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43-736: The Education Act 1944 (also known as the Butler Education Act after its creator, Rab Butler ), which applied only to England and Wales , promised a system of free secondary schooling . The system was introduced with three tiers. In addition to grammar schools and secondary modern schools , the government intended there to be a series of secondary technical schools that would teach mechanical, scientific and engineering skills to serve industry and science. The 1944 Act (the Butler Act) replaced all previous education law in England and Wales , removing

86-502: A "special" basis. Unlike other state-funded schools at this time, these institutions would not be run by their local education authority (LEA or simply local authority). These plans were the brainchild of Schools Minister Bob Dunn , who had been pushing the Secretary of State for Education and Science Keith Joseph to introduce British magnet schools , with the ultimate aim of encouraging specialisation and increased parental choice in

129-417: A building programme commenced. In 1967 there was a major school reorganisation: the girls' tech moved off site in 1974, the boys' became Wilmington Grammar School for Boys and a new secondary modern school is built over the demolished Wilmington Hall. There were further status changes in 1984, proposed in 1989, in 1991, 1999 and 2004. Whereas the other two branches of the tripartite system would be built over

172-504: A greater contribution from the government, and the resulting schools tended to be on the outskirts of cities. After the programme was abandoned, the government embarked on the more modest aim of designating some existing schools as Technology Colleges , the first non-CTC specialist schools. The Learning and Skills Act 2000 introduced a similar type of school, the City Academy, later renamed Academy . Differences from CTCs include halving

215-487: A measure that was only followed through by a few LEAs such as the Cambridgeshire Village Colleges , Leicestershire Community Colleges and Coventry , Derbyshire and Nottinghamshire community schools. Anglican schools were continued, but brought under increased state funding and control. Every state-funded school was required to begin the day with a nondenominational religious prayer. This clause

258-591: A more equitable funding system to localities and to different school sectors. The act renamed the Board of Education as the Ministry of Education , giving it greater powers and a bigger budget. While defining the school leaving age as 15, it granted the government the power to raise the age to 16 "as soon as the Minister is satisfied that it has become practicable", though the change was not implemented until 1973. It also brought in

301-446: A new system for setting teacher salaries. One of the results of the act was to increase the openness of secondary schools to girls and the working class , educating and mobilising them. Another result was that the percentage of children attending higher education tripled from 1% to 3%. The act provided both for nursery schools and Further Education programmes through community colleges, offering education for both children and adults,

344-587: A technical school in Essex Road with an acting headteacher. After the 1944 Act, in 1949, the technical school was renamed Dartford Technical School and moved into Wilmington Hall. No separate buildings were erected until 1956, and the following year the school had an entry of 120. It had an agricultural stream, so came with a school farm. In 1961, that stream was discontinued. Kent was ready to phase out technical schools and rebrand them as grammar schools. Dartford Technical High School started to offer A-levels in 1964 and

387-473: A technological education. Despite this, the schools would not use an eleven-plus exam as was customary in other selective schools, and would be classified as comprehensive schools . They would specialise in science, technology and mathematics and have a strong provision for information technology and vocational education . The first CTCs opened under the terms of the Education Reform Act 1988 in

430-554: Is responsible for establishing and running the school. This agreement includes the regulations for the school's educational provision (e.g. its curriculum and admissions policy). These are negotiated between the two parties and must be enforced by the school should it wish to receive government funding from the Secretary of State. This funding covers most capital costs and all running costs, although one fifth of capital costs are instead met by private business sponsors , who also own or lease

473-408: The 1943 Norwood Report , the experiences gained in the 1930s and the skills shortages encountered during the ongoing war. "the various kinds of technical schools, which were not instituted to satisfy the intellectual needs of an arbitrarily assumed group of children, but to prepare boys and girls for taking up certain crafts – engineering, agriculture and the like. Nevertheless it is usual to think of

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516-507: The Board of Education , replacing it with the Ministry of Education . It established that all maintained schooling was to be free. There were to be three tiers of secondary state schools: grammar schools (entrance based on ability with the option of an 11-plus ); technical secondary schools; secondary moderns. Further education was to be delivered through county colleges for school-leavers up to 18 years of age. This reasoning had been based on

559-619: The Butler Act after the President of the Board of Education , R. A. Butler . Historians consider it a "triumph for progressive reform," and it became a core element of the post-war consensus supported by all major parties. The Act was repealed in steps with the last parts repealed in 1996. The basis of the Education Act 1944 was a memorandum entitled Education After the War (commonly referred to as

602-538: The Department for Education . One fifth of the capital costs are met by private business sponsors , who also own or lease the buildings. The rest of the capital costs, and all running costs, are met by the Department. CTCs operate as limited companies with articles of association and a board of governors . A CTC is governed through an operating agreement made between the Secretary of State for Education and whoever

645-467: The Department for Education and Science , Keith Joseph. The schools' independence from local authority control attracted Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher and her policy adviser Brian Griffiths , both of whom wanted local authorities phased out of the education system. Thatcher supported the policy on these grounds, alongside the belief that it would improve education and give schools increased autonomy from their local authorities. Finally, Baker announced

688-463: The "Green Book") which was compiled by Board of Education officials and distributed to selected recipients in June 1941. The President of the Board of Education at that time was Butler's predecessor, Herwald Ramsbotham ; Butler succeeded him on 20 July 1941. The Green Book formed the basis of the 1943 White Paper , Educational Reconstruction which was itself used to formulate the 1944 act. The purpose of

731-410: The 11-plus as originally proposed, but from a separate, voluntary set of examinations taken at the age of 12 or 13. Kent was one authority that embraced the changes and implemented the system according to the letter of the law. These schools were invariably single sex, and usually recruited their entrants from the lower end of the 'selective' band (as measured at the age of 11). Admission was at first at

774-461: The 1944 act, provided free school milk to all children under 18 in maintained schools from August 1946. In 1968 Edward Short , the Labour Secretary of State for Education and Science , withdrew free milk from secondary schools for children over eleven. His successor, Conservative Margaret Thatcher withdrew free school milk from children over seven in 1971, earning her the nickname "Thatcher,

817-480: The Anglican church schools became voluntary aided which entitled them to enhanced state subsidies whilst retaining autonomy over admissions, curriculum and teacher appointments; Roman Catholic schools also chose this option. The legislation was enacted in 1944, but its changes were designed to take effect after the war, thus allowing for additional pressure groups to have their influence. Paul Addison argues that in

860-668: The City Technology Colleges programme at the 1986 Conservative Party Conference , which had a goal of creating a national network of new CTCs that would boost educational diversity and parental choice in the school system, while also improving educational standards in their local areas. As expected, around twenty of these new schools were planned for creation in urban inner cities next to secondary schools already in operation, and all of them would have total independence from their LEA. They would serve pupils aged from eleven to eighteen, selecting them based on their "attitudes" towards

903-654: The Milk Snatcher". In the April 1978 budget, the Labour Government was able to use an EEC subsidy on milk to restore free school milk to children aged between 7 and 11. City Technology College In England , a City Technology College ( CTC ) is an urban all-ability specialist school for students aged 11 to 18 specialising in science, technology and mathematics. They charge no fees and are independent of local authority control, being overseen directly by

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946-522: The Raising of the School-Leaving Age) a building programme to provide 'hut'-style accommodation to meet the additional educational demand. The Education Act 1944 made it a duty of local education authorities to provide school meals and milk. The authority could remit the charge for the meal in cases of hardship. The Provision of Free Milk Regulations 1946 ( SR&O 1946 /1293), made under section 49 of

989-476: The act as an expression of " One Nation Conservatism " in the tradition attributed to Disraeli , which called for paternalism by the upper class towards the working class. Butler later wrote in his 1971 memoirs that the 1944 act, like those of 1870, 1902 and 1918, did not “sweep the board clean” but rather “established a financial framework” within which local authorities could conduct such policies as were appropriate for their region. The name “elementary school”

1032-524: The act was to address the country's educational needs amid demands for social reform that had been an issue before the Second World War began. The act incorporated proposals developed by leading specialists in the 1920s and 1930s such as R. H. Tawney and William Henry Hadow . The text of the act was drafted by Board of Education officials including Griffiths G. Williams, William Cleary, H. B. Wallis, S. H. Wood, Robert S. Wood, and Maurice Holmes. There

1075-543: The age of 13, but later at 11. There was still a difficulty in providing suitable accommodation, and the Wilmington schools in Kent provide a case study. Technical education could be traced back to Mechanics' Institutes founded in the early part of the nineteenth century. The Dartford Technical Institute as an example started in Essex Road, Dartford in 1902 and introduced training for boys and girls in about 1925. In 1941 it started

1118-796: The buildings. More government funding is granted to be spent towards the school's pupils. This funding fluctuates on a per capita basis and depends on the size of the total pupil population. CTCs teach the National Curriculum , but specialise in mainly technology-based subjects such as technology , science and mathematics . Like maintained schools, they are regularly inspected by the Office for Standards in Education . CTCs also forge close links with businesses and industry (mainly through their sponsors), and often their governors are directors of local or national businesses that are supporting or have supported

1161-411: The central government via direct grant legislation and independent of local authority control, instead being partially controlled by private sector sponsors investing into them. Taylor thought that these schools could meet the growing demands for business qualifications in the workforce and also proposed a new provision for teacher training in these schools to combat the ongoing teacher shortage at

1204-628: The colleges. The programme has been successful in the long term with all the CTCs being considered strong establishments with consistently high academic results. Plans to establish schools or colleges for technology in major urban areas were first reported in an article from The Sunday Times in December 1985. There would be between sixteen and twenty of these institutions serving 1000 pupils each. They would charge no fees and would be publicly funded through an educational trust , but would select their pupils on

1247-400: The decade from 1944, the technical schools barely materialised. At their peak, only 2% to 3% of children attended one. Technical schools were a modest success, given their limited resources and lack of government attention. Their curriculum was well shaped for dealing with real world employment, and had a solid practical edge. The schools had good links with industry and commerce. In many ways,

1290-558: The education system. These schools, if introduced, would be known as technology-plus schools, specialist schools for technology with extra funding from private sector sponsors. In January 1986, a Centre for Policy Studies meeting was held in the House of Lords . The meeting was organised by Cyril Taylor and focused on the growing issue of unemployment amongst the youth. Among the attendees were Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher , Secretary of State for Employment David Young , who chaired

1333-568: The end, the act was widely praised by Conservatives because it honoured religion and social hierarchy, by Labour because it opened new opportunities for working class children, and by the general public because it ended the fees they had to pay for secondary education. State primary education had been free since the Education Act 1891 ; even after 1944 certain older grammar schools—the direct grant grammar schools —continued to charge fees but also admitted state pupils on scholarships. Butler designed

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1376-438: The engineer or other craftsman as possessing a particular set of interests or aptitudes by virtue of which he becomes a successful engineer or whatever he may become". Local authorities were given a deal of freedom on how this was to be implemented, and while it was easy to create two branches from existing building stock, technical schools often had to be built afresh. As a result, in most LEA areas, pupils were not selected from

1419-470: The financial commitment of the sponsor, and being bound by the Schools Admissions Code. The Labour government encouraged CTCs to convert into academies. In all, 15 City Technology Colleges were created, of which all but three have converted to academies: Philip and Pauline Harris Charitable Trust Although there were only 15 City Technology Colleges by the end of the programme, there were

1462-425: The late 1980s and early 1990s. The first City Technology College opened was The City Technology College, Kingshurst in 1988, which was later converted to an academy in 2008. The original intention was to improve education inside cities, but the programme was hampered by the refusal of local authorities in the targeted areas to provide suitable school sites. Building entirely new schools was much more expensive, requiring

1505-509: The meeting, and sixty other business leaders and politicians, twenty of whom were invited by Taylor. The twenty business leaders explained to Thatcher that the cause of youth unemployment was schools teaching the wrong skills to their pupils. They recommended, with Taylor, the creation of a hundred secondary schools similar to Bob Dunn's proposed technology-plus schools to deal with this issue. They would be urban inner city specialist schools for technological and technical education , funded by

1548-458: The recommendations made some months prior by Cyril Taylor and his business leaders. The policy for the schools proposed in January's meeting, dubbed City Technology Colleges or simply CTCs, was developed in the five months following Baker's appointment. This was influenced from talks surrounding other proposed technical schools, namely the technology-plus schools proposed by Bob Dunn, which occurred at

1591-545: The same time. Like CTCs, Dunn's technology-plus schools would be inner city specialist schools for technology with independence from their local authorities with some involvement from industry sponsors. Baker and Dunn worked together to develop the CTC policy, with the help of six other main individuals. They were Chris Patten , Cyril Taylor, George Walden , Virginia Bottomley , Alistair Burt and Tony Kerpel , all of whom served as ministers or advisers to Baker and his predecessor at

1634-528: The technical school was the forerunner of the City Technology College of the 1980s and 1990s. Other than a simple lack of resources, three reasons have been proposed for the failure of the technical school. Education Act 1944 The Education Act 1944 ( 7 & 8 Geo. 6 . c. 31) made major changes in the provision and governance of secondary schools in England and Wales. It is also known as

1677-448: The time, so Baker set up an initiative to introduce a computer to every school in the country. Now in his position as Education Secretary, Baker wished to further improve digital learning and computing in the education system, and wanted to introduce schools for computing and information technology as a way to do so. In addition, schools for general technology were expected to give pupils the correct skills for employment, which supported

1720-464: The time. A new Secretary of State for Education and Science, Kenneth Baker , was appointed on 21 May 1986. An advocate of technical education and technology in general, Baker was drawn towards the concept of schools for information technology , having formed this interest during his tenure as the Minister for Industry and Information Technology in the early 1980s. Computers were a rarity in schools at

1763-517: Was a desire to keep the churches involved in education but they could not afford to modernise without government help. By negotiation with the Archbishop of Canterbury , William Temple (1881-1944), and other religious leaders, a majority of the Anglican church schools became voluntary controlled and were effectively absorbed into the state system in return for funding. The act also encouraged non-sectarian religious teaching in secular schools. A third of

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1806-405: Was abolished as implying that the poorer children who tended to attend such schools would receive an inferior education. The Act ended the traditional all-age (5-14) elementary sector, enforcing the division between primary (5–11 years old) and secondary (11–15 years old) education that many local authorities had already introduced. It abolished fees on parents for state secondary schools. It brought

1849-444: Was amended by the Education Reform Act 1988 , which specified that the act of worship should be of a 'broadly Christian nature' unless such a message was deemed to be inappropriate for a particular school or group of children. The amendment also specified that the act of worship could now take place in classes, rather than the previous system of conducting worship in assemblies. The act was supported by HORSA (Hutting Operation for

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