Misplaced Pages

#515484

121-557: The Second Reign represented a period of great cultural progress and significance for Brazil, with the growth and consolidation of the Brazilian nation as an independent country and as an important member of the American nations. This era witnessed the consolidation of the country's army and navy , culminating in the Paraguayan War in 1865, and profound changes in the social sphere, such as

242-521: A neutral municipality . However, since Feijó was unable to control the popular revolts, he resigned. Pedro de Araújo Lima , the Marquess of Olinda, a more centralizing and less liberal politician, was then elected in his place. During Olinda's regency, Pedro II was declared "of age" by the Senate. According to historian Roderick J. Barman, by 1840 "they [the regents] had lost all faith in their ability to govern

363-496: A French one that had been discussed earlier that year, included the right of women to vote in primary elections, provided they were the householder, that is, widowed or separate from their husbands, but it was not voted nor discussed, due to the political crisis that took hold of the country following the beginning of the regency in 1831. Nonetheless, it was the first initiative for women's suffrage in Brazil. As deputy, Alves Branco

484-514: A career in the military declined. The resulting withdraw led to the independence of Cisplatina, which became Uruguay , and was the only war not won by Brazil in its independent history. In the aftermath, the military blamed the Emperor for not being able to convince the Parliament to allow more financial aid to purchase equipment, munitions and provisions, while the liberals, on the other hand, considered

605-519: A certain point of view, prosperous Brazil. Two important political parties were established: the Liberals (in favor of strong local power, with autonomy for the provinces) and the Conservatives (in favor of a stronger central power), both representing landowners. Foreign policy would become a priority for Pedro II, who sought to prevent the strengthening of Argentina , Uruguay and Paraguay , to balance

726-548: A clear preference for the personnel who completed the Military College over the ones who did not. On 20 September 1851, the conservative cabinet created a branch of the Military College in Porto Alegre. The Porto Alegre college location provided courses in infantry and cavalry, including disciplines taken from the 1st and 5th years of study. The National Guard was reorganized in the same month and became subordinate directly to

847-485: A diplomatic solution, calling on King Leopold I of Belgium to conduct an impartial negotiation. Leopold I favored Brazil and, as England refused to apologize, the Emperor terminated diplomatic relations with England in 1863. They only apologized in 1865, when it supported Brazil in the Paraguayan War and restored diplomatic relations. The government's victory in the dispute ended up strengthening Brazil's image abroad, as

968-658: A lack of attention and consideration on the part of the Government towards the Army. On 15 November 1889, the monarchy was overthrown by Army troops led by Field Marshal Deodoro da Fonseca who became the leader of the First Brazilian Republic , known as Sword Dictatorship. Marshal Câmara (Viscount of Pelotas), affirmed that about 20 percent of the Imperial Army supported the coup. In the following days several battalions of

1089-609: A magistrate in Bahia, Manuel Alves Branco was appointed as juiz de fora in the Court, where he began his political career after being elected deputy for Bahia to the General Assembly 's 2nd legislature in 1830, joining the Liberal Party . Together with deputy José Bonifácio , Alves Branco presented a bill on 28 July 1831 to reformulate the country's electoral system. The bill, inspired on

1210-653: A new customs tariff in 1844 with the primary aim of increasing Brazil's revenue and reducing the fiscal deficit in the country's trade balance. The tariff, which became known as Alves Branco Tariff, led to a relative surge in industrialization in Brazil. He died in Niterói in 1855. The son of João Alves Branco and Ana Joaquina de S. Silvestre, Manuel Alves Branco was born on 7 June 1797 in Salvador , Bahia, where he had his first studies, learning French, Latin, logic and rhetoric. Due to his early performance, his family sent him to study at

1331-450: A period of economic and political stability in the Empire. The Uruguayan War (which was followed by the Paraguayan War ) revealed the complete neglect subjected on the Imperial Army after 1852. The Army did not have enough equipment, ammunition, uniforms or transportation. With only 18,000 men in 1864 it was necessary to search for reserve forces to collaborate with the war effort. In 1864

SECTION 10

#1732869533516

1452-607: A reference for the Brazilian elite, the period after the Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871) was marked by industrialization , states with greater control over their populations and conscript armies, which, after 1–3 years of service, followed into a growing reserve . Brazil was very far from this model. The Empire declared war against the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata (present-day Argentina) in 1825 because that nation

1573-464: A restraining and counterbalancing element to guarantee the coherence of the other powers in terms of the prosperity of the nation. Article 101 of the 1824 Constitution established the way in which the Emperor could exercise the moderating power: Art. 101. The Emperor exercises the moderating power: The issue of the moderating power, along with the senate for life and the Council of State, divided opinion in

1694-776: A severe economic crisis that deepened into an institutional one with Congress and the Navy , which degenerated into a civil war in the southern region. Under Articles 102 and 148 of the Constitution, the Brazilian Armed Forces were subordinate to the monarch as commander-in-chief . The commander-in-chief was aided by the Ministry of War . During the 67 years of the monarchy's existence there were 76 ministers of war —who were, with few exceptions, civilians. The prime minister exercised ultimate oversight in practice. The model chosen

1815-457: A shock of interests with another country with similar aspirations, Paraguay, in December 1864. In November 1889, after a long attrition with the monarchical regime deepened by the abolition of slavery , the army led a coup d'état that resulted in the end of the empire and the founding of a republic. The implementation of the first Brazilian military dictatorship (that ended in 1894), was followed by

1936-460: A single one. Feijó was elected in democratic elections, but the Additional Act failed, increasing the rivalries between the political factions in the provinces. Regent Feijó was a democrat and a federalist. The Addictional Act created Legislative Assemblies to give greater autonomy to the Brazilian provinces, which led to decentralization. It also granted the city of Rio de Janeiro the status of

2057-425: A strong base in the provinces of Minas Gerais, São Paulo and Rio Grande do Sul . In the latter two, the autonomy of the upper classes was a tradition. In Minas Gerais, the idea of decentralized autonomy came from both rural landowners and the urban population of the old mining towns. The two parties didn't respect each other; each had its own press, which they used to attack their opponents. Both were created during

2178-508: Is described in Article 98 of the 1824 Constitution, which reads as follows: The moderating power is the key to all political organization, and is reserved to the Emperor, as Supreme Head of the Nation, and its First Representative, so that he may incessantly watch over the maintenance of the independence, balance, and harmony of the other political powers. In other words, the moderating power served as

2299-484: Is the reason why foreign imports are [now] generally taxed at 30 percent. In André Villela's evaluation, the introduction of the tariff was "the first clearest manifestation of an official desire to grant some protection to domestic manufacturing activity [in Brazil], at that time still restricted to sugar mills , food processing, brickworks, small foundries and the homemade cloth industry". The subsequent academic debate about

2420-452: Is to govern. The moderating power was defended by Paulino José Soares de Sousa , Viscount of Uruguay, in his work Ensaio sobre o Direito Administrativo (1862). The work, inspired by eclecticism, stated that the institution plays a role in the balance and harmony of the political system. According to him: "[...] If the nation is divided into combative parties, if an oppressive party is in power, there will be no higher, independent power, above

2541-566: Is undeniable that the debate regarding the tax policy was fueled by nationalism, with Alves Branco stating that the General Assembly wanted "not only to fill the state's deficit, but also protect national capital already employed within the country in some manufacturing industry, and encourage others to seek the same fate". While the tariff's main goal was to solve the fiscal deficit, Villela concluded that "'fiscal' and 'protectionist' objectives are not mutually exclusive" and that, considering

SECTION 20

#1732869533516

2662-510: The Aberdeen Act of August 8, 1845, and the approval of the Eusébio de Queirós Law (September 4, 1850), designed to restrict the slave trade to Brazil, resulted in the intensification of the trade and the growth of anti-British feeling in Brazil. Although the conservative leader Eusébio de Queirós had defended to the legislators the need to decide for themselves to cease trafficking and to preserve

2783-438: The General Assembly 's 2nd legislature (1830–1833), joining the Liberal Party . During his political career, Alves Branco was responsible for the introduction of several important measures. He was the main drafter of Brazil's first Criminal Procedure Code  [ pt ] and, together with José Bonifácio , was also behind the country's first legal initiative towards women's suffrage. As minister of finance, he introduced

2904-512: The Marquis of Caxias as the commander of the Imperial Army in the middle of 1866 put an end to the anarchy. In 1865 18,000 men were deployed in enemy territory. This number grew to 67,365 in 1866; 71,039 in 1867; and finally 82,271 in 1869. The Marquis of Caxias reorganized the troops who received uniforms, equipment and weapons equal in quality to those of the Prussian Army. The health service of

3025-539: The Plata region . Pedro II intervened, politically or militarily, in his neighbors in the Southern Cone region whenever he felt they were strategically important to Brazil's interests. The Conservatives preached a political system where government authorities should act impartially, guaranteeing the freedom of all citizens; they supported centralized government and desired the achievements of progress. This party became known in

3146-611: The University of Coimbra in 1815, where he graduated in Law and Natural Sciences in 1823, having also attended the Mathematics course for three years. Alves Branco returned to Brazil in 1824, going to Rio de Janeiro , from where he was sent to Salvador to serve as a criminal judge that same year. Three years later, he was appointed to serve as juiz de fora in Santo Amaro . After serving as

3267-422: The "chronic deficit situation of the imperial treasury" at the time and the country's incipient industry, it was "inevitable that [...] the primary function of the tariff policy had been to maximize tax revenue". Pedro Cezar Dutra Fonseca argued that, despite being "doubtful that the tariff resulted in a protectionist effect, since the 30% tax rate applied to most goods was considered low by Alves Branco himself", it

3388-518: The 1830s. In the following two decades, the topic was not particularly relevant in national political debates. However, after the election of 1860, when the Liberal Party won significant victories in Minas Gerais and Rio de Janeiro, the issue of the moderating power resurfaced on the political scene. This happened when the Emperor rejected Teófilo Ottoni 's name for the Senate, although he was first on

3509-508: The 1840s as " Saquarema ", after the name of the municipality in Rio de Janeiro where the farms of one of its main leaders, José Rodrigues Torres, Viscount of Itaboraí, were located. In addition, the Conservatives had a strong regional base in Bahia and Pernambuco , where the landowning sector had experienced struggles for regional autonomy with popular content. The Liberals, on the other hand, supported

3630-605: The 19th century. Born in Rio Grande do Sul, he moved to Rio de Janeiro as a teenager, where he began working for an import company. Later, he traveled to England where he experienced English urban and industrial society, which fascinated him. On his return to Brazil, he obtained a loan to buy a foundry in Niterói , Rio de Janeiro, that was transformed into a shipyard , where more than sixty steam and sailing ships were produced. Imperial Brazilian Army The Imperial Brazilian Army ( Portuguese : Exército Imperial Brasileiro)

3751-406: The 19th century. At the end of Brazil's gold rush, the coffee pioneers realized that it was a highly profitable investment, as the land in the region was very cheap (sometimes free), the workforce was made up of slaves and, once planted, the coffee plantation was productive for twenty years. The international consumer market was also flourishing and coffee sales were almost certain. Within a few years,

Second reign (Empire of Brazil) - Misplaced Pages Continue

3872-565: The Armed Forces was inferior to American Civil War health care, but was superior to Crimean War health programs. The armed conflict lasted for more than five years and cost the lives of 50,000 Brazilians. However, the Empire attained victory and maintained its supremacy over the rest of South America. The Imperial Army mobilized 154,996 men for the war, divided into the following categories: 10,025 Army personnel who were in Uruguay in 1864; 2,047 in

3993-568: The Army, which were spread across the country, fought against republican forces with the intention of stopping the coup. In Desterro , the 25th Infantry Battalion attacked the Republican Club on 17 November 1889. A month later on 18 December, in Rio de Janeiro , the 2nd Artillery Regiment tried to restore the monarchy. In 1893, Monarchist soldiers participated in the Federalist Revolution with

4114-463: The Baron of Mauá (1813–1889), was the first important figure among the industrial bourgeoisie in Brazilian history. His productive investments covered a wide range of sectors, from transportation to the creation of a bank, demonstrating the diversity of sectors in which he operated. He was a notable Brazilian businessman, industrialist, banker, politician and diplomat, a symbol of the country's entrepreneurs in

4235-605: The British. The Eusébio de Queirós Law of 1850 brought development to industries. The process, which had already begun with the repeal of the Manufacturing Prohibition Law – dated back to 1785, and one of the triggers for the outbreak of the Conjuração Mineira – upon the arrival of the royal family in Brazil, improved, since, at that time, the high investments made with the purchase of slaves were directed towards

4356-498: The Council of Ministers, a department that would advise the monarch on the administration of Brazil, similar to British parliamentarism , but with a reversed hierarchy; hence the name " reverse parliamentarism ". in the same year, the post of President of the Council of Ministers ( Prime minister ) was also created, who would be the head of the ministry and in charge of organizing the Government Cabinet. Instead of appointing all

4477-428: The Empire compensate England for the shameful arrest of the British ship Prince of Wales , the dismissal of the police officers who detained the British sailors and an official apology from the Emperor to the British crown. The following year, as Brazil did not succumb to pressure, British ships blockaded the port of Rio de Janeiro and confiscated five ships at anchor. D. Pedro II, consenting to popular pressure, tried

4598-624: The Empire through taxation was 13%, and remained so until the mid-1930s. Most of the taxes came from customs through the import of international products. Comparatively, in 2015, taxes in Brazil accounted for 35% of GDP. In England, the parliamentary system was a consequence of the Glorious Revolution of 1688–1689, which marked the triumph of Parliament over the King, putting an end to the absolutist monarchy in England. The leader of Parliament then became

4719-627: The Imperial Army was able to defeat the Portuguese resistance, especially in the north of the country and in Cisplatina , also preventing the fragmentation of the newly proclaimed Brazilian Empire after its independence war. After the Independence War the Army, supported by the National Guard, destroyed separatist movements in the early years after independence, enforcing the central authority of

4840-549: The Military College (originally known as the Military Academy) was divided into two-halves: one half retained the name "Military College" and the other half became the Central College. A new reform (Decree nº 585) on 6 September 1850, considerably improved the quality of the officers of the Imperial Army. From then on, progression in a soldier's military career would occur through antiquity, merit and academic resume, beyond

4961-434: The Military College learned about Positivism and discussed politics while completely ignoring military matters. These men advocated the establishment of a military dictatorship. In 1882, Army military officers murdered a journalist in broad day light when he criticized the behavior of the Army. The murder went unpunished. The republicans stimulated the undisciplined behavior of these personnel during 1887 and 1888 by alleging

Second reign (Empire of Brazil) - Misplaced Pages Continue

5082-588: The Minister of Justice, instead of to the locally elected Judges of Peace. In 1874 the Polytechnical College of Rio de Janeiro was created from the Military School. The new college focused on the provision of civil engineering courses. For the 1873–74 fiscal year, the Government allocated about 27 percent of the budget for the Army and the Navy. There was continuity in the recruitment of soldiers between

5203-588: The Napoleonic Wars, prince regent John of Braganza signed the treaties of Alliance and Friendship and Commerce and Navigation with the United Kingdom as compensation for the British support and protection in the transfer of the Portuguese court to Brazil . Years earlier, with the arrival of the Portuguese royal family in Brazil, prince regent John had signed a decree on 28 January 1808 that opened Brazil's ports to foreign trade. While initially not discriminating

5324-537: The National Guard enrollment was 440,000 men. In spite of the impressive numbers, the Guard's military potential was considerably reduced by their lack of training and equipment and the resistance by most Guard members to deployment to the theater of operations. From then on the National Guard would be gradually put aside in favor of the Army. The Fatherland Volunteers Corps was created on 7 January 1865. The Corps received volunteer and conscripted Brazilians. The nomination of

5445-591: The National Guard, whose recruitment (called "enlistment") was complementary and antagonistic, absorbing personnel of a higher social level. National guardsmen were exempt from recruitment into the Army and Navy , and the institution was therefore one of the forms of evasion. National guardsmen were considered citizens and qualified, and their service a duty to the country, very different from first-line troops. Soldiers in 19th century Brazil were recruited voluntarily or by force. Recruitment focused on "vagrants, ex-slaves, orphans, criminals, migrants, unskilled workers and

5566-537: The North American and European population, which stimulated an increase in consumption levels; the industrialization of the United States and Europe, which needed raw materials for their processing industries; technical improvement, benefiting international trade, both in terms of transportation and new organization of the mercantile and financial sectors. Internally, the factors that most favored economic growth were

5687-568: The Second Reign, an important position. It is historically incorrect to refer to this period as the "Second Empire", since Brazil had a single continuous imperial period, divided into the First and Second Reigns and separated by a 9-year span known as the regency period, which was the most troubled moment in Brazilian history. Pedro I , the first emperor of Brazil, abdicated the Brazilian throne on 7 April 1831 in favor of his son Pedro de Alcântara ,

5808-536: The abolition of slavery, the Agricultural Congress held in Rio de Janeiro brought together coffee growers to discuss the issue of the workforce, where they decided to facilitate the arrival of European immigrants. From the 1870s onwards, Brazil's economic structure underwent major changes, which had an impact on existing social and political relations. Progressively, black slave labor lost space to immigrant wage labor in Brazilian agricultural plantations. Coffee

5929-454: The acquisition of the first telephone sets. The second half of the 19th century was marked by an incipient Brazilian modernization based on basic principles: the coffee economy in the Southeast , the end of the slave trade and the gradual extinction of slavery, the replacement of the old slave system with paid labor, and incentives for the country's industry to develop and assume, by the end of

6050-507: The adoption of the Alves Branco Tariff was one of the factors that stimulated Brazilian industry in the 1840s, when "a surge of industrial growth began in the city of Rio de Janeiro and in other locations across the country, [...] in addition to the expansion of markets brought about by the coffee boom and the sudden population growth in the middle of the century". The office of prime minister of Brazil, officially called "president of

6171-625: The beginning of the Republic , the Empire of Brazil , the colony and Portugal, although the Portuguese model in the 17th and 18th centuries, typical of the European Old Regime , found different conditions in Portuguese America. The distinction between regular or first-line troops and the milícias and ordenanças was also a Portuguese heritage. These were replaced in the Empire of Brazil by

SECTION 50

#1732869533516

6292-633: The beginning of the 1840s a new reorganization of the Army gave it more cohesion and made it more capable. In 1851 the Imperial Army was composed of more than 37,000 men which 20,000 participated in the Platine War against the Argentine Confederation which opposed to Brazilian Empire's interests. The war ended in 1852 with the Brazilian victory at the Battle of Caseros , for some time establishing Brazilian hegemony over South America . The war ushered

6413-466: The cargo of carbon, ceramics, textiles, olive oil and wine was looted and the British ambassador demanded that Brazil pay compensation. In 1862, three troublemakers were arrested for drunkenness in Rio de Janeiro, then the capital of Brazil. Upon being arrested, they were identified as British sailors and, due to the relationship between England and Brazil, they were released. However, the British ambassador to Brazil, William Dougal Christie , demanded that

6534-407: The coffee elite began to emerge in southeastern Brazil and soon became more powerful and wealthier than the northeastern elite. The development of international trade based on coffee exports was the result of external and internal factors. Among the external factors, the following stand out: the growth in international demand for Brazilian coffee, the result of the increase in the quality of life of

6655-725: The commission that would present a new code based on Gouveia's project, being its main drafter. The new criminal procedure code, only lightly discussed in the assembly, was approved on 29 November 1832. Together, the Criminal Procedure Code and the Criminal Code, the latter approved in 1830, revoked Book V of the Philippine Ordinances, which had been in force in Brazil since the colonial period . The new Criminal Procedure Code rationalized criminal justice in Brazil by introducing new formulas and institutions. It abolished

6776-430: The council of ministers", was created by Decree No. 523 of 20 July 1847. The creation of the office changed one of the prerrogatives of the moderating power , exercised by the emperor of Brazil: that of freely appointing and removing the ministers of state. After the decree, it was up to the prime minister, once appointed by the emperor, to nomitate the ministers with the monarch's consent. Thus, Manuel Alves Branco became

6897-480: The country on their own. They accepted Pedro II as an authority figure whose presence was indispensable for the country's survival". Some of these politicians (who would form the Conservative Party in 1840) believed that a neutral figure, who could rise above political factions and petty interests to deal with discontent and moderate disputes, was necessary. They envisioned an emperor who would be more dependent on

7018-654: The country was still 40 years old and feared it would not be recognized by European countries. The other South American countries were experiencing similar problems. During the First Reign , Brazil's great agrarian elite (sugar cane barons) was concentrated in the Northeast region . However, at the same time, coffee was beginning to be introduced in the Baixada Fluminense and the Paraíba Valley , achieving rapid success in

7139-409: The country. As part of the treaty, British products would be subject to a 15% customs tariff, while Portuguese ones would pay 16% and the rest of the world 24%. The preferential tariff to British goods was met with strong opposition in Brazil including local merchants and the elite. In need of international recognition following its war of independence , and despite internal opposition, Brazil renewed

7260-429: The country. When the ruling party loses control, the opposition party appoints a new prime minister and a new cabinet. Back then, the existing parties were the Tories and the Whigs . In Brazil, the Emperor was the ultimate power, accumulating the functions of head of state and government until the 1840s, when he decreed that the Emperor no longer had both powers, but only the moderating . In 1847, D. Pedro II created

7381-430: The disciplines of the 1st year (arithmetic, algebra, geometry, trigonometry and technical drawing) and 5th year (tactical, strategy, camping, fortification in campaign, terrain reconnaissance and chemistry). Engineers and artillerymen were obliged to study the complete course, which resulted in their branches being considered the most prestigious. However, if they preferred, infantrymen and cavalrymen were allowed to study

SECTION 60

#1732869533516

7502-529: The disciplines of the 2nd year (algebra, geometry, analytical geometry, differential and integral calculus, descriptive geometry and technical drawing); 3rd year (mechanics, ballistics and technical drawing); 4th year (spherical trigonometry, physics, astronomy, geodesy, geography and technical drawing); 6th year (regular and irregular fortification, attacking and defending strongholds, civil architecture, roads, ports, canals, mineralogy and technical drawing); and 7th year (artillery, mines and natural history). In 1845

7623-421: The empire during the regency period . It repressed a host of popular movements for political autonomy or against slavery and the large landowners' power across Brazil. During the 1850s and early 1860s, the Army, along with the Navy, entered in action against Argentine and Uruguayan forces, which were opposed to the Brazilian empire's interests. The Brazilian success with such " Gun Diplomacy " eventually led to

7744-437: The end of the slave trade in the Atlantic Ocean and by international pressure against slave exploitation in Brazil. Wage labor began with the introduction of European emigrant workforce into the country's productive activities, which created a national market for popular consumer items. On the other hand, since not all European immigrants to Brazil worked in coffee plantations, but also in commerce, services and handicrafts, there

7865-416: The end of the war of Independence, the Brazilian Armed Forces were already well organized and equipped. This occurred mainly because the Emperor heavily supported the Army. Army officers' training was completed in the Imperial Military Academy , although it was not obligatory for personnel to study there to advance in the profession. Personnel from the infantry and cavalry branches only needed to study

7986-410: The enemy of the revolution was not Pedro II and the Brazilians, but Manuel Oribe and Juan Manuel de Rosas , the respective presidents of Uruguay and Argentina, who sought to unite the two republics to create a very powerful state in the Plata region. The negotiations and revolts ended in 1845 with the signing of the Treaty of Poncho Verde . The Baron of Caxias was named "Peacemaker of Brazil" and given

8107-405: The expansion of the railway network, stimulated urbanization, once all the commercial activity, the first induced by the expansion of coffee, was concentrated in the port cities. One problem with coffee plantations is the condition of the soil after the end of the coffee plantation's useful life, which makes coffee growers abandon their land to find new ones. In a few years, they began to migrate to

8228-430: The farmers caused the first immigrants to leave the coffee plantations for the urban centers, where they worked in commerce and industry. The influx of African slaves into Brazil came to an abrupt end in 1850. The high infant mortality rate and the great disproportion between men and women resulted in the slave population reproducing very slowly. By 1880, the slave labor force was noticeably aging. In 1878, ten years before

8349-430: The future Pedro II, who became emperor at the age of five. The act marked the end of the First Reign and the beginning of the regency period in Brazil. Since Pedro II was still a minor, a Provisional Triumviral Regency was convened on 17 July 1831, and had a representative of the country's three major political groups: the liberals (senator Campos Vergueiro ), the conservatives ( José Joaquim Carneiro de Campos ) and

8470-405: The gradual abolition of slavery and the encouragement of European immigration to join the Brazilian workforce. The visual arts, literature and theater also flourished during this period. Although heavily influenced by European styles ranging from Neoclassicism to Romanticism, each concept was adapted to create a genuinely Brazilian culture . The expansion of the urbanization of the big cities,

8591-462: The head of government, i.e. the Prime Minister. The first to occupy this position was Sir Robert Walpole , who began to govern through a system he developed, called cabinet system, since the members of the government met in a room known as a "cabinet". Currently, the system works as follows: the leader of the ruling parliamentary party works together with a group of like-minded colleagues to get laws passed in parliament and, for practical purposes, govern

8712-528: The heavier tariffs imposed on imported goods that had a local equivalent, namely textiles and ironworks, the policymakers at the time also valued protectionism. The adoption of the tariff thus led to industrial growth in these areas, which expanded in Minas Gerais , Bahia and Rio de Janeiro , the latter of which saw the construction of steamships with the Baron of Mauá 's shipyard . According to Luiz Carlos Soares,

8833-403: The image of a sovereign nation, the influence of Great Britain was not hidden from public opinion. Although the treaty reduced tensions between the two countries regarding the reduction of the slave trade, the perception of the agreement as a national humiliation would influence future events. In 1861, the British ship Prince of Wales was shipwrecked off the coast of Rio Grande do Sul. Much of

8954-604: The independence of the provinces with a stronger parliamentary government, the abdication of the moderating power and the senate's lifelong mandate, the abolition of slavery and the biennial election of deputies. The Liberals were called " Luzias ", a name derived from the village of Santa Luzia , located on the Das Velhas River in Minas Gerais, where a battle of the Liberal revolt in Minas Gerais, suppressed by General Luís Alves de Lima e Silva, then Baron of Caxias, happened. They had

9075-428: The intention of restoring the Empire. The Monarchists who did not die in battle were imprisoned, deported or murdered. Manuel Alves Branco, 2nd Viscount of Caravelas Manuel Alves Branco ( Portuguese: [manuˈɛw ˈawviz ˈbɾɐ̃ku] ), the 2nd Viscount of Caravelas (7 June 1797 – 13 July 1855) was a Brazilian politician, economist, and magistrate during the Empire of Brazil (1822–1889). He held

9196-544: The iron industry started by Viscount of Maua and was developing slowly. A new generation of turbulent and undisciplined military personnel began to appear at the beginning of the 1880s, because the old monarchist officers, such as Duke of Caxias , Polidoro da Fonseca Quintanilha Jordão (Viscount of Santa Teresa), Antonio de Sampaio, Manuel Marques de Sousa, Count of Porto Alegre and Manuel Luís Osório, Marquis of Erval were dead. In an Army with only 13,000 men, 7,526 were sent to jail in 1884 for bad behavior. The cadets in

9317-410: The king. According to him, the moderating power was an important resource for moments of crisis, since it should be a conciliatory element in conflicts between the other powers. The division of powers established in the 1824 Constitution was based on four theoretically equal parts. The moderating power was exercised solely by the emperor and had total autonomy over the other three powers. Its definition

9438-468: The lack of provincial autonomy and characterized by a repudiation of the monarchy, with demonstrations in favor of political independence, the republic and radical reformism. Overall, it was included in the list of liberal, socialist and nationalist revolutions that spread across Europe during the 19th century, including the 1848 Revolution in France , which ended absolutism in the country. The implementation of

9559-484: The large-scale construction of railroads, aimed at mobilizing the flow of consumer goods more efficiently, and the interiorization of the country also happened during the Second Reign. Other examples of this historical period are the introduction of electric telegraphs lines that interconnected the Brazilian provinces and other South American countries; steamships lines that updated the merchant and war navies and, in 1877,

9680-526: The legislature than the constitutional monarch conceived by Pedro I, but with more powers than those defended at the beginning of the regency by their rivals (who later formed the Liberal Party). However, the Liberals managed to introduce an initiative to bring forward Pedro II's age of majority from 18 to 14 years, and in July 1840 the emperor was declared ready to rule. On 12 August 1844, the tariff policy known by

9801-416: The mechanization of industry and the payment of wages. Brazilian industry effectively began with the investments made by the large slaveholders. Before the creation of the law, and even with the economic opening of 1822, there were small entrepreneurial manifestations, but no Brazilian industrialization. Since Brazil's independence , several laws have prohibited the international slave trade to Brazil, but it

9922-622: The military (general Francisco de Lima e Silva ). They were responsible for holding elections to choose the Permanent Triumviral Regency, where Bráulio Muniz , Costa Carvalho and general Lima e Silva were elected, ruling the country for three years. In the meantime, Minister of Justice Diogo Feijó gained enough political influence to approve the Additional Act in 1834, which abolished the Triumviral Regency and instituted

10043-519: The ministers, the Emperor appointed only the President of the council, who chose the other members of the Ministry, removing an aspect of political tension from Pedro II, without diminishing his authority. D. Pedro II managed to create an efficient mechanism for running Brazil, based on the exchange of favors, a fact that can be considered admissible in politics, but that made the monarchy last only as long as

10164-556: The moderating power became popular in Brazil after Constant, it is important to emphasize that the concept adopted in the country was different from the one expressed in the book Cours de Politique Constitutionelle . Based on Montesquieu 's theory of the English system of parliamentarianism and the division of the three powers, Constant supported the idea of a neutral or moderating power in the constitutional monarchy, which would not be subject to party political disputes and would be exercised by

10285-472: The monarch responsible for the high costs of the conflict. Pedro I 's abdication resulted in the reduction of the size of the Army contingent. The liberals were against the Army for ideological and economic reasons. Their objective was to prevent any possibility of return to Brazil by Pedro I, so they weakened one of the institutions most connected to the former Emperor. Some battalions were dissolved while others were transferred to distant provinces. Most of

10406-437: The name of its creator ( Manuel Alves Branco ) was implemented, increasing customs duties to 30% on imported goods without a national equivalent, and 60% on products with a national equivalent. This measure affected around three thousand imported items, triggering protests not only from British businessmen, but also from importers in Brazil and the wealthier classes, who began to pay more for the imported items they needed. Although

10527-401: The old Militias and Orderlies that were extinguished at the same time. The Guard did not have permanent troops nor barracks for lodging troops. In war times the National Guard was incorporated into the Army of 1st Line and it was, for all effects, a reserve force of the Imperial Army. The results of the Liberal's policy towards the Army were soon felt. The Government was incapable of fighting

10648-468: The old colonial justice offices, such as the juízes de fora , and centered the new judicial structure around new offices such as the justices of the peace , which were elected. The code, which also expanded civil and political rights, as well as legal guarantees, was deemed an extremely liberal document, being later reformed in 1841 and 1871. In 1810, in the context of the French invasion of Portugal during

10769-537: The origin of products in relation to the application of tariffs, a new decree was issued on 11 June 1808 that established a preferential tax of 16% to Portuguese goods, which led the United Kingdom to protest. Thus, the British government, taking advantage of its influence over Portugal, signed the Strangford Treaty with the Portuguese on 19 February 1810, which granted a series of privileges to British subjects residing in Brazil and also to British goods imported into

10890-454: The passions, that is of value to the oppressed". The Ragamuffin War was still active in the south of Brazil when Pedro II became Emperor, reaching alarming proportions and getting close to being independent from the rest of the country, such as the province of Cisplatina . To prevent this from happening, Pedro II appointed Luís Alves de Lima e Silva , Baron of Caxias – who had previously suppressed

11011-562: The positions of general deputy, minister of justice , minister of finance , senator and was also the first de jure Prime Minister of Brazil . Born in Salvador in 1797, Alves Branco left Brazil to study at the University of Coimbra in 1815, where he received a degree in Law and Natural Sciences in 1823. After returning to Brazil in 1824, he served as judge in Salvador, Santo Amaro and finally Rio de Janeiro . He began his political career in 1830 after being elected general deputy for Bahia to

11132-635: The province of Mato Grosso; 55,985 Fatherland Volunteers; 60,009 National Guardsmen; 8,570 ex-slaves; and an additional 18,000 National Guardsmen who remained in Brazil to defend their homeland. Brazil had the largest industrial base in the whole Latin America and the second largest in the Americas after the United States . The army, unlike the Imperial Navy , suffered with much less investment, especially during

11253-466: The rebellions that occurred in the country during the second half of the 1830s. The election of the conservative Pedro de Araújo Lima for the office of regent in 1837 completely changed the situation. The Conservative Party restored the Army, reorganized and reequipped its ranks, and increased its size to 18,000 men. The Imperial Army achieved several victories over the provincial revolts, including: Cabanagem , Sabinada , Ragamuffin War , among others. At

11374-471: The regency period (Conservative in 1836 and Liberal in 1831), but reached the height of their popularity during the Second Reign, with D. Pedro II remaining neutral between the two, although always vigilant, advising the conciliation of their ideas. The moderating power was a legal device present in the first Brazilian constitution (Art. 98 of the 1824 Constitution), granted by Emperor D. Pedro I in March 1824, which

11495-557: The regency, rendering it inadequate, ill-trained, and ill-armed. From the 1850s began a slow modernization of the army, led by the Marquis of Caxias, beginning with doctrine and the acquisition of new armaments, including machine guns and new and modern artillery guns. During the Paraguayan War even an observation balloon previously used in the American Civil War was acquired by the Imperial Army. The Brazilian military industry emerged from

11616-481: The revolts in Minas and São Paulo – as Commander-in-Chief of the Army. In addition to his leadership of the army, the baron was awarded the title of President of the province of Rio Grande do Sul. Despite having the liberty to act violently against the protestors, Caxias, in a smart decision, used diplomacy, negotiating with the leaders and making patriotic statements to the insurgents. On several occasions, he mentioned that

11737-430: The so-called Alves Branco Tariff was introduced with Decree No. 376 of 12 August 1844, which established a 30% tariff on a total of 2,243 imported goods, while the remaining ones would be subject to tariffs ranging from 2 to 60%. In his statement of reasons regarding the tariff, Alves Branco explained that: Since the first objective of the tariff is to fill the deficit, in which the country has been working for years, it

11858-447: The soldiers were discharged; enlistment was suspended and the promotion of any officer was forbidden. On 30 August 1831, the liberal regency reduced the Army to fewer than 10,000 men. Later reductions left only 6,000 soldiers. The battalions formed by mercenaries were also disbanded. With the intention of assisting the smaller Army, the Government created the National Guard on 18 August 1831. The new institution would substitute for

11979-474: The solution to the labor problem through European immigration; the expansion of credit through a banking reform, which provided resources for the formation of new coffee plantations; and the expansion of railroad networks in São Paulo, which reduced the cost of transportation for the owners of the new plantations, located in the interior of São Paulo. The diversification of economic activities, in addition to boosting

12100-407: The support of its economic elite lasted. Since the agricultural elite held power in Brazil in the 19th century, Pedro II always ruled by allying himself with them, granting favors (such as building railroads, dams, acquiring machinery, etc.) in exchange for the structure that he needed to stay in power. In this way, D. Pedro II succeeded, over the 49 years of his rule, in dealing with a stable and, from

12221-417: The tariff centered on its "true intention": on one side were those who considered its introduction only as a way of alleviating the precarious situation of revenue for the public treasury and on the other those who saw it as intended to protect the country's industry. André Villela stated that the motives behind the introduction of the Alves Branco Tariff were, above all, the result of pragmatism, since, given

12342-461: The tariff's goal was simply to increase the government's revenue, the measure ended up promoting the growth of new national economic activities. This tax increase lasted until the mid-1860s, when the imperial government, under pressure from exporting groups, reduced tariffs to alleviate Brazil's fiscal deficit, caused mainly by the Cisplatine War . With the tariff, the percentage of GDP to maintain

12463-478: The title of Count. The Praieira revolt , also known as the Praieira Insurrection, Praieira Revolution or simply Praieira, was a liberal and separatist movement that occurred in the province of Pernambuco between 1848 and 1850. The revolt, which was the last of the provincial riots, is linked to the party-political struggles that marked the regency period and the beginning of the Second Reign. Its defeat

12584-405: The treaty for 15 years in 1827 as compensation for British support in the country's recognition by Portugal, which came with the 1825 Treaty of Rio de Janeiro . As the end of the treaty approached, the debate between defenders of the agricultural sector and industrialists resurfaced, as the latter saw the opportunity to use the customs duties as a mechanism to promote industrialization. The end of

12705-442: The treaty, initially expected to 1842 and later postponed to 1844, coincided with Brazil's internal process of strengthening of the central power following the end of the regency period with the declaration of majority of Pedro II . With the end of the regency period, plagued by rebellions and political instability, Brazil could turn its attention to its foreign policy and seek to break free from British influence. In this context,

12826-446: The triple list. From then on, the liberals demanded that the Emperor's actions be approved by the Ministry. This liberal point of view was expressed by Antônio Carlos Ribeiro de Andrada Machado e Silva , in a statement made in 1841: In representative governments, the monarch is inviolable. However, inviolability cannot exist when he governs; in representative governments, the monarch does nothing wrong, and he cannot stop doing wrong if he

12947-462: The unemployed". Military service was considered degrading by the free poor population. Recruitment, called "blood tribute" at the time, was violent and followed by a life of punishment and low pay. It managed to attract few recruits, as it was carried out by a weak state (police, civil service and civil registry ) in a resistant population. The Paraguayan War strained the system and was time-consuming in part due to inefficient mobilization. In Europe,

13068-467: The west of the province of São Paulo and, soon, this region began to depend on coffee, along with the imperial government, as a result of the high tax that was levied on the product. Coffee was linked to industry, meaning that part of the profits generated from coffee cultivation were also used to set up factories. Production had fallen due to the Aberdeen Act, but Brazil continued to export the product to

13189-587: Was a demonstration of the power of D. Pedro II's government. In addition to dissatisfaction with the imperial government, a large part of Pernambuco's population was unhappy with the concentration of land and political power in the province, which was the most important in the Northeast. In this context, the Praia Party was created to oppose the Liberal Party and the Conservative Party, both dominated by two powerful families who made political deals with each other. There

13310-520: Was a series of disputes over power until, on November 7, 1848, the armed conflict began. In Olinda , the leaders of the protest launched the Manifesto to the World and began to fight against the troops of the imperial government, which intervened and put an end to the largest and last insurrection of the Second Reign. At the local level, the revolt was influenced by the liberal ideas of those who complained about

13431-526: Was aiding the secessionist revolt of the Brazilian Cisplatina province. The Argentines and the Cisplatine secessionist troops made use of guerrilla tactics that prevented the much larger Brazilian Army (1st Line with 27,242 men and 2nd Line with 95,000) from delivering an overwhelming blow against its enemies. By the end of the conflict more than 8,000 Brazilians had died and the esteem associated with

13552-464: Was based on the political ideals of Benjamin Constant (1767–1830) about a neutral power capable of adjusting and regulating the other three classic branches: executive, legislative and judiciary . The moderating power , the main political organization of the Empire, was initially considered an authoritarian and centralizing mechanism, which led to revolts in some provinces during the regency. Although

13673-454: Was consolidating its position as Brazil's main export product, triggering a rush of economic growth like nothing before in independent Brazil. European immigration contributed to the urbanization of Brazilian society, and along with the wage labour, led to the emergence of an incipient internal market for popular consumer items in the country, which eventually resulted in the creation of the first industrial units in Brazil. Essentially, capitalism

13794-572: Was formed by the Militias and Orderlies inherited from the colonial times. The military was organized along similar lines to the British and American armed forces of the time, in which a small standing army could quickly augment its strength during emergencies from a reserve militia force (in Brazil, the National Guard). By 1824 the Army of the 1st Line included 24,000 men, who were disciplined, trained and equipped just as well as European equivalents. At

13915-419: Was my duty to ensure that the new rate of duties, which comprised the largest sum of values, was such that it would probably fill it; and because the income [generated] by the 20 percent which were generally paid for foreign goods brought to the country amounted to 12 to 13 thousand contos , it was obvious that, [in order] to achieve that aim, it would be necessary to increase it by another 10 percent; and this

14036-547: Was only with military and political pressure from Great Britain and the actions of Minister Eusébio de Queirós from 1850 onwards that the Atlantic slave trade came to an end. As a result, Brazil began to consider attracting non-Portuguese immigrants. On the farms, the colonato system, a form of semi-salaried work where the immigrant and his family received a mixed wage (money and a piece of land to plant their own food), began to be used. The exhausting working hours and exploitation by

14157-488: Was space for the process of urbanization in Brazilian society, especially in the Southeast, as well as the creation of commercial banks in the country. All these factors, as well as public investment in infrastructure, especially in railroads and roads in the central area of the country (São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro and Minas Gerais), were crucial to the creation of the first industries in the country. Irineu Evangelista de Souza ,

14278-453: Was taking hold in Brazil's socio-economic structures, overcoming the old mercantile-slavery system. The transformations in Brazil's productive structure began with the accumulation of capital provided by the international coffee trade, enabling the reinvestment of profits obtained from the trade in the productive sector itself, as well as the replacement of slave labor by salaried labor in productive activities, motivated, among other factors, by

14399-564: Was tasked by the Chamber of Deputies with creating Brazil's first Criminal Procedure Code in July 1831. The creation of such code, as mandated by the Imperial Constitution , had begun in the First Reign , when Lúcio Soares Teixeira de Gouveia, then minister of justice, presented his draft in May 1829. Together with Antônio José da Veiga and José Antônio da Silva Maia, Alves Branco was elected to

14520-410: Was the British parliamentary or Anglo-American system, in which "the country's Armed Forces observed unrestricted obedience to the civilian government while maintaining distance from political decisions and decisions referring to borders' security". The National Army, or Imperial Army during the monarchy, was divided into two branches: the 1st Line, which was the Army itself; and the 2nd Line, which

14641-682: Was the name given to the land force of the Empire of Brazil . The Brazilian Army was formed after the independence of the country from Portugal in 1822 and reformed in 1889, after the republican coup d'état that created the First Brazilian Republic , a dictatorship headed by the army. During the Independence process, the Imperial Brazilian Army was initially composed of Brazilians, Portuguese, and foreign mercenaries. Trained in guerrilla warfare, most of its commanders were mercenaries and Portuguese officers loyal to Pedro I. In 1822 and 1823,

#515484