160-1000: The Polish–Ottoman War of 1672–1676 was fought by the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Ottoman Empire . It ended with the Treaty of Żurawno , by which the Commonwealth ceded control of most of its territories in Central Ukraine to the Ottomans. It was a prelude to the Great Turkish War . The causes of the Polish-Ottoman War of 1672–1676 can be traced to 1666. Petro Doroshenko Hetman of Zaporizhian Host , aiming to gain control of Ukraine but facing defeats from other factions struggling over control of that region, in
320-593: A Roman Catholic Diocese . In 1432 King Sigismund I the Old granted Kamieniec Podolski city rights. It was an important royal city of Poland . In 1434 it became the capital of the Podolian Voivodship and the seat of local civil and military administration. The ancient castle was reconstructed and substantially expanded by the Polish kings to defend Poland from the southwest against Ottoman and Tatar invasions, thus it
480-553: A prison cell for Ustym Karmeliuk , a prominent peasant rebel leader of the early 19th century, who managed to escape from it three times. In 1798, Polish nobleman Antoni Żmijewski founded a Polish theater in the city. It was one of the oldest Polish theaters. In 1867 the Roman Catholic Diocese of Kamianets-Podilskyi was abolished by the Russians authorities. It was re-established in 1918 by Pope Benedict XV . According to
640-466: A revolt , and, with the help of Denmark , blockaded maritime trade to neutral Elbląg (Elbing). Báthory, unable to penetrate the city's extensive fortifications, succumbed to the demands for greater privileges and freedoms. However, his successful Livonian campaign ended in the annexation of Livonia and the Duchy of Courland and Semigallia (modern-day Estonia and Latvia , respectively), thus expanding
800-623: A capital of the Duchy of Podolia , Podolian Voivodeship , Podolia Eyalet , Podolia Governorate , and Podolian District . During the Ukrainian–Soviet War , the city officially served as the temporary capital of the Ukrainian People's Republic from 1919 to 1920. Originally known as Kamianec , its name was changed to the current following the partitions of Poland and occupation by the Russian Empire in 1795. The first part of
960-660: A centuries-long tradition of a nobles' democracy ( Golden Liberty ). Henry already posed as a candidate before Sigismund's death and received widespread support from the pro-French factions. The choice was a political move aimed at curtailing Habsburg hegemony, ending skirmishes with the French-allied Ottomans , and profiting from the lucrative trade with France. It was also believed that an Austrian Archduke could be too powerful and attempt to limit noble privileges. French envoys had also offered large amounts of bribes, amounting to several hundred thousand ecus . Upon ascending
1120-504: A century, from the mid-17th century to the end of the 18th, while its neighbours stabilised their internal affairs and increased their military might. The Commonwealth did eventually make a serious effort to reform its political system, adopting in 1791 the Constitution of 3 May 1791 , which historian Norman Davies calls the first of its kind in Europe. The revolutionary Constitution recast
1280-555: A city on this spot was founded by the ancient Dacians , who lived in what is now modern Romania , Moldova , and portions of Ukraine. Historians write that the founders named the settlement Petridava or Klepidava , which originate from the Greek word petra or Latin lapis ' stone ' and Dacian dava 'city'. Modern Kamianets-Podilskyi was first mentioned in 1062, when it belonged to smaller principality of Terebovlia , then Halych principality and Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia , as
1440-568: A column through the streets and forming a viche near the city council, they expressed their anger at the authorities for their arbitrariness. In the future, many residents of the city gathered every day for vigils under the city council to express their protests against the regime and to support the Euromaidan in Kyiv. The largest rally in terms of numbers took place on 26 January 2014, about 2,000 people took part in it. As of 2015 , Kamianets-Podilskyi
1600-464: A commercial center, Kamianets-Podilskyi has been a multiethnic and multi-religious city with substantial Jewish and Armenian minorities. Under Soviet rule it became subject to severe persecutions, and many Poles were forcibly deported to Central Asia . Massacres such as the Vinnytsia massacre have taken place throughout Podillya, the last resort of independent Ukraine . Early on, Kamianets-Podilskyi
1760-500: A contract with merchants of Gdańsk, who controlled 80% of this inland trade, to ship the grain north to that seaport on the Baltic Sea . Countless rivers and waterways in the Commonwealth were used for shipping purposes, including the Vistula , Pilica , Bug , San , Nida , Wieprz , and Neman . The rivers had relatively developed infrastructure, with river ports and granaries . Most of
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#17328914649941920-719: A conventional name appeared - «Chornopidzhachnyky». Thereafter Kamianets remained in Soviet Ukraine until the Dissolution of the Soviet Union . Ukrainian Insurgent Army A structural network of the OUN functioned on the territory of the city: Kamianets-Podilsky District, which belonged to the UPA-South. During the German occupation, Ukrainian national forces formed local self-government bodies:
2080-420: A counter-attack of light cavalry. At the same time, Sobieski ordered all troops guarding other approaches towards the city to join the main forces located along the road. The 1700-strong group of Polish hussars was joined by three banners (300 men) of Lithuanian light cavalry under hetman Michał Kazimierz Radziwiłł . Sobieski ordered the cavalry group to advance through the unguarded western gorge. The ravine
2240-610: A final bid to preserve his power in Ukraine, signed a treaty with Sultan Mehmed IV in 1669 that recognized the Cossack Hetmanate as a vassal of the Ottoman Empire. In the meantime, Commonwealth forces were trying to put down unrest in Ukraine, but were weakened by decades long wars ( Khmelnytsky Uprising , The Deluge and Russo-Polish War (1654–1667) ). Trying to capitalize on that weakness, Tatars , who commonly raided across
2400-744: A fortress nearby, Okopy Świętej Trójcy (now Okopy, Ternopil Oblast ; meaning "the Entrenchments of the Holy Trinity"). In 1674, local Armenians, who made up one of the main Armenian communes in Poland up to that point, were expelled by the Ottomans. Most, after about three years of exile in the Balkans , moved to the territories remaining within Poland, chiefly Lwów and Stanisławów . In 1687, Poland attempted to regain control over Kamianets-Podilskyi and Podolia, when
2560-493: A mass scale were opened to satisfy the demands of the nobility as consumers. At the height of the Great Northern War a coalition ( Warsaw Confederation ) against Augustus II was formed by Stanisław Leszczyński and other magnates sponsored by Sweden. The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was formally neutral at this point, as Augustus entered the war as Elector of Saxony. Disregarding Polish negotiation proposals supported by
2720-472: A mixture of: The end of the Jagiellonian dynasty in 1572 – after nearly two centuries – disrupted the fragile equilibrium of the Commonwealth's government. Power increasingly slipped away from the central government to the nobility. When presented with periodic opportunities to fill the throne, the szlachta exhibited a preference for foreign candidates who would not establish
2880-441: A nobleman's landholding comprised a folwark , a large farmstead worked by serfs to produce surpluses for internal and external trade. This economic arrangement worked well for the ruling classes and nobles in the early years of the Commonwealth, which was one of the most prosperous eras of the grain trade . The economic strength of Commonwealth grain trade waned from the late 17th century on. Trade relationships were disrupted by
3040-625: A rally was held in the city in support of the students of Kyiv, who announced a hunger strike as a sign of protest against the government's policies. In the central square of the city, the demands of the students to the Verkhovna Rada of the Ukrainian SSR regarding the adoption of laws on local self-government and the non-signing of the Union Treaty, and to the City Council regarding the raising of
3200-505: A regular war in 1671, as the Ottoman Empire was now prepared to send its regular units onto the battlefield in a bid to try to gain control of that region for itself. Ottoman forces, numbering 80,000 men and led by Grand Vizier Köprülü Fazıl Ahmed and Ottoman sultan Mehmed IV , invaded Polish Ukraine in August, took the Commonwealth fortress at Kamieniec Podolski and besieged Lwów . Unprepared for war, and torn by internal conflict between
3360-519: A series of blows during the following decades. Władysław's brother, John II Casimir , proved to be weak and impotent. The multicultural and mega-diverse federation already suffered domestic problems. As persecution of religious and ethnic minorities strengthened, several groups started to rebel. A major rebellion of self-governed Ukrainian Cossacks inhabiting south-eastern borderlands of the Commonwealth rioted against Polish and Catholic oppression of Orthodox Ukraine in 1648, in what came to be known as
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#17328914649943520-608: A state that was unusual for its time, although somewhat similar political systems existed in the contemporary city-states like the Republic of Venice . Both states were styled "Serenissima Respublica" or the " Most Serene Republic ". At a time when most European countries were headed toward centralization , absolute monarchy and religious and dynastic warfare, the Commonwealth experimented with decentralization , confederation and federation, democracy and religious tolerance . This political system unusual for its time stemmed from
3680-416: A strong and long-lasting dynasty . This policy often produced monarchs who were either totally ineffective or in constant debilitating conflict with the nobility. Furthermore, aside from notable exceptions such as the able Stefan Batory from Transylvania (1576–86), the kings of foreign origin were inclined to subordinate the interests of the Commonwealth to those of their own country and ruling house. This
3840-403: A substantial increase in the power of the Polish magnates , and the transformation of szlachta democracy into magnate oligarchy . The Commonwealth's political system was vulnerable to outside interference, as Sejm deputies bribed by foreign powers might use their liberum veto to block attempted reforms. This sapped the Commonwealth and plunged it into political paralysis and anarchy for over
4000-468: A term used from 1573 on), included: The three regions (see below) of the Commonwealth enjoyed a degree of autonomy . Each voivodship had its own parliament (sejmik), which exercised serious political power, including choice of poseł ( deputy ) to the national Sejm and charging of the deputy with specific voting instructions. The Grand Duchy of Lithuania had its own separate army, treasury and most other official institutions. Golden Liberty created
4160-825: A town of the Kyivan Rus' state. In 1241, it was destroyed by the Mongolian invaders . In 1352, it was inherited by the Polish King Casimir III . In 1374 the city was granted Magdeburg Law . In 1370, the Dominican monastic order began to function in Kamianets, a monastery was founded, and soon the Franciscans founded their own monastery in the city. Later, monks of other orders moved: Jesuits (1608), Discalced Carmelites (1623), Trinitarians (1699). In 1378 it became seat of
4320-490: Is a city on the Smotrych River in western Ukraine , to the north-east of Chernivtsi . Formerly the administrative center of Khmelnytskyi Oblast , the city is now the administrative center of Kamianets-Podilskyi Raion within the oblast. It hosts the administration of Kamianets-Podilskyi urban hromada . Population: 96,896 (2022 estimate). Kamianets-Podilskyi is a historical center of Podolia region, serving as
4480-610: Is a significant economic, cultural, educational and tourist center of the state. In 2004, residents of the city actively participated in the Orange Revolution , people held rallies on the Renaissance Square. On 1 December 2013, city students from the Ivan Ohiienko National University , Podolia State Agrarian and Technical University and other educational institutions protested in the city, marching in
4640-573: Is located in the southern portion of the Khmelnytskyi Oblast , located in the western Ukrainian region of Podillia . The area where the city is located is part of the Podolian Upland which is notable for its elevated places known as Tovtry (see Podilski Tovtry National Nature Park ) and creating a canyon -like relief feature. The Smotrych River , a tributary of the Dniester , flows through
4800-515: Is located. After the defeat of the Ukrainian People's Republic in the Ukrainian-Soviet war , the city was occupied by the Red Army. The area including Kamianets-Podilskyi was ceded to Soviet Ukraine in the 1921 Treaty of Riga , which determined its future for the next seven decades as part of the Ukrainian SSR. Poles and Ukrainians have always dominated the city's population. However, as
4960-669: The Army of the Ukrainian People's Republic (UPR) and the Red Army took place in the village Veliki Zozulintsi and surrounding villages nearby Kamianets-Podilskyi. On 7 July 1920 soldiers of the 6th Reserve Rifle Brigade of the UPR Army were taken prisoner by the Bolsheviks . After refusing to join the Red Army, captured UPR soldiers were executed. In Veliki Zozulintsi a mass grave of 26 UPR soldiers
Polish–Ottoman War (1672–1676) - Misplaced Pages Continue
5120-632: The Cossack register to 40,000 Hetman John Sobieski led a military campaign against the Ottomans and dealt several defeats to the Ottomans After capturing Kamieniec Podolski , the Ottoman army began the siege of Lwów on September 20. At that time, the Tatars , who were not taking part in the siege, aided by Hetman Petro Doroshenko 's Cossacks and some Ottoman troops divided into three main groups, ravaged
5280-499: The Danube River , never again to threaten central Europe. John Sobieski's death in 1696 arguably ended the period of national sovereignty, and Poland's relative authority over the region dwindled swiftly. By the 18th century, destabilization of its political system brought the Commonwealth to the brink of civil war and the state became increasingly susceptible to foreign influence. The remaining European powers perpetually meddled in
5440-678: The Directorate period, the city was chosen as de facto capital of Ukraine after the Russian communist forces occupied Kyiv . During the Polish-Soviet War , the city was captured by the Polish Army on the night of 16–17 November 1919 and was under Polish administration from 16 November 1919, to 12 July 1920 as capital of the Podolian District . In July 1920 battles between units of
5600-705: The Four-Year Sejm 's May Constitution , came too late. The country was partitioned in three stages by the Russian Empire, the German Kingdom of Prussia , and the Austrian Habsburg monarchy . By 1795, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth had been completely erased from the map of Europe. Poland and Lithuania were not re-established as independent countries until 1918. The political doctrine of
5760-606: The Khmelnytsky Uprising . It resulted in a Ukrainian request, under the terms of the Treaty of Pereyaslav , for protection by the Russian Tsar. In 1651, in the face of a growing threat from Poland, and forsaken by his Tatar allies, Khmelnytsky asked the Tsar to incorporate Ukraine as an autonomous duchy under Russian protection. Russian annexation of Zaporizhian Ukraine gradually supplanted Polish influence in that part of Europe. In
5920-605: The Khotyn fortress in the first days of November 1673. The fortress had natural defensive qualities, as it was located in a bend of the Dniester River. It was protected from the land side by earth ramparts and numerous defensive fortifications built on the site of a former Polish camp from half a century before. The first attacks on the Turkish positions were carried out by Sobieski on November 10, however, they were intended only to recognize
6080-577: The Ottoman Empire . In 1683, the Battle of Vienna marked the final turning point in the 250-year struggle between the forces of Christian Europe and the Islamic Ottomans. For its centuries-long opposition to Muslim advances, the Commonwealth would gain the name of Antemurale Christianitatis (bulwark of Christianity). During the next 16 years, the Great Turkish War would drive the Turks permanently south of
6240-631: The Polish Enlightenment began to sprout. In 1764, aristocrat Stanisław August Poniatowski was elected monarch with the connivance and support of his former lover Catherine the Great , a German noblewoman who became Empress of Russia. Poniatowski's attempts at reform were met with staunch resistance both internally and externally. Any goal of stabilizing the Commonwealth was dangerous for its ambitious and aggressive neighbours. Like his predecessors, he sponsored artists and architects. In 1765 he founded
6400-577: The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth . Between the Wieprz and San rivers, the forces of Jiambet Giray were active, while the Nurredin-Sultan 's forces were active south of the Dniester . A third group commanded by Haci Giray operated on the Vistula and the middle San as far as Jasło . In total, these groups numbered about 20,000 soldiers and operated in dispersion. Grand Hetman of
6560-581: The Reciprocal Guarantee of Two Nations (1791). In the preamble of the Reciprocal Guarantee of Two Nations (1791) the dualistic nature of the state was confirmed and separate monarchial titles of Stanisław August Poniatowski were included: King of Poland ( Polish : Krol Polski ) and Grand Duke of Lithuania ( Polish : Wielki xiązę litewski ), also the land envoys of the Polish Crown and
Polish–Ottoman War (1672–1676) - Misplaced Pages Continue
6720-420: The Russian census of 1897 , Kamianets-Podilskyi remained the largest city of Podolia with a population of 35,934. In 1906, the local society " Prosvita " was established in the city, thanks to its activities, the study of the Ukrainian language was introduced in primary and parish schools. On 1 July 1910, more than 48 percent of the city's residents were Jews . The city was located in the settlement zone that
6880-403: The Tatar yasir . The Great Hetman of the Crown, who was directing the operations, used a very effective method of throwing a group of several hundred horsemen against the Tatars, which distracted them from the main forces coming from the opposite direction. This method always made it possible to smash the Tatars, and prevented them from encircling the army completely. The extraordinary success of
7040-430: The Third Statute of Lithuania in which it was stated that the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth is a federation of two countries – Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of Poland where both countries have equal rights within it. In the 17th century and later it was also known as the 'Most Serene Commonwealth of Poland' ( Polish : Najjaśniejsza Rzeczpospolita Polska , Latin : Serenissima Res Publica Poloniae ),
7200-581: The Thirty Years' War ; this neutrality spared the country from the ravages of a political-religious conflict that devastated most of contemporary Europe. During this period, Poland was experiencing a cultural awakening and extensive developments in arts and architecture; the first Vasa king openly sponsored foreign painters, craftsmen, musicians and engineers, who settled in the Commonwealth at his request. Sigismund's eldest son, Ladislaus succeeded him as Władysław IV in 1632 with no major opposition. A skilled tactician, he invested in artillery , modernised
7360-420: The Treaty of Andrusovo of 1667) and promised an annual tribute of 22,000 ducats . Instead of ratifying the peace treaty, the Commonwealth Sejm, with most of the deputies finally united by anger due to the territorial losses and the demeaning tribute (which could in fact be seen as reducing the Commonwealth to Ottomans' vassal) finally raised taxes for a new army (of about 37,000 strong was raised) and increased
7520-448: The Union of Vilnius and Radom and the Union of Grodno . Lithuania's vulnerable position and rising tensions on its eastern flank persuaded the nobles to seek a closer bond with Poland. The idea of a federation presented better economic opportunities, whilst securing Lithuania's borders from hostile states to the north, south and east. Lesser Lithuanian nobility were eager to share the personal privileges and political liberties enjoyed by
7680-449: The Warsaw Corps of Cadets , the first state school in Poland for all classes of society. In 1773 the king and parliament formed the Commission of National Education , the first Ministry of Education in European history. In 1792, the king ordered the creation of Virtuti Militari , the oldest military decoration still in use. Stanisław August also admired the culture of ancient kingdoms, particularly Rome and Greece; Neoclassicism became
7840-412: The battle of Nemirów , he caught up with and smashed Jiambet 's forces. After a one-day rest on October 8, Sobieski on October 9 caught up with and beat Nurredin-Sultan's main forces in the battle of Komarno , pursuing them to Vyshnia . On October 11, Sobieski's troops crossed the Dniester and set off in pursuit of the retreating Haci Girey. After a strenuous day and night march, the crown army , in
8000-414: The bourgeoisie , resulted in a fairly slow process of urbanization and thus a rather slow development of industries . The nobility could also regulate the price of grain for their advantage, thus acquiring much wealth. Some of the largest trade fairs in the Commonwealth were held at Lublin . Several ancient trading routes such as the Amber Road ( Pic. 4 ) extended across Poland–Lithuania, which
8160-412: The 16th century. From Gdańsk, ships carried cargo to the major ports of the Low Countries , such as Antwerp and Amsterdam . The land routes, mostly to the German provinces of the Holy Roman Empire such as the cities of Leipzig and Nuremberg , were used for the export of live cattle (herds of around 50,000 head) hides , salt, tobacco, hemp and cotton from the Greater Poland region. In turn,
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#17328914649948320-419: The Americas rendered the Commonwealth's supplies less crucial which resulted in financial losses. Augustus III spent little time in the Commonwealth, instead preferring the Saxon city of Dresden . He appointed Heinrich von Brühl as viceroy and minister of Polish affairs who in turn left the politics to Polish magnate families, such as the Czartoryskis and the Radziwiłłs . It was also during this period that
8480-483: The Commonwealth borders in search of loot and plunder, invaded, this time allying themselves with Cossacks under Hetman Doroshenko. They were however stopped by Commonwealth forces under Hetman John Sobieski , who stopped their first push (1666–67), defeating them several times, and finally gaining an armistice after the Battle of Podhajce . In 1670, however, hetman Doroshenko tried once again to take over Ukraine, and in 1671 Khan of Crimea , Adil Giray , supportive of
8640-461: The Commonwealth entirely ceased to exist only four years after its adoption. The economy of the Commonwealth was predominantly based on agricultural output and trade, though there was an abundance of artisan workshops and manufactories – notably paper mills , leather tanneries , ironworks , glassworks and brickyards . Some major cities were home to craftsmen, jewellers and clockmakers. The majority of industries and trades were concentrated in
8800-426: The Commonwealth imported wine, beer, fruit, exotic spices, luxury goods (e.g. tapestries , Pic. 5 ), furniture, fabrics as well as industrial products like steel and tools. The agricultural sector was dominated by feudalism based on the plantation system ( serfs ). Slavery was forbidden in Poland in the 15th century, and formally abolished in Lithuania in 1588, replaced by the second enserfment. Typically
8960-402: The Commonwealth of the Polish Kingdom, or the Commonwealth of Poland. Western Europeans often simplified the name to 'Poland' and in most past and modern sources it is referred to as the Kingdom of Poland, or just Poland. The terms 'Commonwealth of Poland' and 'Commonwealth of Two Nations' ( Polish : Rzeczpospolita Obojga Narodów , Latin : Res Publica Utriusque Nationis ) were used in
9120-581: The Commonwealth resumed the offensive, taking advantage of a new Russo-Turkish conflict that year, and the Polish-Ottoman war remained undecided. In the early summer of 1675 the Ottoman forces of Ibrahim Şişman ( Abraham the Fat ) crossed the Polish border into Podolia and started its rapid march towards Lwów along the banks of the Dniester . The army numbered some 20,000 men and was composed of Ottoman infantry and cavalry with significant Crimean Tatar detachments. The Polish king John III Sobieski decided to concentrate his troops in and around Lwów and face
9280-472: The Commonwealth was our state is a republic under the presidency of the King . Chancellor Jan Zamoyski summed up this doctrine when he said that Rex regnat et non-gubernat ("The King reigns but [ lit. 'and'] does not govern"). The Commonwealth had a parliament, the Sejm, as well as a Senat and an elected king ( Pic. 1 ). The king was obliged to respect citizens' rights specified in King Henry's Articles as well as in pacta conventa , negotiated at
9440-458: The Commonwealth was involved in, increasingly invited foreign forces to prey on the Commonwealth. On the Polish side the fighting was done mostly by a force privately financed by John Sobieski . He gained reputation as an able, courageous commander and a patriot, having invested part of his personal fortune in the defense of the Commonwealth. In 1674 he was elected King of Poland and ruled now as John III. Sobieski's reputation also preceded him in
9600-454: The Commonwealth's influence into the Baltics . Most importantly, Poland gained the Hanseatic city of Riga on the Baltic Sea . In 1587, Sigismund Vasa – the son of John III of Sweden and Catherine Jagiellon – won the election, but his claim was overtly contested by Maximilian III of Austria , who launched a military expedition to challenge the new king. His defeat in 1588 at the hands of Jan Zamoyski sealed Sigismund's right to
9760-403: The Commonwealth, was replaced with a new one, Selim I Giray , by the Ottoman sultan . Selim entered into an alliance with the Doroshenko's Cossacks; but again like in 1666–67 the Cossack-Tatar forces were dealt defeats by Sobieski. Selim then renewed his oath of allegiance to the Ottoman Sultan and pleaded for assistance, to which the Sultan agreed. Thus an irregular border conflict escalated into
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#17328914649949920-416: The Commonwealth, who by the second half of the 17th century had started its gradual decline that would culminate a century later with the partitions of Poland . The unruly Sejm, paralyzed by liberum veto and foreign bribery, was dominated by politicians who thought in short term gains only and constantly refused the funds to raise an army, as it appeared that most of the Commonwealth would not be ravaged by
10080-535: The Commonwealth. The Turkish forces withdrew from Poland after their supplies and most of their artillery were captured but they retained most of western Ukraine . Sobieski and the nobles returned to Warsaw for elections following the death of Michael Wisniowiecki, King of Poland , the day before the battle. After the victory at Khotyn he took control of the Moldavia territory and most of disputed Ukrainian lands. That year King Michael I of Poland died, and in recognition of his victories and dedication, John Sobieski
10240-406: The Crown John III Sobieski , who had only 2.5-3 thousand cavalry and dragoons , moved on October 5 from Krasnystaw against the Tatars, without wagons and taking two horses per soldier. Going to the rear of the Tatar groups, he advanced toward Zamość and at night smashed a small chambul in the battle of Krasnobród , and on October 6 two chambuls in the battle of Narol . On October 7, in
10400-498: The Grand Duchy of Lithuania ( Polish : posłow ziemskich Korony Polskiey, y Wielkiego Xięstwa Litewskiego ) were mentioned. The English term Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and German Polen–Litauen are seen as renderings of the 'Commonwealth of Two Nations' variant. Other informal names include the 'Republic of Nobles' ( Polish : Rzeczpospolita szlachecka ) and the 'First Commonwealth' ( Polish : I Rzeczpospolita ) or 'First Polish Republic' ( Polish : Pierwsza Rzeczpospolita ),
10560-404: The Hussars in order to give the impression that the number of Polish troops was much higher. The Ottomans advance along the route exactly as Sobieski predicted. Convinced that a large group of Hussars were hiding in the woods on the hills, Ibrahim Shyshman ordered a strong group of cavalry to reach the road through one of the ravines. They were stopped by the Polish infantry and then pushed back by
10720-490: The Kingdom of Poland; the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was more rural and its economy was driven by farming and clothmaking. Mining developed in the south-west region of Poland which was rich in natural resources such as lead , coal, copper and salt. The currency used in Poland–Lithuania was the złoty (meaning "the golden") and its subunit, the grosz . Foreign coins in the form of ducats , thalers and shillings were widely accepted and exchanged. The city of Gdańsk had
10880-427: The NKVD ). For example, on the territory of the Roman Catholic Church of Archangel Michael, in the former monastery of the Dominican sisters, the Soviet authorities set up a prison, and in its dungeon - a torture chamber. In the 1930s, most of all, in 1937, people were shot in the basements of the monastery. According to some memories, for example, up to a hundred people were brought in a day. Twenty were sent to camps in
11040-427: The Ottoman Empire, and his victory several years later at the Battle of Vienna would ensure his reputation as the top commander fighting the Ottomans — however even he would not be able to stop the Commonwealth from decline and introduce reforms that would save the country. The Commonwealth did regain the territories lost in this war after the Polish–Ottoman War (1683–1699) in the 1699 Treaty of Karlowitz , but that
11200-425: The Ottoman armies. Even after the unfavourable Buczacz treaty, which convinced the Sejm to raise the taxes, once initial successes were achieved, the majority of the Sejm again couldn't be convinced to keep up the pressure on the enemy; soldiers were left unpaid and desertions on a mass scale negatively affected the Polish cause. This apparent inability to defend itself, also seen in the other recent and future conflicts
11360-410: The Poles to take and occupy Moscow for the next two years. The disgraced Vasili IV of Russia was transported in a cage to Warsaw where he paid a tribute to Sigismund; Vasili was later murdered in captivity. The Commonwealth forces were eventually driven out on 4 November 1612 (celebrated as Unity Day in Russia). The war concluded with a truce that granted Poland–Lithuania extensive territories in
11520-725: The Polish szlachta , but did not accept Polish demands for the incorporation of the Grand Duchy into Poland as a mere province, with no sense of autonomy. Mikołaj "the Red" Radziwiłł (Radvila Rudasis) and his cousin Mikołaj "the Black" Radziwiłł , two prominent nobles and military commanders in Lithuania, vocally opposed the union. A fierce proponent of a single unified Commonwealth was Sigismund II Augustus , who
11680-529: The Russian Empire had set aside for Jews. In 1914, a direct railway line linked the city to Proskurov . During World War I , the city was occupied by Austria-Hungary in 1915. After the collapse of the Russian Empire in 1917, the city was briefly controlled by the Ukrainian People's Republic and the Hetmanate before ending up as part of the Ukrainian SSR when Ukraine fell under Bolshevik power. During
11840-708: The Swedish parliament, Charles crossed into the Commonwealth and vanquished the Saxe-Polish forces at the Battle of Kliszów in 1702 and at the Battle of Pułtusk in 1703. Charles then succeeded in dethroning Augustus and coercing the Sejm (parliament) to replace him with Stanisław in 1704. Augustus regained the throne in 1709, but his own death in 1733 sparked the War of the Polish Succession in which Stanisław once more attempted to seize
12000-571: The Turks approached Trembowla. The castle was defended by a small unit of 80 infantry soldiers, some members of the local nobility, supported by 200 poorly armed, untrained peasants and residents of the town, who fled to the castle. Before the siege, a unit of dragoons stationed here, but was ordered to leave Trembowla, due to food shortages. Polish forces were commanded by Captain Jan Samuel Chrzanowski , whose wife, Anna Dorota Chrzanowska (née Anna Dorota von Fresen), became immortalized after
12160-423: The Turks, at dawn on November 11 Sobieski personally led his troops to storm the Turkish camp. After a cannon salvo, the infantry and dragoons stormed the ramparts, pushing back the enemy and making room for the cavalry. After which, the hussars , led by Hetman Jabłonowski, rushed through the breaches in the ramparts. The Turks responded with a counterattack by the spahis' cavalry, but the spahis could not withstand
12320-413: The administrative center of Kamianets-Podilskyi Raion though it did not belong to the raion. In July 2020, as part of the administrative reform of Ukraine, which reduced the number of raions of Khmelnytskyi Oblast to three, the city of Kamianets-Podilskyi was merged into Kamianets-Podilskyi Raion . The Russian invasion of Ukraine began on the morning of 24 February 2022, during rocket fire. In 2015,
12480-601: The army and fiercely defended the Commonwealth's eastern borders. Under the Treaty of Stuhmsdorf , he reclaimed regions of Livonia and the Baltics which were lost during the Polish-Swedish wars. Unlike his father who worshipped the Habsburgs, Władysław sought closer ties with France and married Marie Louise Gonzaga , daughter of Charles I Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua , in 1646. The Commonwealth's power and stability began waning after
12640-459: The ascendance of the szlachta noble class over other social classes and over the political system of monarchy. In time, the szlachta accumulated enough privileges (such as those established by the Nihil novi Act of 1505) that no monarch could hope to break the szlachta's grip on power. The Commonwealth's political system is difficult to fit into a simple category, but it can be tentatively described as
12800-414: The assaulting Muslim army after more reinforcements arrived. The Ottoman commander was notified of the concentration and moved his army to Lwow. Sobieski decided to split his forces. A unit of 180 infantrymen, 200 light cavalry and several cannons was placed in the easternmost of the ravines leading to the road to Lwów. Most of the heavy cavalry were placed on the road itself, directly behind the valleys and
12960-477: The assembly in protest. Sigismund II used his authority as grand duke and enforced the Act of Union in contumaciam . In fear, the absent nobles promptly returned to the negotiations. The Union of Lublin was passed by the gathered deputies and signed by attendees on 1 July, thus creating the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Sigismund's death in 1572 was followed by an interregnum during which adjustments were made to
13120-423: The battlefield and the deployment of enemy forces. The actual battle was fought the next day, when Sobieski hit the Turks tired of the weather and sleeplessness. The Polish-Lithuanian leader took advantage of the fact that the weather was frosty and the Turks were ill-equipped and unprepared for such weather conditions. After an all-night branding of the attack by the besiegers, in a strong wind and murderous cold for
13280-562: The blue-yellow flag were approved. On 16 October the presidium of the city council satisfied the students' demand and was the first in Khmelnytskyi to raise the national flag. On 16 July 1990, the new Ukrainian parliament adopted a declaration of sovereignty . On 16 January 1991, Pope John Paul II re-established the Roman Catholic Diocese of Kamianets-Podilskyi , which was dissolved under Soviet occupation. Since 24 August 1991, Kamianets-Podilskyi has been part of independent Ukraine and
13440-602: The borders. The situation was also difficult in the city, according to data in 1932-1933, 585 people died of hunger. During the years of the Great Terror , namely 1937-1938, 9,009 people of various nationalities and professions were convicted in Kamianets-Podilskyi, 62 people were arrested on charges of espionage, and hundreds of people were evicted from the city by the families of "enemies". people", for example 101 families of Polish nationality (see Polish Operation of
13600-518: The bravado of the hussars' charge, and soon the fighting heated up inside the fortress and the Turkish camp, among the dens of tents. In view of the panic that gripped the Turkish troops, Hussein Pasha ordered an evacuation to the other bank of the Dniester. But the only bridge at Chocim was damaged by Polish-Lithuanian artillery fire and collapsed under the weight of those fleeing. Only a few thousand Turks out of
13760-469: The castle. Furthermore, Anna Dorota urged the defenders to carry out an attack on Ottoman positions, which resulted in heavy losses among the invaders. Chrzanowska's determination raised the morale among the Poles, but their losses were also heavy. In the night of October 4/5, only 20 soldiers were able to fight. Facing danger from forces of Jan III Sobieski , which concentrated near Lwow , the Turks decided to end
13920-878: The city's dual name originates from kamin ' ( Ukrainian : камiнь ) or kamen , meaning 'stone' in Old Slavic . The second part of its name relates to the historic region of Podilia ( Ukrainian : Подíлля ), of which Kamianets-Podilskyi is considered to be the historic capital. Therefore, the town name literally means ' The Stones of Podilia '. Equivalents of the name in other languages are: Polish : Kamieniec Podolski ; Romanian : Camenița Podoliei ; Latin : Camenecium ; Ottoman Turkish : كامانىچه , romanized : Kamaniçe ; Hungarian : Kamenyeck-Podolszk ; Yiddish : קאָמענעץ ,קאמיניץ , romanized : Komenets, Komenits ; Russian : Каменец-Подольский , romanized : Kamenets-Podolskiy ; English: Kamenets-Podolsk. Kamianets-Podilskyi
14080-455: The city. The total area of the city comprises 27.84 square kilometers (10.7 sq mi). Among other notable neighboring cities, Kamianets-Podilskyi is located about 101 kilometres (62.8 mi) from the oblast's administrative center, Khmelnytskyi and across Dniester in southwestern direction 88 kilometres (54.7 mi) from Chernivtsi , an administrative center of the neighboring Chernivtsi Oblast . Several historians consider that
14240-534: The conservative magnates and Pope Innocent XII , who in turn voiced their endorsement. Imperial Russia and Habsburg Austria also contributed by financing Frederick, whose election took place in June 1697. Many questioned the legality of his elevation to the throne; it was speculated that the Prince of Conti had received more votes and was the rightful heir. Frederick hurried with his armies to Poland to quell any opposition. He
14400-450: The constitution as the "contagion of democratic ideas". Meanwhile, Prussia and Austria used it as a pretext for further territorial expansion. Prussian minister Ewald Friedrich von Hertzberg called the constitution "a blow to the Prussian monarchy", fearing that a strengthened Poland would once again dominate Prussia. In the end, the 3 May Constitution was never fully implemented, and
14560-408: The constitutional system; these adjustments significantly increased the power of the Polish nobility and established a truly elective monarchy . On 11 May 1573, Henry de Valois , son of Henry II of France and Catherine de' Medici , was proclaimed King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania in the first royal election outside Warsaw . Approximately 40,000 nobles cast a vote in what was to become
14720-761: The construction of the European Square was completed in the city center, where the flags of the European Union countries fly, according to officials, this will be a confirmation of the European choice of the city and Ukraine. Thanks to the EU program Mayors for Economic Growth, and cooperation with the public organization Eidos: Centre for Political Studies and Analysis, the city received a grant of 1.8 million hryvnias to support small and medium-sized enterprises, conduct seminars, business trainings, and promote products. Until 2022,
14880-577: The country's affairs. Upon the death of a king, several royal houses actively intruded in the hope of securing votes for their desired candidates. The practice was common and apparent, and the selection was often the result of hefty bribes directed at corrupt nobles. Louis XIV of France heavily invested in François Louis, Prince of Conti , in opposition to James Louis Sobieski , Maximilian Emanuel of Bavaria and Frederick Augustus of Saxony . The latter's conversion from Lutheranism to Catholicism awed
15040-527: The country. Russia feared the revolutionary implications of the 3 May Constitution's political reforms and the prospect of the Commonwealth regaining its position as a European power. Catherine the Great regarded the May constitution as fatal to her influence and declared the Polish constitution Jacobinical . Grigori Aleksandrovich Potemkin drafted the act for the Targowica Confederation , referring to
15200-511: The course of Operation Barbarossa . German, Ukrainian, and Hungarian police massacred 23,000 Jews 27–28 August 1941. On 26 March 1944, the town was occupated by the Red Army after German occupation in the battle of the Kamenets-Podolsky pocket . After the capture of the city by the Soviet army, the population's disloyalty to the Soviet government was manifested not by a desire to continue
15360-536: The crown, this time with the support of France. The Pacification Sejm culminated in Augustus III succeeding his father. The relative peace and inactivity that followed only weakened Poland's reputation on the world stage. Aleksander Brückner noted that Polish customs and traditions were abandoned in favour of everything foreign, and neighbouring states continued to exploit Poland to their advantage. Moreover, Western Europe's increasing exploitation of resources in
15520-409: The dominant form of architectural and cultural expression. Politically, however, the vast Commonwealth was in steady decline and by 1768, it started to be considered by Russians as a protectorate of the Russian Empire despite the fact that it was still an independent state. A majority of control over Poland was central to Catherine's diplomatic and military strategies. Attempts at reform, such as
15680-401: The dominant partner in the union. Polonization of nobles was generally voluntary, but state efforts at religious conversion were sometimes resisted. After a long period of prosperity, the Commonwealth entered a period of protracted political, military, and economic decline. Its growing weakness led to its partitioning among its neighbours, Austria , Prussia , and Russia , during
15840-453: The east and marked its largest territorial expansion. At least five million Russians died between 1598 and 1613, the result of continuous conflict, famine and Sigismund's invasion. The Polish–Ottoman War (1620–21) forced Poland to withdraw from Moldavia in southeastern Europe, but Sigismund's victory over the Turks at Khotyn diminished the supremacy of the Sultanate and eventually led to
16000-491: The end of the Jagiellonian dynasty and introduced an elective monarchy , whereupon members of domestic noble families or external dynasties were elected to the throne for life. The Commonwealth's parliamentary system of government and elective monarchy , called the Golden Liberty , was an early example of constitutional monarchy . The General Sejm , the bicameral Parliament , held legislative power; its lower house
16160-473: The entire 35,000-strong army managed to get through to Kamieniec Podolski. The rest of the Turkish troops fell or were taken prisoner. The Polish-Lithuanian losses were much smaller, and a strongly fortified fortress with large supplies of food and war supplies was captured. The Battle of Khotyn ended with a total victory for the Commonwealth , but it did not bring a breakthrough in the war and did not lead to
16320-502: The erstwhile Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth as a Polish–Lithuanian federal state with a hereditary monarchy and abolished many of the deleterious features of the old system. The new constitution: These reforms came too late, however, as the Commonwealth was immediately invaded from all sides by its neighbors, which had been content to leave the Commonwealth alone as a weak buffer state, but reacted strongly to attempts by king Stanisław August Poniatowski and other reformers to strengthen
16480-529: The events. A plague broke out and the local priests exhumed his body and cut the head off to prevent any further disaster. After the Second Partition of Poland in 1793, the city belonged to the Russian Empire , where it was the capital of the Podolia Governorate . The Russian Tsar Peter the Great , who visited the fortress twice, was impressed by its fortifications. One of the towers was used as
16640-458: The expedition with such a small force was due to the fact that Sobieski was always able to choose the right direction of action, thanks to which the rapidly advancing Polish troops using the Tatar marching technique were able to catch up with and smash individual enemy cavalries. The Polish-Lithuanian army, numbering some 30,000 soldiers, under the command of Grand Crown Hetman John Sobieski , besieged
16800-521: The fight against the Nazis, but people were tired of the difficult periods of the German-Soviet war . But the Red Army launched active mobilization measures from the very first days of entering the city. Such measures significantly reduced the quality of the selection of conscripts, and also negatively affected the level of their training. The pernicious practice of their immediate use in hostilities began from
16960-545: The first days of mobilization, therefore a significant number of mobilized residents of Kamianets and local villages died in the subsequent phases of the Dnieper–Carpathian offensive in the territory of neighboring regions. Sending poorly trained, and most often poorly dressed and armed people into battle was more reminiscent of a cruel act of revenge for the disloyalty to the Stalinist government shown in 1941, for such units
17120-527: The fortress was unsuccessfully besieged by the Poles led by Prince James Louis Sobieski . In 1699, the city was given back to Poland under King Augustus II the Strong according to the Treaty of Karlowitz . The fortress was continually enlarged and was regarded as the strongest in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth . The preserved ruins of the fortress still contain the iron cannonballs stuck in them from various sieges. During this period, Bishop Dembowski , at
17280-605: The instigation of the Frankists , convened a public disputation at Kamieniec Podolski, in November 1757, and ordered all copies of the Talmud found in his bishopric to be confiscated and burned. Accounts of the Talmud burning differ—contemporary sources say that up to a thousand copies of the Talmud were destroyed, though other reports say only one copy was burned. Dembowski himself died days after
17440-660: The king Michael I and the szlachta nobility, the Commonwealth Sejm could not act to raise taxes and gather a larger army. Its representatives were forced to sign the Peace of Buczacz in October that year, which ceded to the Ottomans the Commonwealth part of Ukraine (the Right-bank Bracław Voivodeship , Podole Voivodeship and part of Kiev Voivodeship ; Left-bank Ukraine was already controlled by Russia since
17600-460: The king was effectively a partner with the noble class and was constantly supervised by a group of senators . The Sejm could veto the king on important matters, including legislation (the adoption of new laws), foreign affairs, declaration of war, and taxation (changes of existing taxes or the levying of new ones). The foundation of the Commonwealth's political system, the " Golden Liberty " ( Latin : Aurea Libertas or Polish : Złota Wolność ,
17760-662: The last part in The Trilogy of Henryk Sienkiewicz . Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian Commonwealth The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth , formally known as the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and also referred to as Poland–Lithuania or the First Polish Republic , was a federative real union between the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania , existing from 1569 to 1795. This state
17920-708: The late 18th century. Shortly before its demise, the Commonwealth adopted a major reform effort and enacted the 3 May Constitution , which was the first codified constitution in modern European history and the second in modern world history after the United States Constitution . The official name of the state was the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania ( Polish : Królestwo Polskie i Wielkie Księstwo Litewskie , Lithuanian : Lenkijos Karalystė ir Lietuvos Didžioji Kunigaikštystė , Latin : Regnum Poloniae Magnusque Ducatus Lithuaniae ). The Latin term
18080-562: The latter relatively common in historiography to distinguish it from the Second Polish Republic . In Lithuania, the state is referred to as 'Republic of Both Nations' ( Lithuanian : Abiejų Tautų Respublika ). The Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania underwent an alternating series of wars and alliances across the 13th and 14th centuries. The relations between the two states differed at times as each strived and competed for political, economic or military dominance of
18240-462: The lawless environment in the cities caused by the Soviet government. The Holodomor of 1932-1933, a terrible crime of the totalitarian system, did not escape the city. Although the situation was somewhat better than in other regions, this was largely due to the proximity of the border with the modern western Ukrainian territories. Given the border status of Kamianechchyna, the population, especially from
18400-483: The murder of Osman II . This secured the Turkish frontier for the duration of Sigismund's rule. In spite of the victories in the Polish–Swedish War (1626–1629) , the exhausted Commonwealth army signed the Treaty of Altmark which ceded much of Livonia to Sweden under Gustavus Adolphus . At the same time, the country's powerful parliament was dominated by nobles ( Pic. 2 ) who were reluctant to get involved in
18560-533: The new monarch. The nobles simultaneously elected Stephen Báthory as co-regent, who ruled jure uxoris . Báthory's election proved controversial – Lithuania and Ducal Prussia initially refused to recognise the Transylvanian as their ruler. Piotr Zborowski supported Bathory as he wanted to promote a princely or ducal candidate. He also endorsed the Duke of Ferrara . The wealthy port city of Gdańsk (Danzig) staged
18720-559: The nobility remained apprehensive believing that William would not secure domestic interests. Instead, they turned to Jogaila , the Grand Duke of Lithuania. Jogaila was a lifelong pagan and vowed to adopt Catholicism upon marriage by signing the Union of Krewo on 14 August 1385. The Act imposed Christianity in Lithuania and transformed Poland into a diarchy , a kingdom ruled over by two sovereigns; their descendants and successive monarchs held
18880-417: The north, the rest disappeared. During this period, 11,634 Polish and German families, or at least 46,500 citizens, were evicted from Podillia . Following the Soviet invasion of Poland at the start of World War II , the administrative center of the oblast was moved from the city of Kamianets-Podilskyi to the city of Khmelnytskyi . Kamianets-Podilskyi was occupied by the German troops on 11 July 1941 in
19040-420: The plain. The left flank of his forces was guarded by 200 Hussars stationed in the village of Zboiska, while the rest of the light cavalry and infantry guarded all other approaches towards the city in case the Ottomans outflanked the defenders and attacked the city from other directions. The remaining taborites and civilians were ordered to group on the hills surrounding the plains. They were given spare lances of
19200-442: The privilege of minting its own coinage. In 1794, Tadeusz Kościuszko began issuing the first Polish banknotes. The country played a significant role in the supply of Western Europe by the export of grain (rye), cattle (oxen), furs, timber, linen , cannabis , ash , tar , carminic acid and amber . Cereals, cattle and fur amounted to nearly 90% of the country's exports to European markets by overland and maritime trade in
19360-494: The recovery of Kamieniec Podolski. On the other hand, the prestige of the Commonwealth in Europe increased, especially the respect for Hetman John Sobieski among the Turks, who henceforth called Sobieski the "Lion of Khotyn." In result of the battle the Ottoman army suffered crippling losses. It lost two-thirds of its count in either killed or wounded. On top of that Moldavian and Wallachian troops switched sides and decided to support
19520-539: The refurbishment of the Warsaw Royal Castle into a modern palatial residence. Countless landmarks and monuments in the city bear a name referencing the Saxon kings, notably Saxon Garden , Saxon Axis and the former Saxon Palace . The period saw the development of urban planning, street allocation, hospitals, schools ( Collegium Nobilium ), public parks and libraries ( Załuski Library ). First manufactories producing on
19680-449: The region. In turn, Poland had remained a staunch ally of its southern neighbour, Hungary . The last Polish monarch from the native Piast dynasty, Casimir the Great , died on 5 November 1370 without fathering a legitimate male heir. Consequently, the crown passed onto his Hungarian nephew, Louis of Anjou , who ruled the Kingdom of Hungary in a personal union with Poland . A fundamental step in developing extensive ties with Lithuania
19840-593: The regional administration, the regional department of education. Hryhoriy Kybets was appointed the head of the regional administration. In January 1942, the Nazis began mass arrests and executions of people from Bandera in Kamianets-Podilskyi, more than 150 Ukrainian nationalists were shot. In 1944-45, the 19th tactical division of the Kamianets UPA , the Lysonya military district, and the UPA-West military group operated on
20000-563: The river shipping moved north, southward transport being less profitable, and barges and rafts were often sold off in Gdańsk for lumber. Grodno become an important site after formation of a customs post at Augustów in 1569, which became a checkpoint for merchants travelling to the Crown lands from the Grand Duchy. Urban population of the Commonwealth was low compared to Western Europe. Exact numbers depend on calculation methods. According to one source,
20160-407: The siege on October 11. Even after the Battle of Trembowla , the Sejm still refused his pleas for more funds and a larger army. In 1676, after Sobieski's 20,000 withstood the two-week siege of Żurawno , by 50,000 men under Ibrahim Pasha, a new peace treaty was signed, the Treaty of Żurawno . The peace treaty partially reversing those from Buczacz : the Ottomans kept approximately two thirds of
20320-485: The siege. Despite Ottoman efforts, the defenders of castle managed to hold their positions after several attacks. After several days, however, shortages of food and water became severe, and Captain Chrzanowski decided to surrender. His wife disagreed with this decision, and threatened to commit suicide if her husband proceeded with the planned surrender, thereby stiffening his spine and creating an atmosphere for defending
20480-455: The strength of a thousand soldiers (the rest could not keep up and stayed behind), caught up with the Tatars at dawn on October 14 and smashed them in battles at Petranka and Kalush . John Sobieski , at the head of the cavalry and dragoons, traveled from Krasnystaw to the south in 9 days about 450 kilometers . Acting with great self-sacrifice, the Polish soldiers freed about 44,000 people from
20640-463: The territories they gained in 1672, and the Commonwealth no longer was obliged to pay any kind of tribute to the Empire; a large number of Polish prisoners were released by the Ottomans. The Sejm rejected the treaty, through the actions of Austrian diplomats and Pope Innocent XI . Sobieski also was forced to reduce his army from 30,000 to 12,000 men. The war showed the increasing weakness and disorder of
20800-448: The territory of Kamianechchyna in 1944-45. The department was later divided into two parts in the summer of 1945. And self-defense bush units of the UPA from Ternopil Oblast also went on raids. Soviet occupation after 1944 In 1986, the population of the city reached 100,000 people, according to this indicator, Kamianets moved from the category of medium to large cities. On 16 October 1990,
20960-746: The throne of Poland and Sweden. Sigismund's long reign marked an end to the Polish Golden Age and the beginning of the Silver Age. A devout Catholic, he hoped to restore absolutism and imposed Roman Catholicism during the height of the Counter-Reformation . His intolerance towards the Protestants in Sweden sparked a war of independence , which ended the Polish–Swedish union . As a consequence, he
21120-557: The throne, Henry signed the contractual agreement known as the Pacta conventa and approbated the Henrician Articles . The Act stated the fundamental principles of governance and constitutional law in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. In June 1574, Henry abandoned Poland and headed back to claim the French crown following the death of his brother and predecessor, Charles IX . The throne
21280-482: The time of his election. The monarch's power was limited in favour of a sizable noble class. Each new king had to pledge to uphold the Henrician Articles, which were the basis of Poland's political system (and included near-unprecedented guarantees of religious tolerance ). Over time, the Henrician Articles were merged with the pacta conventa, specific pledges agreed to by the king-elect. From that point onwards,
21440-461: The titles of king and grand duke respectively. The ultimate clause dictated that Lithuania was to be merged in perpetuity ( perpetuo applicare ) with the Polish Kingdom; however, this did not take effect until 1569. Jogaila was crowned as Władysław II Jagiełło at Wawel Cathedral on 4 March 1386. Several minor agreements were struck before unification, notably the Union of Kraków and Vilnius ,
21600-502: The urban population of the Commonwealth was about 20% of the total in the 17th century, compared to approximately 50% in the Netherlands and Italy ( Pic. 7 ). Another source suggests much lower figures: 4–8% urban population in Poland, 34–39% in the Netherlands and 22–23% in Italy. The Commonwealth's preoccupation with agriculture, coupled with the nobles' privileged position when compared to
21760-591: The villages located on the Zbruch River , tried to move to the modern western regions. There, Podolians exchanged their belongings for bread and grain. There were many cases when people were hired for the opportunity to eat or worked for bread. However, not everyone was able to do this: along the border with Poland along the Zbruch River and the border with Romania along the Dniester River, barricading lines were set up in many places, and Soviet punitive bodies were guarding
21920-425: The wars, and the Commonwealth proved unable to improve its transport infrastructure or its agricultural practices. Serfs in the region were increasingly tempted to flee. The Commonwealth's major attempts at countering this problem and improving productivity consisted of increasing serfs' workload and further restricting their freedoms in a process known as export-led serfdom. The owner of a folwark usually signed
22080-527: The years following, Polish settlers, nobles, Catholics and Jews became the victims of retaliation massacres instigated by the Cossacks in their dominions. The other blow to the Commonwealth was a Swedish invasion in 1655, known as the Deluge , which was supported by troops of Transylvanian Duke George II Rákóczi and Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg . Under the Treaty of Bromberg in 1657, Catholic Poland
22240-478: Was a strong fortress with walls up to 4 metres thick. After the Turks had captured Kamieniec Podolski (see Siege of Kamieniec Podolski ), Trembowla was one of the few Podolian strongholds still in Polish hands. In the summer of 1675, a 30,000 strong Turkish-Tatar army under command of Ibrahim Shyshman entered Red Ruthenia , a province of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth . On July 27, the invaders captured Zbaraz , on September 11, Podhajce , and on September 20,
22400-475: Was a succession crisis arising in the 1380s. Louis died on 10 September 1382 and, like his uncle, did not produce a son to succeed him. His two daughters, Mary and Jadwiga (Hedwig), held claims to the vast dual realm. The Polish lords rejected Mary in favour of her younger sister Jadwiga, partly due to Mary's association with Sigismund of Luxembourg . The future queen regnant was betrothed to young William Habsburg, Duke of Austria , but certain factions of
22560-416: Was among the largest and most populated countries of 16th- to 17th-century Europe. At its peak in the early 17th century, the Commonwealth spanned nearly 1,000,000 km (390,000 sq mi) and supported a multi-ethnic population of approximately 12 million as of 1618. The official languages of the Commonwealth were Polish and Latin , with Catholicism as the state religion. The Commonwealth
22720-447: Was briefly part of the Ottoman Empire and capital of Podolya eyalet . It was also sanjak of pasha (central sanjak) of this eyalet with nahiyas of Kropotova [ uk ] , Satanova , İskala , Kitayhorad [ uk ] , Kırıvçe , Zhvan [ uk ] (It was known as Ijvan during Ottoman rule) and Mıhaylov . To counter the Turkish threat to the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth , King Jan III Sobieski built
22880-437: Was called the gateway to Poland . In 1510, a peace treaty was signed in the city between Poland and the Principality of Moldavia . During the free election period in Poland, Kamianets-Podilskyi, as one of the most influential cities of the state, enjoyed voting rights (alongside Warsaw , Kraków , Poznań , Gdańsk , Lwów , Wilno , Lublin , Toruń and Elbląg ). After the Treaty of Buchach of 1672, Kamianets-Podilskyi
23040-419: Was childless and ailing. According to historians, it was his active involvement which hastened the process and made the union possible. A parliament ( sejm ) convened on 10 January 1569 in the city of Lublin , attended by envoys from both nations. It was agreed that the merger will take place the same year and both parliaments will be fused into a joint assembly. No independent parliamentary convocation or diet
23200-481: Was crowned as Augustus II in September and Conti's brief military engagement near Gdańsk in November of the same year proved fruitless. The House of Wettin ruled Poland–Lithuania and Saxony simultaneously, dividing power between the two states. In spite of his controversial means of attaining power, Augustus II lavishly spent on the arts and left an extensive cultural and architectural ( Baroque ) legacy in both countries. In Poland, he expanded Wilanów and facilitated
23360-422: Was deposed in Sweden by his uncle Charles IX Vasa . In Poland, the Zebrzydowski rebellion was brutally suppressed. Sigismund III then initiated a policy of expansionism , and invaded Russia in 1609 when that country was plagued by a civil war known as the Time of Troubles . In July 1610, the outnumbered Polish force comprising winged hussars defeated the Russians at the Battle of Klushino , which enabled
23520-453: Was elected king of the Commonwealth in 1674. Over the next year, however, the Polish forces were subject to attrition, as the Sejm again refused to raise taxes and pay the army, resulting in mass desertions of unpaid soldiery. The Polish problems were further aggravated by the incompetent leadership of Hetman Michał Kazimierz Pac , who obstructed Sobieski's leadership, while the Ottomans continued to receive reinforcements. Nonetheless, in 1674
23680-451: Was elected by all szlachta (some 15% of the population). The king and his government were bound by a constitutional statute, the Henrician Articles , which tightly circumscribed royal authority. The country also exhibited unusual levels of ethnic diversity and great religious tolerance by European standards, guaranteed by the Warsaw Confederation Act of 1573 , though the practical degree of religious freedom varied. Poland acted as
23840-404: Was especially visible in the policies and actions of the first two elected kings from the Swedish House of Vasa , whose politics brought the Commonwealth into conflict with Sweden, culminating in the war known as the Deluge (1655), one of the events that mark the end of the Commonwealth's Golden Age and the beginning of the Commonwealth's decline. The Zebrzydowski Rebellion (1606–1607) marked
24000-485: Was established as a single entity by the Union of Lublin on 1 July 1569. The two nations had previously been in a personal union since the Krewo Agreement of 1385 and the subsequent marriage of Queen Jadwiga of Poland to Grand Duke Jogaila of Lithuania , who was crowned jure uxoris King of Poland. Their descendant, Sigismund II Augustus , enforced the merger to strengthen frontiers of his dominion and maintain unity as he remained childless. His death in 1572 marked
24160-411: Was forced to renounce its suzerainty over Protestant Prussia ; in 1701 the once-insignificant duchy was transformed into the Kingdom of Prussia , which became a major European power in the 18th century and proved to be Poland's most enduring foe. In the late 17th century, the king of the weakened Commonwealth, John III Sobieski , allied with Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I to deal crushing defeats to
24320-402: Was henceforth permitted. Subjects of the Polish Crown were no longer restricted in purchasing land on Lithuanian territory and a single currency was established. Whilst the military remained separate, a unified foreign policy meant that Lithuanian troops were obliged to contribute during a conflict not to their advantage. As a result, several Lithuanian magnates deplored the accords and left
24480-403: Was intrigued when it found numerous reports from the neighboring Romania that troops from Moscow were sent to the region and suppressed the unrest, causing no less than 4,000 deaths. The magazine sent several of its reporters to confirm those occurrences which were completely denied by the official press naming them as barefaced lies . The revolt was caused by the collectivization campaign and
24640-404: Was one of the last of its victories. The Polish-Ottoman War had a major effect on Poland . Fire in the Steppe is a historical fiction novel, set in the 17th century in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth during the Polish–Tatar and Polish–Ottoman Wars. Colonel Wolodyjowski is a Polish historical drama film directed by Jerzy Hoffman . The film is based on the novel Fire in the Steppe ,
24800-400: Was relatively narrow and the Ottomans could not outflank the Polish and Lithuanian cavalry while on the move. The battle was soon over with Sobieski personally leading. The Pole's pursuit of the Ottoman cavalry lasted until the dusk. The castle in Trembowla was built in the 14th century on a high hill over the valley of the Hniezna river. Despite its small size (100 metres by 40 metres), it
24960-603: Was situated in the heart of Europe and attracted foreign merchants or settlers. Countless goods and cultural artefacts continued to pass from one region to another via the Commonwealth, particularly that the country was a link between the Middle East , the Ottoman Empire and Western Europe. For instance, Isfahan rugs imported from Persia to the Commonwealth were incorrectly known as "Polish rugs" (French: Polonaise ) in Western Europe. Kamianets-Podilskyi Kamianets-Podilskyi ( Ukrainian : Кам'янець-Подільський , IPA: [kɐmjɐˈnɛtsʲ poˈdilʲsʲkɪj] )
25120-430: Was subsequently declared vacant. The interregnum concluded on 12 December 1575 when primate Jakub Uchański declared Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor , as the next king. The decision was condemned by the anti-Habsburg coalition, which demanded a "native" candidate, known as "Piasts". As a compromise, on 13 December 1575 Anna Jagiellon – sister of Sigismund Augustus and a member of the Jagiellonian dynasty – became
25280-424: Was the administrative center of the Ukrainian SSR's Kamianets-Podilskyi Oblast , but the administrative center was later moved to Proskuriv (now Khmelnytskyi ). In December 1927, TIME Magazine reported that there were massive uprisings of peasants and factory workers in southern Ukraine, around the cities of Mohyliv-Podilskyi , Kamianets-Podilskyi, Tiraspol and others, against Soviet authorities. The magazine
25440-415: Was the third-largest city of Podolia after Vinnytsia and Khmelnytskyi . In 2015, the city center completed the construction of the European Square, where the flags of the European Union countries fly, according to officials, this will be a confirmation of the European choice of the city and Ukraine. Until 18 July 2020, Kamianets-Podilskyi was incorporated as a city of oblast significance and served as
25600-487: Was usually employed in international treaties and diplomacy. By concluding the 1569 Union of Lublin the Grand Duchy of Lithuania remained a separate state from the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland with its own name, laws, and territory. The name 'Commonwealth of Two Nations' ( Polish : Rzeczpospolita Obojga Narodów ) came into force during the reign of Stephen Báthory (since 1582, and was officially used until 1795). On 28 January 1588, Sigismund III Vasa has confirmed
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