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58-544: They were primarily occupied with providing initial training in the Chinese classics to boys of 7 to 16 years of age, but often served students into their twenties. Not regulated in any fashion, seodang could be freely opened and closed by anyone who wished to. Widespread during the Goryeo period, these flourished during Joseon times and were the dynasty's most common educational institution. It has been estimated that 16,000 existed at

116-456: A gross domestic product of ¥8.178 billion. The value of the city's primary sector totaled ¥0.994 billion, its secondary sector totaled ¥1.872 billion, and its tertiary sector totaled ¥5.312 billion. As of 2020, Dunhuang has a gross domestic product of ¥7.778 billion. The value of the city's primary sector totaled ¥1.082 billion, its secondary sector totaled ¥1.752 billion, and its tertiary sector totaled ¥4.943 billion. Dunhuang

174-586: A 24-hour average temperature of −8.3 °C (17.1 °F) in January, while summers are hot, with a July average of 24.6 °C (76.3 °F); the annual mean is 9.48 °C (49.1 °F). The diurnal temperature variation averages 16.1 °C (29.0 °F) annually. With monthly percent possible sunshine ranging from 69% in March to 82% in October, the city receives 3,258 hours of bright sunshine annually, making it one of

232-993: A sealed-up cave. Many of these caves were covered with murals and contain many Buddhist statues. Discoveries continue to be found in the caves, including excerpts from a Christian Bible dating to the Yuan dynasty . Numerous smaller Buddhist cave sites are located in the region, including the Western Thousand Buddha Caves , the Eastern Thousands Buddha Caves, and the Five Temple site. The Yulin Caves are located further east in Guazhou County . in Hecang Fortress ( Chinese : 河仓城 ; pinyin : Hécāngchéng ), located about 11 km (6.8 mi) northeast of

290-412: A student had memorized all three, he could recognize and pronounce, though not necessarily write or understand the meaning of, roughly 2,000 characters (there was some duplication among the texts). Since Chinese did not use an alphabet, this was an effective, albeit time-consuming, way of giving a "crash course" in character recognition before going on to understanding texts and writing characters. During

348-485: Is Qinghai Petroleum Authority Life Base  [ zh ] . Prior to 2015, Guojiabu  [ zh ] and Huangqu  [ zh ] were administered as townships. Prior to 2019, the city administered Guoying Dunhuang Farm  [ zh ] as a township-level division. In 2011, Yueyaquan  [ zh ] was formed from Yangjiaqiao Township ( Chinese : 杨家桥乡 ). 2019 city estimates put Dunhuang's population at about 191,800. According to

406-467: Is a county-level city in northwestern Gansu Province , Western China . According to the 2010 Chinese census , the city has a population of 186,027, though 2019 estimates put the city's population at about 191,800. Sachu (Dunhuang) was a major stop on the ancient Silk Road and is best known for the nearby Mogao Caves . Dunhuang is situated in an oasis containing Crescent Lake and Mingsha Shan ( 鳴沙山 , meaning "Singing-Sand Mountain"), named after

464-515: Is a version of Thousand Character Classic that was changed to the Vietnamese lục bát ( chữ Hán : 六八) verse form. The text itself is called Thiên tự văn giải âm ( chữ Hán : 千字文解音), and it was published in 1890 by Quan Văn Đường ( chữ Hán : 觀文堂). The text is annotated with chữ Nôm characters, for example, the character 地 is annotated with its chữ Nôm equivalent 坦. Because it was changed to the lục bát verse form, many characters are changed such as in

522-404: Is also sold, consisting of a large, sweet confection made with nuts and dried fruit , sliced into the portion desired by the customer. Dunhuang has a cool arid climate ( Köppen BWk ), with an annual total precipitation of 67 mm (2.64 in), the majority of which occurs in summer; precipitation occurs only in trace amounts and quickly evaporates. Winters are long and freezing, with

580-509: Is an important tourist attraction and the subject of an ongoing archaeological project. A large number of manuscripts and artifacts retrieved at Dunhuang have been digitized and made publicly available via the International Dunhuang Project . The spreading Kumtag Desert , the result of long-standing overgrazing of the surrounding land, has reached the edges of the city. In 2011 satellite images showing huge structures in

638-575: Is known for being referred to by Japanese scholar Ogyū Sorai for Manchu studies as early as the 18th century. The undated ciyan dzi wen which is owned by the Bibliothèque nationale de France is a variant of the Qing Shu Qian Zi Wen . It is believed to have been used by the translation office of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea. It contains Hangul transcription for both Manchu and Chinese. It

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696-600: Is noted as a principal force—along with the introduction of Buddhism into Korea —behind the introduction of Chinese characters into the Korean language. Hanja was the sole means of writing Korean until the Hangul script was created under the direction of King Sejong the Great in the 15th century; however, even after the invention of Hangul, most Korean scholars continued to write in Hanja until

754-645: Is served by China National Highway 215 and Dunhuang Mogao International Airport . A railway branch known as the Dunhuang railway or the Liudun Railway ( 柳敦铁路 ), constructed in 2004–2006, connects Dunhuang with the Liugou Station on the Lanzhou-Xinjiang railway (in Guazhou County ). There is regular passenger service on the line, with overnight trains from Dunhuang to Lanzhou and Xi'an . Dunhuang Station

812-543: Is understood to be one of the most widely read texts in China in the first millennium. The popularity of the book in the Tang dynasty is shown by the fact that there were some 32 copies found in the Dunhuang archaeological excavations. By the Song dynasty , since all literate people could be assumed to have memorized the text, the order of its characters was used to put documents in sequence in

870-541: Is valuable to the study of Manchu phonology. The text of the Qiānzì Wén is not available in an authoritative, standardized version. Comparison of various manuscript, printed and electronic editions shows that these do not all contain exactly the same 1,000 characters. In many cases the differences concern just small graphic variations (for example character no. 4, 黃 or 黄, both huáng "yellow"). In other cases variant characters are quite different, although still associated with

928-640: The saegim has remained unchanged in every edition, despite the natural evolution of the Korean language since then. However, in the editions Gwangju Thousand Character Classic and Seokbong Thousand Character Classic , both written in the 16th century, there are a number of different meanings expressed for the same character. The types of changes of saegims in Seokbong Thousand Character Classic into those in Gwangju Thousand Character Classic fall roughly under

986-492: The Thousand Character Text , is a Chinese poem that has been used as a primer for teaching Chinese characters to children from the sixth century onward. It contains exactly one thousand characters, each used only once, arranged into 250 lines of four characters apiece and grouped into four line rhyming stanzas to facilitate easy memorization. It is sung, akin to alphabet songs for phonetic writing systems. Along with

1044-657: The Three Character Classic and the Hundred Family Surnames , it formed the basis of traditional literacy training in the Sinosphere . The first line is Tian di xuan huang ( traditional Chinese : 天地玄黃 ; simplified Chinese : 天地玄黄 ; pinyin : Tiāndì xuán huáng ; Jyutping : Tin1 dei6 jyun4 wong4 ; lit. 'Heaven earth dark yellow') and the last line, Yan zai hu ye ( 焉哉乎也 ; Yān zāi hū yě ; Yin1 zoi1 fu4 jaa5 ) explains

1102-401: The 2010 Chinese census , Dunhuang has a population of 186,027, down slightly from the 187,578 recorded in the 2000 Chinese census . In 1996, the city had an estimated population of 125,000 people. Dunhuang has an urbanization rate of 69.45% as of 2019. In 2019, the city had a birth rate of 9.87‰, and a death rate of 5.69‰, giving it a rate of natural increase of 3.15‰. 97.8% of

1160-682: The Mogao Caves or " Caves of a Thousand Buddhas. " A number of Christian, Jewish, and Manichaean artifacts have also been found in the caves (see for example Jingjiao Documents ), testimony to the wide variety of people who made their way along the Silk Road. During the time of the Sixteen Kingdoms , Li Gao established the Western Liang here in 400 AD. In 405 the capital of the Western Liang

1218-673: The Tang Empire became weakened considerably after the An Lushan Rebellion ; and even though it was later returned to Tang rule, it was under quasi-autonomous rule by the local general Zhang Yichao , who expelled the Tibetans in 848. After the fall of Tang, Zhang's family formed the Kingdom of Golden Mountain in 910, but in 911 it came under the influence of the Uighurs . The Zhangs were succeeded by

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1276-513: The Thousand Character Classic . Chinese calligraphers such as Chu Suiliang , Sun Guoting , Zhang Xu , Huaisu , Mi Yuanzhang (Northern Song), Emperor Gaozong of Southern Song , Emperor Huizong of Song , Zhao Mengfu , and Wen Zhengming all have notable calligraphic works of the Thousand Character Classic . Manuscripts unearthed from Dunhuang also contain practice fragments of the Thousand Character Classic , indicating that by

1334-408: The Thousand Character Classic . This makes many assume that the event is simply fiction, but some believe it to be based in fact, perhaps using a different version of the Thousand Character Classic . The Thousand Character Classic has been used as a primer for learning Chinese characters for many centuries. It is uncertain when the Thousand Character Classic was introduced to Korea. The book

1392-523: The Yuan dynasty . During the Ming dynasty, China became a major sea power, conducting several voyages of exploration with sea routes for trade and cultural exchanges. Dunhuang went into a steep decline after the Chinese trade with the outside world became dominated by southern sea-routes, and the Silk Road was officially abandoned during the Ming dynasty . It was occupied again by the Tibetans c. 1516, and also came under

1450-465: The 7th century at the latest, using the Thousand Character Classic to practice Chinese calligraphy had become quite widespread. Wani , a semi-legendary Chinese-Baekje scholar, is said to have translated the Thousand Character Classic to Japanese along with 10 books of the Analects of Confucius during the reign of Emperor Ōjin (r. 370?-410?). However, this alleged event precedes the composition of

1508-651: The An Lushan Rebellion. The Sogdians were Sinified to some extent and were bilingual in Chinese and Sogdian , and wrote their documents in Chinese characters , but horizontally from left to right instead of right to left in vertical lines, as Chinese was normally written at the time. Dunhuang was conquered in 1227 by the Mongols , and became part of the Mongol Empire in the wake of Kublai Khan 's conquest of China under

1566-734: The Cao family, who formed alliances with the Uighurs and the Kingdom of Khotan . During the Song dynasty , Dunhuang fell outside the Chinese borders. In 1036 the Tanguts who founded the Western Xia dynasty captured Dunhuang. From the reconquest of 848 to about 1036 (i.e. era of the Guiyi Circuit ), Dunhuang was a multicultural entrepot that contained one of the largest ethnic Sogdian communities in China following

1624-683: The Dayuezhi people, Wusun people, and Saizhong people (Chinese name for Scythians). As Dayuezhi became stronger, it absorbed the Qiang tribes. By the third century BC, the area became dominated by the Xiongnu , but came under Chinese rule during the Han dynasty after Emperor Wu defeated the Xiongnu in 121 BC . Dunhuang was one of the four frontier garrison towns (along with Jiuquan , Zhangye and Wuwei ) established by

1682-600: The Emperor Wu after the defeat of the Xiongnu, and the Chinese built fortifications at Dunhuang and sent settlers there. The name Dunhuang, meaning "Blazing Beacon", refers to the beacons lit to warn of attacks by marauding nomadic tribes. Dunhuang Commandery was probably established shortly after 104 BC. Located in the western end of the Hexi Corridor near the historic junction of the Northern and Southern Silk Roads , Dunhuang

1740-509: The Silk Road. Dunhuang was the intersection city of all three main silk routes (north, central, south) during this time. From the West also came early Buddhist monks, who had arrived in China by the first century AD, and a sizable Buddhist community eventually developed in Dunhuang. The caves carved out by the monks, originally used for meditation, developed into a place of worship and pilgrimage called

1798-796: The Song dynasty, the noted neo-Confucianism scholar Zhu Xi , inspired by the three classics, wrote Xiaoxue or Elementary Learning . Due to the fact that the Thousand Character Classic contains a thousand unique Chinese characters, and its wide circulation, it has been highly favored by calligraphers in East Asian countries. According to the Xuanhe Calligraphy Catalogue (宣和画谱), the Northern Song imperial collection included twenty-three authentic works by Sui dynasty calligrapher Zhiyong (a descendant of Wang Xizhi ), fifteen of which were copies of

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1856-503: The Song, the Three Character Classic , Hundred Family Surnames , and 1,000 Character Classic came to be known collectively as San Bai Qian (Three, Hundred, Thousand), from the first character in their titles. They were the almost universal introductory literacy texts for students, almost exclusively boys, from elite backgrounds and even for a number of ordinary villagers. Each was available in many versions, printed cheaply, and available to all since they did not become superseded. When

1914-805: The Western-Han-era Yumen Pass , were built during the Western Han (202 BC – 9 AD) and significantly rebuilt during the Western Jin (280–316 AD). Dunhuang Night Market is a night market held on the main thoroughfare, Dong Dajie, in the city centre of Dunhuang, popular with tourists during the summer months. Many souvenir items are sold, including such typical items as jade , jewelry, scrolls, hangings, small sculptures, leather shows puppets, coins, Tibetan horns and Buddha statues. A sizable number of members of China's ethnic minorities engage in business at these markets. A Central Asian dessert or sweet

1972-431: The city's population is ethnically Han Chinese , with the remaining 2.2% being 27 ethnic minorities , including ethnic Hui , Mongol , Tibetan , Uyghur , Miao , Manchu , Monguor , Kazakh , Dongxiang , and Yugur populations. As of 2019, the annual per capita disposable income of urban residents was ¥36,215, and the annual per capita disposable income of rural residents was ¥18,852. As of 2019, Dunhuang has

2030-406: The county-level city of Dunhuang is part of the prefecture-level city of Jiuquan . Historically, the city and/or its surrounding region has also been known by the names Shazhou (prefecture of sand) or Guazhou (prefecture of melons). In the modern era, the two alternative names have been assigned respectively to Shazhou zhen (Shazhou town) which serves as Dunhuang's seat of government, and to

2088-484: The desert near Dunhuang surfaced online and caused a brief media stir. A number of Buddhist cave sites are located in the Dunhuang area, the most important of these is the Mogao Caves which is located 25 km (16 mi) southeast of Dunhuang. There are 735 caves in Mogao, and the caves in Mogao are particularly noted for their Buddhist art, as well as the hoard of manuscripts, the Dunhuang manuscripts , found hidden in

2146-551: The emperor commanded Wang Xizhi , a noted calligrapher, to write out one thousand characters and give them to Zhou as a challenge to make into an ode. Another story is that the emperor commanded his princes and court officers to compose essays and ordered another minister to copy them on a thousand slips of paper, which became mixed and scrambled. Zhou was given the task of restoring these slips to their original order. He worked so intensely to finish doing so overnight that his hair turned completely white. The Thousand Character Classic

2204-601: The end of the Joseon period. The teacher or headmaster of the seodang was called the hunjang . The seodang were divided into various kinds depending on the hunjang 's motivation and relation to the community: The course of study typically began with the Thousand Character Classic , and proceeded to independent reading of the Three Books and Five Classics . The teaching method emphasized rote learning by reading and memorizing an assigned passage each day; after reading

2262-673: The first line, Several different Manchu texts of the Thousand Character Classic are known today. They all use the Manchu script to transcribe Chinese characters. They are utilized in research on Chinese phonology. The Man han ciyan dzi wen (simplified Chinese: 满汉千字文 ; traditional Chinese: 滿漢千字文 ; pinyin: Mǎn hàn qiān zì wén ; Jyutping: mun5 hon3 cin1 zi6 man4 ) written by Chen Qiliang (simplified Chinese: 沉启亮 ; traditional Chinese: 沈啓亮 ; pinyin: Chénqǐliàng ; Jyutping: cam4 kai2 loeng6 ), contains Chinese text and Manchu phonetic transcription. This version

2320-500: The following categories: From these changes, replacements between native Korean and Sino-Korean can be found. Generally, "rare saegim vocabularies" are presumed to be pre-16th century, for it is thought that they may be a fossilized form of native Korean vocabulary or affected by the influence of a regional dialect in Jeolla Province. South Korean senior scholar, Daesan Kim Seok-jin (Korean Hangul : 대산 김석진 ), expressed

2378-511: The influence of the Chagatai Khanate in the early sixteenth century. Dunhuang was retaken by China two centuries later c. 1715 during the Qing dynasty , and the present-day city of Dunhuang was established east of the ruined old city in 1725. In 1988, Dunhuang was elevated from county to county-level city status. On March 31, 1995, Turpan and Dunhuang became sister cities. Today, the site

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2436-475: The late 19th century. The Thousand Character Classic's use as a writing primer for children began in 1583, when King Seonjo ordered Han Ho (1544–1605) to carve the text into wooden printing blocks. The Thousand Character Classic has its own form in representing the Chinese characters. For each character, the text shows its meaning ( Korean Hanja : 訓 ; saegim or hun ) and sound (Korean Hanja: 音 ; eum ). The vocabulary to represent

2494-512: The neighboring Guazhou County . A number of derivations of the name Dunhuang have been suggested by scholars: There is evidence of habitation in the area as early as 2,000 BC, possibly by people recorded as the Qiang in Chinese history. According to Zuo Zhuan and Book of the Later Han , the Dunhuang region was a part of the ancient Guazhou, which was known for its production of melons. Its name

2552-476: The number of seodang dropped sharply. Many of the seodang that did survive became low-level technical academies, or ganihakgyo ( 간이학교 ). Today, seodang still operate as private academies under the name of Seodang. Their purpose is to teach Chinese character skills from beginner to intermediate and advanced levels. Thousand Character Classic The Thousand Character Classic ( Chinese : 千字文 ; pinyin : Qiānzì wén ), also known as

2610-504: The older hyangyak village codes. In the 20th century, many seodang were modernized and known as "improved seodang " ( 개량 서당 ), and eventually accredited as primary schools during Colonial Korea . This was part of a dramatic expansion of private education in this period; from 1883 to 1908, some 5,000 private schools were established in Korea. Beginning in 1918, regulations on private education became much more stringent and repressive;

2668-412: The passage more than 100 times over, students would recite it to the hunjang . The nature of the seodang changed in the course of the Joseon period. While early in the dynasty they were purely private academies, they increasingly became village institutions. New social institutions such as the gye cooperatives, which emerged in the 19th century, often centered on the village seodang , as did

2726-414: The same pronunciation and meaning (for example character no. 123, 一 or 壹, both yì "one"). In a few cases, variant characters represent different pronunciations and meanings (for example character no. 132, 竹 zhú "bamboo" or 樹 shù "tree"). These textual variants are not noted or discussed in any existing edition of the text in a western language. In fact, even the text appended to this article differs from

2784-468: The same way that alphabetical order is used in alphabetic languages. The Buddhist Uyghur Kingdom of Qocho used the thousand character classic and the Qieyun and it was written that "In Qocho city were more than fifty monasteries, all titles of which are granted by the emperors of the Tang dynasty, which keep many Buddhist texts as Tripitaka , Tangyun , Yupuan , Jingyin etc." In the dynasties following

2842-686: The significance of Thousand Character Classic by contrasting the Western concrete science and the Asian metaphysics and origin-oriented thinking in which "it is the collected poems of nature of cosmos and reasons behind human life". The first 44 characters of the Thousand Character Classic were used on the reverse sides of some Sangpyeong Tongbo  [ ko ] cash coins of the Korean mun currency to indicate furnace or "series" numbers. There

2900-480: The sound of the wind whipping off the dunes, the singing sand phenomenon. Dunhuang commands a strategic position at the crossroads of the ancient Southern Silk Route and the main road leading from India via Lhasa to Mongolia and southern Siberia , and also controls the entrance to the narrow Hexi Corridor , which leads straight to the heart of the north Chinese plains and the ancient capitals of Chang'an (today known as Xi'an) and Luoyang . Administratively,

2958-747: The sunniest nationwide. The Gansu Dunhuang Solar Park was built in the southwest suburbs of the city to harvest the abundant solar energy. As of 2020, Dunhuang administers nine towns and one other township-level division . These township-level divisions then administer 56 village-level divisions . The city's nine towns are Qili  [ zh ] (七里镇), Shazhou  [ zh ] (沙州镇), Suzhou  [ zh ] (肃州镇), Mogao  [ zh ] (莫高镇), Zhuanqukou  [ zh ] (转渠口镇), Yangguan  [ zh ] (阳关镇), Yueyaquan  [ zh ] (月牙泉镇), Guojiabu  [ zh ] (郭家堡镇), and Huangqu  [ zh ] (黄渠镇). The city's sole other township-level division

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3016-502: The text presented in Wikisource in 25 places (nos. 123 一/壹, 132 竹/樹, 428 郁/鬱, 438 彩/綵, 479 群/羣, 482 稿/稾, 554 回/迴, 617 岳/嶽, 619 泰/恆, 643 綿/緜, 645 岩/巖/, 693 鑒/鑑, 733 沉/沈/, 767 蚤/早, 776 搖/颻, 787 玩/翫, 803 餐/飡, 846 筍/笋, 849 弦/絃, 852 宴/讌, 854 杯/盃, 881 箋/牋, 953 璿/璇, 980 庄/莊). A critical text edition of the Qiānzì Wén , based upon the best manuscript and printed sources, has not yet been attempted. Dunhuang Dunhuang ( listen )

3074-447: The use of the grammatical particles yan , zai , hu , and ye . There are several stories of the work's origin. One says that Emperor Wu of the Liang dynasty (r. 502–549) commissioned Zhou Xingsi (traditional Chinese: 周興嗣 ; simplified Chinese: 周兴嗣 ; pinyin: Zhōu Xìngsì , 470–521) to compose this poem for his prince to practice calligraphy . Another says that

3132-447: The west gratefully looked upon the mirage-like sight of Dunhuang's walls, which signified safety and comfort. Dunhuang prospered on the heavy flow of traffic. The first Buddhist caves in the Dunhuang area were hewn in 353." During the Sui (581–618) and Tang (618–907) dynasties, it was the main stop of communication between ancient China and the rest of the world and a major hub of commerce of

3190-415: Was a town of military importance. "The Great Wall was extended to Dunhuang, and a line of fortified beacon towers stretched westwards into the desert. By the second century AD Dunhuang had a population of more than 76,000 and was a key supply base for caravans that passed through the city: those setting out for the arduous trek across the desert loaded up with water and food supplies, and others arriving from

3248-788: Was also mentioned in relation to the homeland of the Yuezhi in the Records of the Grand Historian . Some have argued that this may refer to the unrelated toponym Dunhong – the archaeologist Lin Meicun has also suggested that Dunhuan may be a Chinese name for the Tukhara , a people widely believed to be a Central Asian offshoot of the Yuezhi. During the Warring States period, the inhabitants of Dunhuang included

3306-413: Was moved from Dunhuang to Jiuquan . In 421 the Western Liang was conquered by the Northern Liang . As a frontier town, Dunhuang was fought over and occupied at various times by non-Han people. After the fall of the Han dynasty it came under the rule of various nomadic tribes, such as the Xiongnu during Northern Liang and the Turkic Tuoba during Northern Wei . The Tibetans occupied Dunhuang when

3364-600: Was published during the reign of the Kangxi Emperor . Another text, the Qing Shu Qian Zi Wen (simplified Chinese: 清书千字文 ; traditional Chinese: 清書千字文 ; pinyin: Qīngshū qiān zì wén ; Jyutping: cing1 syu1 cin1 zi6 man4 ) by You Zhen (Chinese: 尤珍 ; pinyin: Yóu Zhēn ; Jyutping: jau4 zan1 ), was published in 1685 as a supplement to the Baiti Qing Wen (simplified Chinese: 百体清文 ; traditional Chinese: 百體清文 ; pinyin: Bǎi tǐ qīngwén ; Jyutping: baak3 tai2 cing1 man4 ). It provides Manchu transcription without original Chinese. It

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