures regarding church discipline. The LDS Church later excommunicated Janice Merrill Allred in 1995 and Margaret Merrill Toscano in 2000, both of whom had collaborated with several of

7626-468: Was a revelation from God describing the theology and purpose of polygamy, relating it to biblical portrayals of polygamous marriage by Old Testament patriarchs such as Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. When he dictated the document, Smith said he already "knew the revelation perfectly from beginning to end". At the time, the practice was kept secret from most people, both adherents and not. The church publicly denounced polygamy, and only some membership knew about

7719-517: Was common among early Mormons and was not seen as a serious sin or transgression. He also authored the 1987 book, Early Mormonism and the Magic World View , which argues that early Mormon leaders were greatly influenced by folk magic and superstitious beliefs including stone looking , charms , and divining rods . Despite his excommunication and critical writings, Quinn, who was after his excommunication openly gay , still considered himself to be

7812-532: Was delayed until 2000. Margaret later wrote "The Missing Rib: The Forgotten Place of Queens and Priestesses in the Establishment of Zion" as well as the tenth chapter of Transforming the Faiths of our Fathers: Women who Changed American Religion (2004), edited by Ann Braude. Maxine Hanks is a Mormon feminist theologian, who compiled and edited the anthology Women and Authority: Re-emerging Mormon Feminism (1992). She

7905-461: Was due not to her personal beliefs, but her "aggressive effort to persuade other Church members to [her] point of view and that [her] course of action has threatened to erode the faith of others", including "Six Discussions" aimed at other church members. Feminist Mormon women of color founded the blog FEMWOC in March 2015 to promote the voices and experiences of women of color within the community. It

7998-581: Was excommunicated on September 19, along with fellow contributor D. Michael Quinn . In February 2012, Hanks was rebaptized as a member of the church. Lavina Fielding Anderson was a Mormon feminist writer who edited the books Sisters in Spirit: Mormon Women in Historical and Cultural Perspective (1992) and Lucy's Book , an edition of the Lucy Mack Smith narrative. She was a former editor for

8091-475: Was founded by Gina Colvin, Natasha Smith, Bryndis Roberts, Kalani Tonga, and Jennifer Gonzalez. In 2015, an official essay was published on the church's website which surveyed 171 years of statements about a Mother in Heaven and confirmed that it was part of church doctrine. An accompanying essay stated that while neither Joseph Smith nor any other church leader ordained women to the priesthood, women do exercise priesthood authority without ordination. In 2017,

8184-472: Was imprisoned for continuing to cohabit with wives that he married before the 1862 Morrill Act. In 1887, the Edmunds–Tucker Act allowed the disincorporation of the LDS Church and the seizure of church property; it also further extended the punishments of the Edmunds Act. On July 31 of the same year, U.S. Attorney General George Peters filed suit to seize all church assets. The church was losing control of

8277-552: Was largely understood to be unconstitutional and was only enforced in rare cases. While, the Act outlawed bigamy in the US territories, it was seen to be largely weak and infective at preventing people from practicing polygamy. However, due to the continuous threat of legislation targeting polygamy and the church, Brigham Young pretended to comply. On January 6, 1879, the Supreme Court upheld

8370-458: Was practiced by leaders of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) for more than half of the 19th century, and practiced publicly from 1852 to 1890 by between 20 and 30 percent of Latter-day Saint families. Polygamy among Latter-day Saints has been controversial, both in Western society and within the LDS Church itself. Many U.S. politicians were strongly opposed to the practice;

8463-420: Was received by divine revelation and that polygamy was a part of God's plan. Latter-day Saints believed that a woman could secure her place in heaven by being sealed to a righteous man who held the priesthood. Some women embraced polygamy because of this teaching and their desire to receive divine blessings. The salvation of women was understood to be dependent on their status as wives. One reason given for

8556-407: Was regarded as divinely mandated. As a result, over 200 polygamous marriages were performed between 1890 and 1904. It was not until 1904, under the leadership of church president Joseph F. Smith , that the church completely banned new polygamous marriages worldwide. Not surprisingly, rumors persisted of marriages performed after the 1890 Manifesto, and beginning in January 1904, testimony given in

8649-468: Was the Supreme Court's first case in which a party used the right of freedom of religion as a defense. The ruling concluded that Mormons could be charged with committing bigamy despite their religious beliefs. The final element in Woodruff's revelatory experience came on the evening of September 23, 1890. The following morning, he reported to some of the general authorities that he had struggled throughout

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