Henry Grinnell (February 18, 1799 – June 30, 1874) was an American merchant and philanthropist .
118-540: The second Grinnell expedition of 1853–1855 was an American effort, financed by Henry Grinnell , to determine the fate of the Franklin's lost expedition . Led by Elisha Kent Kane , the team explored areas northwest of Greenland , now called Grinnell Land . While failing to determine the fate of Sir John Franklin , the expedition set a new record for northward penetration, delineated 960 miles (1,540 km) of unexplored coastline north of 82° latitude, and discovered
236-675: A Innu-aimun (Montagnais) exonym meaning 'a person who laces a snowshoe', but is also used in folk etymology as meaning 'eater of raw meat' in the Cree language . Though the Cree etymology has been discredited, "Eskimo" is considered pejorative by some Canadian and English-speaking Greenlandic Inuit. In Canada and Greenland, Inuit is preferred. Inuit is the Eastern Canadian Inuit (Inuktitut) and West Greenlandic (Kalaallisut) word for 'the people'. Since Inuktitut and Kalaallisut are
354-566: A Northwest Passage through the Northwest Archipelago in 1847. Encouraged by Lady Jane Franklin and soured by the inability of the national legislature to provide funding, Grinnell financed a first polar expedition , which set out from New York in May 1850 under Lieutenant Edwin De Haven on the brigs USS Rescue and USS Advance . Elisha Kent Kane served as senior surgeon aboard
472-494: A clerk in the commission house of H.D. & E.B. Sewell. In 1825, Henry joined his older brother Joseph (who later served as member of the U.S. House of Representatives for Massachusetts) and Preserved Fish in Fish, Grinnell & Company. A few years later, with the addition of Henry's brother-in-law, Robert Bowne Minturn , the firm became Grinnell, Minturn & Company , whose operations were greatly expanded by its entry into
590-586: A colonial way; Inuit is now a common autonym for a large sub-group of these people. The word Inuit (varying forms Iñupiat , Inuvialuit , Inughuit , etc.), however, is an ancient self-referential to a group of peoples which includes at most the Iñupiat of Bering Strait coast of Chukotka and northern Alaska, the four broad groups of Inuit in Canada, and the Greenlandic Inuit. This usage has long been employed to
708-527: A few years before. Various activist movements began to change the direction of Inuit society in 1975 with the James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement . This comprehensive land claims settlement for Quebec Inuit, along with a large cash settlement and substantial administrative autonomy in the new region of Nunavik, set the precedent for the settlements to follow. The northern Labrador Inuit submitted their land claim in 1977, although they had to wait until 2005 to have
826-486: A glacier, they encountered numerous birds and vegetation, which supplemented their diet until setting off again on July 18, reaching Cape York on the 21st. Sighting open leads, they extended their fuel supply by breaking up the Red Eric and gathering what supplies they could. When the leads failed, the boats were again man-hauled across the ice. Rations were reduced as they made for Cape Shackleton through fog and ice as
944-598: A likely open summer Polar sea. With additional support from the Geographical Society of New York (which approved the plan of search), The Smithsonian Institution , the American Philosophical Society , and $ 10,000 from George Peabody , the expedition set out from New York on May 30, 1853 with a small crew, modest provisions, barter items and scientific instruments. By July 1853, the Advance had reached
1062-524: A modified 23-foot (7.0 m) whaleboat to reach Beechey Island, where Kane, as part of the first Grinnel expedition, had located the 1845 winter camp of the Franklin expedition. There, Kane hoped to meet Sir Edward Belcher 's rescue expedition and their supplies. Thwarted by a heavy gale and pack ice, they sailed and manhauled the craft, only to be stopped by the ice on July 31, just 10 miles (16 km) from Cape Parry. They were forced to return to
1180-480: A new life. He was sorely missed by Kane's party. The intact supply cache at Littleton Island was recovered on July 12. While on Littleton, Ohlsen finally succumbed to the illness and was buried in a natural cleft in view of the cape that bears his name. After crossing 80 miles (130 km) of ice, open water was sighted six miles (9.7 km) to the southwest, and the final push was planned. Upon resuming their march, many natives came to assist them, helping with
1298-737: A population displacement did not occur within the Aleutian Islands between the Dorset and Thule transition. However a subsequent 2012 genetic analysis showed no genetic link between the Sadlermiut and the Dorset or Tuniit people. In contrast to other Tuniit populations, the Aleut and Sadlermiut benefited from both geographical isolation and their ability to adopt certain Thule technologies. In Canada and Greenland, Inuit circulated almost exclusively north of
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#17328847815831416-801: A position of 78° 41′, among the farthest northward penetrations by sea in the Baffin Bay region. Several sled trips were made inland to Greenland to establish supply depots and make observations, reaching 78° 52′, before the Advance was set for winter in Rensselaer Harbor on September 10. During the dark winter, a small stone observatory was established ashore, and several overland trips by dog sled were undertaken, arranging additional supply depots and performing geographical observation, reaching as far as 79° 50′ north. The crew entertained themselves, held theatrical events, published an Arctic newspaper called The Ice-Blink , and maintained
1534-516: A resolve regarding the decision to abandon ship: The undersigned, being convinced of the impossibility of the liberation of the brig, and equally convinced of the impossibility of remaining in the ice a third winter, do fervently concur with the commander in his attempt to reach the South by means of boats. Knowing the trials and hardships which are before us, and feeling the necessity of union, harmony, and discipline, we have determined to abide faithfully by
1652-399: A seated person, even if completely overturned. Because of this property, the design was copied by Europeans and Americans who still produce them under Inuit name kayak . Inuit also made umiaq ("woman's boat"), larger open boats made of wood frames covered with animal skins, for transporting people, goods, and dogs. They were 6–12 m (20–39 ft) long and had a flat bottom so that
1770-607: A signed land settlement establishing Nunatsiavut . Southern Labrador Inuit of NunatuKavut is currently in the process of establishing land claims and title rights that would allow them to negotiate with the Newfoundland Government. Canada's 1982 Constitution Act recognized Inuit as Aboriginal peoples in Canada. In the same year, the Tunngavik Federation of Nunavut (TFN) was incorporated, in order to take over negotiations for land claims on behalf of Inuit living in
1888-500: A successful walrus hunt, and returned on March 10 to the brig with his share of the meat, which sustained the invalids. During this period, Hans sought to visit the Inuit village of Peteravik on foot, which Kane allowed. Hans had intended to return, but was convinced to stay with his hosts, eventually moving south with them. In late March, William Godfrey deserted, returning to the Advance on April 2, but fleeing again under fire. He
2006-476: A voyage that would claim Sonntag's life. The British Admiralty would continue the search for Franklin until 1880. The Kane Basin, named for Kane, which also includes the glacier Kane named after Alexander von Humboldt . Kane provided the first account of the Etah Inuit, the northernmost inhabitants of the planet. Although his specimens were lost, his notes provided extensive information on the flora and fauna, and
2124-465: Is a language isolate and is almost extinct as only around 50 people still use it. Inuit have traditionally been fishermen and hunters. They still hunt whales (esp. bowhead whale ), seal , (esp. ringed seal , harp seal , common seal , bearded seal ), polar bears , muskoxen , caribou , birds , and fish and at times other less commonly eaten animals such as the Arctic fox . The typical Inuit diet
2242-483: Is high in protein and very high in fat – in their traditional diets, Inuit consumed an average of 75 percent of their daily energy intake from fat. While it is not possible to cultivate plants for food in the Arctic, Inuit have traditionally gathered those that are naturally available. Grasses , tubers , roots , plant stems , berries , and seaweed ( kuanniq or edible seaweed) were collected and preserved depending on
2360-722: Is spoken in the Inuvialuit Settlement Region , Northwest Territories , with official language status from the territorial government. Inuinnaqtun is spoken across the Northwest Territories and the Kitikmeot Region of Nunavut with official language status from both territories. Inuktitut, the most widely spoken Inuit language in Canada, however, is an official, and one of two main languages, alongside English, of Nunavut and has its speakers throughout Nunavut, Nunavik (Northern Quebec), Nunatsiavut (Labrador), and
2478-582: Is still used by people; however in the 21st century, usage in North America has declined. In the United States the term Eskimo was, as of 2016, commonly used to describe Inuit and the Siberian and Alaskan Yupik, and Iñupiat peoples. Eskimo is still used by some groups and organizations to encompass Inuit and Yupik, as well as other Indigenous Alaskan and Siberian peoples. In 2011, Lawrence Kaplan of
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#17328847815832596-417: The Advance while it was still nearby. On May 20, 1855 , When the Advance was finally left for good, the crew gathered aboard the empty brig, offered prayer, and quietly packed away a portrait of Sir John Franklin. The figurehead , "Augusta," was removed and loaded onto the sledges – for wood if not for honor. Kane addressed the crew to their accomplishments, and of the challenge before them, and they signed
2714-478: The Advance . The vessels returned without resolving the mystery, although, in coordination with an expedition led by Captain William Penny , they discovered Franklin's first wintering camp (and three graves) at Beechey Island on August 24, 1850 . Undeterred, Grinnel equipped the 144-ton brig Advance for a second voyage under Dr. Kane on behalf of the U.S. Navy to search for Franklin north of Beechey Island and
2832-626: The Alaska Native Language Center at the University of Alaska Fairbanks wrote that Inuit was not generally accepted as a term for the Yupik, and Eskimo was often used as the term that applied to the Yupik, Iñupiat, and Inuit. Since then Kaplan has updated this to indicate that the term Inuit has gained acceptance in Alaska. Though there is much debate, the word Eskimo likely derives from
2950-706: The Arctic Ocean , in the Inuvialuit Settlement Region . These areas are known, primarily by Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami , as Inuit Nunangat . In Canada, sections 25 and 35 of the Constitution Act of 1982 classify Inuit as a distinctive group of Aboriginal Canadians who are not included under either the First Nations or the Métis . Greenlandic Inuit , also known as Kalaallit, are descendants of Thule migrations from Canada by 1100 CE. Although Greenland withdrew from
3068-512: The Arctic tree line , with the exception of Inuit in Labrador where there are large swaths of coastal barrens. In Labrador there are two Inuit groups, one accepted by Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami , Nunatsiavut and one independent, NunatuKavut . The most southern Inuit community in Nunatsiavut is Rigolet while the most southern community within the traditional Inuit territory of NunatuKavut and in
3186-589: The Eskimo–Aleut languages , also known as Inuit-Yupik-Unangan, and also as Eskaleut. Inuit Sign Language is a critically endangered language isolate used in Nunavut. Canadian Inuit live throughout most of Northern Canada in the territory of Nunavut, Nunavik in the northern third of Quebec, the Nunatsiavut in Labrador, and in various parts of the Northwest Territories and Yukon (traditionally), particularly around
3304-763: The Inuit-Yupik-Unangan language family . Inupiaq (Inupiatun) is spoken in Russia (extinct) and Alaska, which is one of the 22 official languages of the State of Alaska. In Russia, due to the replacement from their traditional territory in Big Diomede Island to Mainland Russia, Inupiaq language has been nearly extinct with most of them speaking Central Siberian Yupik or Russian predominantly with some Inupiaq linguistic features. In Canada, three Inuit languages ( Inuvialuktun , Inuinnaqtun , Inuktitut ) are spoken. Inuvialuktun
3422-597: The Northwest Passage was the first well-documented contact between Europeans and Inuit. Frobisher's expedition landed in Frobisher Bay , Baffin Island , not far from the settlement now called Iqaluit . Frobisher encountered Inuit on Resolution Island where five sailors left the ship, under orders from Frobisher, with instructions to stay clear of Inuit. They became part of Inuit mythology. Inuit oral tradition tells that
3540-632: The Siberian Husky . These dogs were bred from wolves, for transportation. A team of dogs in either a tandem/side-by-side or fan formation would pull a sled made of wood, animal bones, or the baleen from a whale's mouth and even frozen fish, over the snow and ice. Inuit used stars to navigate at sea and landmarks to navigate on land; they possessed a comprehensive native system of toponymy . Where natural landmarks were insufficient, Inuit would erect an inukshuk . Also, Greenland Inuit created Ammassalik wooden maps , which are tactile devices that represent
3658-510: The death rate , causing a marked natural increase in the population that made it more difficult for them to survive by traditional means. In the 1950s, the Canadian government began to actively settle Inuit into permanent villages and cities, occasionally against their will (such as in Nuntak and Hebron). In 2005 the Canadian government acknowledged the abuses inherent in these forced resettlements. By
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3776-652: The prestige dialects in Canada and Greenland, respectively, their version has become dominant, although every Inuit dialect uses cognates from the Proto-Eskimo *ińuɣ – for example, "people" is inughuit in North Greenlandic and iivit in East Greenlandic . Inuit speak Inupiaq (Inupiatun) , Inuinnaqtun , Inuktitut , Inuvialuktun , and Greenlandic languages , which belong to the Inuit-Inupiaq branch of
3894-518: The 1970s, and more recently. Modern Inuit have lifespans 12 to 15 years shorter than the average Canadian's, which is thought to be influenced by factors such as their diet and limited access to medical services. The life expectancy gap is not closing and remains stagnant. The ancient art of face tattooing among Inuit women, which is called kakiniit or tunniit in Inuktitut , dates back nearly 4,000 years. The facial tattoos detailed aspects of
4012-467: The 26-foot-long (7.9 m) whaleboats, with bolts fashioned from curtain rods. Only four dogs remained, the rest having succumbed to illness, although some were loaned by the local natives. By early May, all but four of the crew were fairly restored in health. Kane and Morton made one last search towards the far coast of the Kane Basin , but failed to locate any sign of Franklin's party. The search operation
4130-400: The Arctic in one place for the first time and exposed them to the rhetoric of civil and human rights that prevailed in Canada in the 1960s. This was a real wake-up call for Inuit, and it stimulated the emergence of a new generation of young Inuit activists in the late 1960s who came forward and pushed for respect for Inuit and their territories. Inuit began to emerge as a political force in
4248-717: The Danish vessel Mariana to the Shetland Islands , bringing the Faith along as a relic of their ordeal. Near Lively they met with the Hartstene expedition, which had set out to locate Dr. Kane that previous May. Kane's brother Dr. John K. Kane, accompanied by Lieutenant Hartstene, had learned of Kane's route from the local Inuit and pushed to within 40 miles (64 km) of the abandoned brig Advance . Both expeditions returned to New York October 11, 1855 . Kane completed his literary account of
4366-463: The Dorset as "dwarfs". Researchers believe that Inuit society had advantages by having adapted to using dogs as transport animals, and developing larger weapons and other technologies superior to those of the Dorset culture. By 1100 CE, Inuit migrants had reached west Greenland, where they settled. During the 12th century, they also settled in East Greenland. Faced with population pressures from
4484-1170: The European Communities in 1985, Inuit of Greenland are Danish citizens and, as such, remain citizens of the European Union . In the United States, the Alaskan Iñupiat are traditionally located in the Northwest Arctic Borough , on the Alaska North Slope , the Bering Strait and on Little Diomede Island . In Russia, few pockets of diaspora communities of Russian Iñupiat from Big Diomede Island , of which inhabitants were removed to Russian Mainland, remain in Bering Strait coast of Chukotka Autonomous Okrug, particularly in Uelen , Lavrentiya , and Lorino . Many individuals who would have historically been referred to as Eskimo find that term offensive or forced upon them in
4602-597: The Inuit near Cape Alexander to address the worst cases of scurvy, at best a 22-hour-journey amid high temperatures of −54 °F (−48 °C). Dogs failing, they were forced back to the brig without attaining their goal. The crew was now warmed only by their lamps. On January 22, Kane and Hans set out again, lightly equipped, prepared to expend the dogs towards the survival of their 93 miles (150 km) journey. A storm and snow kept them locked in their waypoint, an abandoned Inuit dwelling, for two days. Health, supplies and dogs failing, they were forced again to return to
4720-439: The Inuit, Kane and his men spent early September insulating the deck with moss and turf, and doing likewise below deck. The outer decks were stripped, providing over seven tons of firewood for heat and melting of snow. Such preparations kept the temperature below decks between 36 and 45 °F (2 and 7 °C), even during the colder months. An agreement was reached with the nearby Inuit to provide meat in trade, and also of sharing
4838-399: The Inuit, held off the most severe symptoms of scurvy. Franklin's expedition relied on the tinned foods (prepared in haste by Goldner), the poor soldering of which resulted in consistently high lead levels in the remains found to date. Lead poisoning would be a significant factor standing against their survival. While Kane's smaller party made hunting more practical, this difference was key to
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4956-904: The Northwest Territories, where it is also an official language. Kalaallisut is the official language of Greenland. The Greenlandic languages are divided into: Kalaallisut (Western), Inuktun (Northern), and Tunumiit (Eastern). As Inuktitut was the language of the Eastern Canadian Inuit and Kalaallisut is the language of the Western Greenlandic Inuit, they are related more closely than most other dialects. Inuit in Alaska and Northern Canada also typically speak English. In Greenland, Inuit also speak Danish and learn English in school. Inuit in Russia mostly speak Russian and Central Siberian Yupik. Canadian Inuit, particularly those from Nunavik, may also speak Québécois French . Finally, deaf Inuit use Inuit Sign Language , which
5074-792: The Original People's Entitlement (representing the Inuvialuit), the Northern Quebec Inuit Association ( Makivik Corporation ) and the Labrador Inuit Association (LIA) representing Northern Labrador Inuit. Since the mid-1980s the disputed Southern Labrador Inuit of NunatuKavut began organizing politically after being geographically cut out of the LIA, because the organization called itself the Labrador Métis Nation just
5192-557: The Thule and other surrounding groups, such as the Algonquian and Siouan -speaking peoples to the south, the Tuniit gradually receded. The Tuniit were thought to have become completely extinct as a people by about 1400 or 1500. But, in the mid-1950s, researcher Henry B. Collins determined that based on the ruins found at Native Point , on Southampton Island , the Sadlermiut were likely
5310-496: The boat-sledges, the men took advantage of steady winds to help drive them eight miles (13 km) across the ice towards their supply cache at Littleton Island. Hans was still missing, having not returned to the party since leaving in April, but originally planning to rendezvous at the village at Etah. From nearby villagers, Kane determined that Hans had married a maiden from Peteravik, and then ventured south to Qeqertarsuatsiaat to begin
5428-437: The boats could come close to shore. In the winter, Inuit would also hunt sea mammals by patiently watching an aglu (breathing hole) in the ice and waiting for the air-breathing seals to use them. This technique is also used by the polar bear, who hunts by seeking holes in the ice and waiting nearby. In winter, both on land and on sea ice, Inuit used dog sleds ( qamutik ) for transportation. The husky dog breed comes from
5546-416: The brig empty-handed on January 30, 1855 . By this time, nearly all of the crew was bed-ridden with advancing scurvy, despite the unseasonably warmer temperatures above −20 °F (−29 °C). On February 3, Peterson and Hans set out for the local Inuit following a trail spotted by Kane. Three days later they returned, weakened and turned back by the increasing snows and their own failing strength. In
5664-467: The brig to secure additional provisions and bake fresh bread on the book-fueled stove. Halts were regulated by the condition of the men, and progress was slow and deliberate, despite 14-hour-hauls. Axes were often used to cut through ice hummocks or to cut ramps between ice layers. Health deteriorated under the burden of moving the heavy sledges across the ice, and the symptoms of scurvy began to increase, calling for increased rations. Kane's further trade with
5782-636: The case of Labrador, East. Inuit had trade relations with more southern cultures; boundary disputes were common and gave rise to aggressive actions. Warfare was not uncommon among those Inuit groups with sufficient population density. Inuit such as the Nunamiut ( Uummarmiut ), who inhabited the Mackenzie River delta area, often engaged in warfare. The more sparsely settled Inuit in the Central Arctic, however, did so less often. Their first European contact
5900-742: The commercial whale hunt were processed and furs traded. The expedition of 1821–23 to the Northwest Passage led by Commander William Edward Parry twice over-wintered in Foxe Basin . It provided the first informed, sympathetic and well-documented account of the economic, social and religious life of Inuit. Parry stayed in what is now Igloolik over the second winter. Parry's writings, with pen and ink illustrations of Inuit everyday life, and those of George Francis Lyon were widely read after they were both published in 1824. Captain George Comer 's Inuk wife Shoofly, known for her sewing skills and elegant attire,
6018-410: The crew's health deteriorated again. On the floes, they finally took a seal, and strength returned, with additional seals ending their famine for good. By August 1, they had reached open whaling waters, and two days later they found English-speaking people. Kane finally reached Upernavik on August 8, 1855 , having been in the open for 84 days. On September 6, they crew secured passage aboard
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#17328847815836136-693: The disappearance of the Norse colonies in Greenland , Inuit had no contact with Europeans for at least a century. By the mid-16th century, Basque whalers and fishermen were already working the Labrador coast and had established whaling stations on land, such as the one that has been excavated at Red Bay , Labrador. Inuit do not appear to have interfered with their operations, but raided the stations in winter, taking tools and items made of worked iron, which they adapted to their own needs. Martin Frobisher 's 1576 search for
6254-487: The early relations with whaling stations along the Labrador coast and later James Bay were based on a mutual interest in trade. In the final years of the 18th century, the Moravian Church began missionary activities in Labrador, supported by the British who were tired of the raids on their whaling stations. The Moravian missionaries could easily provide Inuit with the iron and basic materials they had been stealing from whaling outposts, materials whose real cost to Europeans
6372-541: The eastern Northwest Territories, that would later become Nunavut, from Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami, which became a joint association of Inuit of Quebec, Labrador, and the Northwest Territories. On October 30, 2008, Leona Aglukkaq was appointed as Minister of Health , "[becoming] the first Inuk to hold a senior cabinet position, although she is not the first Inuk to be in cabinet altogether." Jack Anawak and Nancy Karetak-Lindell were both parliamentary secretaries respectively from 1993 to 1996 and in 2003. The term Eskimo
6490-410: The end of their traditional Inuit culture. One of the more notable relocations was undertaken in 1953, when 17 families were moved from Port Harrison (now Inukjuak, Quebec) to Resolute and Grise Fiord . They were dropped off in early September when winter had already arrived. The land they were sent to was very different from that in the Inukjuak area; it was barren, with only a couple of months when
6608-462: The enormous social disruptions caused by the distorting effect of Europeans' material wealth and the introduction of different materials. Nonetheless, Inuit society in the higher latitudes largely remained in isolation during the 19th century. The Hudson's Bay Company opened trading posts such as Great Whale River (1820), today the site of the twin villages of Whapmagoostui (Cree-majority) and Kuujjuarapik (Inuit-majority), where whale products of
6726-523: The establishment of secular , government-operated high schools in the Northwest Territories (including what is now Nunavut) and Inuit areas in Quebec and Labrador along with the residential school system . Inuit population was not large enough to support a full high school in every community, so this meant only a few schools were built, and students from across the territories were boarded there. These schools, in Aklavik , Iqaluit, Yellowknife , Inuvik and Kuujjuaq , brought together young Inuit from across
6844-473: The exclusion of other, closely related groups (e.g. Yupik , Aleut ). Therefore, the Aleut (Unangan) and Yupik peoples ( Alutiiq /Sugpiaq, Central Yup'ik , Siberian Yupik ), who live in Alaska and Siberia, at least at an individual and local level, generally do not self-identify as Inuit. Inuit are the descendants of what anthropologists call the Thule people , who emerged from the Bering Strait and western Alaska around 1000 CE. They had split from
6962-490: The expedition and our sick comrades, and to do all that we can, as true men, to advance the objects in view. Fixed to a stanchion near the gangway, Kane left a note to any who might later come upon the brig. It closed with these words: I regard the abandonment of the brig as inevitable. We have by actual inspection but thirty-six days' provisions, and a careful survey shows that we cannot cut more firewood without rendering our craft unseaworthy. A third winter would force us, as
7080-422: The expedition, and an anomalous spasmodic disorder, allied to tetanus, has cost us the life of two of our most prized comrades. I hope, speaking on the part of my companions and myself, that we have done all that we ought to do to prove our tenacity of purpose and devotion to the cause which we have undertaken. This attempt to escape by crossing the southern ice on sledges is regarded by me as an imperative duty, –
7198-412: The far ice for possible channels and to make observations. Despite crossing Marshall Bay, scurvy and poor travelling conditions slowed their progress until May 4, when they discovered that polar bears had spoiled their advanced supply depots. When Kane succumbed to illness, the party turned back, reaching the brig on May 14. Peter Schubert perished on the return trip, and his remains were placed in
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#17328847815837316-413: The following days the crew was sustained by occasional hares, caribou and flax -seed brewed 'beer,' and warmed by burning hemp cable and gear. The health of the sickest continued to deteriorate despite the gradual return of the sun as temperatures held between −40 and −50 °F (−40 and −46 °C). Hans set out to seek meat from the nearby Eskimos, but they were facing famine as well. He assisted them on
7434-474: The general shipping business. The company became one of the strongest and best known mercantile houses in New York City. Henry Grinnell retired in 1850, around the time that he became very interested in the fate of the lost Franklin Polar Expedition . For the remainder of his life he corresponded regularly with Lady Jane Franklin and others interested in solving the mystery, as well as promoting and funding several expeditions. The first of these expeditions
7552-436: The grandfather of Josephine Lucy Grinnell (1877–1957), who married Fredrick Harold Van Rensselaer (1874–1903), a grandson of U.S. Representative Henry Bell Van Rensselaer , in 1898. After his death of cerebro meningitis , she married the actor Harold Rogers Woolf (1880–1953), nephew of Benjamin Edward Woolf , in 1905. They divorced and in 1913, she married Robert Stewart Smith (1875–1944). Through his daughter Sylvia, he
7670-446: The great powers for the first time. Thanks to the development of modern long-distance aircraft, these areas became accessible year-round. The construction of air bases and the Distant Early Warning Line in the 1940s and 1950s brought more intensive contact with European society, particularly in the form of public education for children. The traditionalists complained that Canadian education promoted foreign values that were disdainful of
7788-449: The growing ice. Scurvy returned and morale fell. During these times, thoughts often returned to the fate of Franklin's party. On December 7, a group of Inuit arrived, bearing two (Bonsall and Peterson) from the group that had set out on August 28. They reported that their situation had deteriorated, and that the rest of their party were destitute some 200 miles (320 km) away. Precious rescue supplies were sent to them, and with
7906-429: The hauling and offering fresh meat from the now plentiful auks . The open water was reached on June 16, 1855 . After bidding the gathered natives farewell and offering gifts, including most of the remaining dogs, Kane and the survivors launched their three boats on June 19, having been delayed by another storm. The dried, weather-beaten wooden boats began leaking, and the Red Eric was nearly lost, as they made for
8024-429: The help of the Inuit the remainder of Advance ' s crew returned on the 12th, severely weakened. The natives later returned, and enjoyed Kane's measured hospitality. On December 23, a lamp-fire broke out in a storage room and set the dry timbers and moss walls entirely aflame. The fire was smothered with animal skins and water, but it sorely tested the crew. Kane set out soon after to obtain walrus meat from
8142-456: The high Arctic, Inuit were forced to abandon their hunting and whaling sites as bowhead whales disappeared from Canada and Greenland . These Inuit had to subsist on a much poorer diet, and lost access to the essential raw materials for their tools and architecture which they had previously derived from whaling. The lives of Paleo-Eskimos of the far north were largely unaffected by the arrival of visiting Norsemen except for mutual trade. After
8260-411: The homeland of Inuit to be hostile hinterland . Southerners enjoyed lucrative careers as bureaucrats and service providers to the people of the North, but very few ever chose to visit there. Once its more hospitable lands were largely settled, the government of Canada and entrepreneurs began to take a greater interest in its more peripheral territories, especially the fur and mineral-rich hinterlands. By
8378-475: The ice floe, and they returned to the water amid the loose pack ice. Making ground on an ice shelf as the storm returned, they found that they were in the midst of an eider hatchery, and the birds and raw eggs restored their strength. They set out again on July 3, hugging the shore, but were slowed by chains of icebergs blocking their way. They persevered, and by July 11 approached Cape Dudley Digges. The boats continued to deteriorate. Setting ashore near
8496-412: The ice-locked Advance . Blasting the pack ice briefly freed the brig on August 12, but she became set fast in an ice floe as the crew hoped for a breakup while their supplies waned. Expecting the worst, documents were cached at the observatory, with a large stone painted with " Advance , A.D. 1853–1854" as a marker. On August 23, Kane knew that the Advance would not be freed. Although eight of
8614-415: The last remnants of the Dorset culture, or Tuniit . The Sadlermiut population survived up until winter 1902–1903 when exposure to new infectious diseases brought by contact with Europeans led to their extinction as a people. In the early 21st century, mitochondrial DNA research has supported the theory of continuity between the Tuniit and the Sadlermiut peoples. It also provided evidence that
8732-567: The late 1920s, there were no longer any Inuit who had not been contacted by traders, missionaries or government agents. In 1939, the Supreme Court of Canada found, in a decision known as Re Eskimos , that Inuit should be considered Indians and were thus under the jurisdiction of the federal government. Native customs were worn down by the actions of the RCMP, who enforced Canadian criminal law on Inuit. People such as Kikkik often did not understand
8850-574: The late 1960s and early 1970s, shortly after the first graduates returned home. They formed new politically active associations in the early 1970s, starting with the Inuit Tapirisat of Canada (Inuit Brotherhood and today known as Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami), an outgrowth of the Indian and Eskimo Association of the '60s, in 1971, and more region-specific organizations shortly afterward, including the Committee for
8968-427: The long-sought open Polar Sea . Kane collected valuable geographical, climate and magnetic observations before abandoning the brig Advance to the pack ice in 1855. While three members of the crew were lost, the epic journey of the survivors inspired the public as a vivid tale of Arctic survival. Retired merchant Henry Grinnell became interested in the fate of Franklin's lost expedition , which had set out to seek
9086-984: The magnetic, meteorological, tidal and glacial aspects of the extreme region of western Greenland. Kane's party enhanced their survival through adaptation of Inuit techniques, including dogsleds, hunting, shelter, and by developing a close relation with the local natives. Such steps may have helped the Franklin expedition, which likely maintained their European behaviors throughout their ordeal. Said Kane When trouble came to us and to them, and we bent ourselves to their habits, – when we looked to them to procure us fresh meat, and they found at our poor Oomiak-soak shelter and protection during their wild bear-hunts, – then we were so blended in our interests as well as modes of life that every trace of enmity wore away. Franklin experienced several Inuit attacks in his 1826 overland expedition, which would have informed any later decisions regarding alliances with local natives. Kane's ability to periodically obtain fresh meat, primarily in summer hunts with
9204-563: The men lived among them for a few years of their own free will until they died attempting to leave Baffin Island in a self-made boat and vanished. Frobisher, in an attempt to find the men, captured three Inuit and brought them back to England. They were possibly the first Inuit ever to visit Europe. The semi-nomadic Inuit were fishermen and hunters harvesting lakes, seas, ice platforms, and tundra . While there are some allegations that Inuit were hostile to early French and English explorers, fishermen, and whalers, more recent research suggests that
9322-476: The mid-1960s, encouraged first by missionaries, then by the prospect of paid jobs and government services, and finally forced by hunger and required by the police, most Canadian Inuit lived year-round in permanent settlements. The nomadic migrations that were the central feature of Arctic life had become a much smaller part of life in the North. Inuit, a once self-sufficient people in an extremely harsh environment were, in
9440-466: The natives improved the provisions as temperatures warmed, but the provisions packed on the boats were reserved at all costs. Warming temperatures and melting ice added to the dangers. The sledges and boats occasionally broke through, narrowly escaping loss. In one such breakthrough on June 2, Ohlsen saved the Hope , but broke through the ice himself, rupturing a blood vessel. Although rescued, his condition
9558-413: The necessary vitamins they needed from their traditional winter diet, which did not contain any plant matter. In particular, he found that adequate vitamin C could be obtained from items in their traditional diet of raw meat such as ringed seal liver and whale skin ( muktuk ). While there was considerable skepticism when he reported these findings, the initial anecdotal reports were reaffirmed both in
9676-441: The northern Danish settlements at Fiskenaesset and Upernavik Greenland, and there acquired additional provisions, interpreter Karl Petersen , and a 19-year-old Kalaallit hunter and dog handler named Hans Hendrik . Navigation of the sea ice through Melville Bay in early August was facilitated by tethering the vessel to northeast-bound icebergs, with Kane leaving a cairn on Littleton Island . By August 23, they had reached
9794-610: The observatory with those of Baker. While the others recovered, Dr. Hayes set out on a dogsled journey making north for Cape Sabine on May 20 as temperatures rose to above freezing. He returned on June 1 after surveying the Greenland coast. On June 3, McGary and Morton set out on coastal expeditions along the Kennedy Channel (reaching as far as 81 degrees north, at Morris Bay), returning later that month, having been troubled by polar bears, bear-destroyed supply caches and melting ice. As temperatures continued to rise,
9912-450: The only means of escaping starvation, to resort to Esquimaux habits and give up all hope of remaining by the vessel and her resources. It would therefore in no manner advance the search after Sir John Franklin. Under any circumstances, to remain longer would be destructive to those of our little party who have already suffered from the extreme severity of the climate and its tendencies to disease. Scurvy has enfeebled more or less every man in
10030-509: The only means of saving ourselves and preserving the laboriously-earned results of the expedition. The twelve able-bodied crewmen hauled each of the three sledges in turn, with an emphasis on daily routine and discipline, with Hayes and Sonntag logging the running survey . The abandoned Inuit dwelling at Annoatok served as a forward hospital while the man-haulers remained close, and additional supplies had been cached nearby. Kane ferried supplies and invalids forward by dogsled and even returned to
10148-412: The party (Sonntag, Ohlsen and Petersen) returned to the Advance in a weakened state, requesting the immediate rescue of the remaining four, Brooks, Baker, Wilson, and Pierre. Ohlsen was brought to guide them back, but ultimately Hans tracked the frozen men's sledge trail after an unbroken march of 21 hours. Despite the hardships of exhaustion, high winds, and temperatures of −55 °F (−48 °C),
10266-553: The party was able to return to the Advance . Still, Jefferson Baker later died – the rescue party had been out for 72 hours and travelled nearly 90 miles (140 km). On April 26, after trading with a group of Inuit hunters at the brig, teams under Kane, McGary and Godfrey set out with fresh dogs for the Humboldt Glacier , hoping to reach the American side via their earlier cache depots. Once there, they planned to search
10384-473: The protection of the pack ice inlets. They soon took refuge on Hakluyt Island and repaired the boats. They set out again on the June ;22, island-hopping to Northumberland Island , then camping at Cape Parry and hunting all along the way, melting snow from the icebergs to produce water. As a result of the harsh winter, they soon encountered unbroken ice to the south. As their hope faded, a storm rose up and broke
10502-403: The related Aleut group about 4000 years ago and from northeastern Siberian migrants. They spread eastward across the Arctic. They displaced the related Dorset culture , called the Tuniit in Inuktitut , which was the last major Paleo-Eskimo culture. Inuit legends speak of the Tuniit as "giants", people who were taller and stronger than Inuit. Less frequently, the legends refer to
10620-452: The remaining crews made several short trips of observation, noting the migratory birds and employing the returning vegetation as a cure for their persisting scurvy. By early July 1854 Kane was considering the possibility of another winter locked in the ice measured against the fact that they were not provisioned for another year. The option of abandoning the Advance was considered dishonorable at best. Kane and five men undertook an attempt in
10738-534: The respective outcomes of both expeditions. Henry Grinnell Grinnell was born in New Bedford, Massachusetts , on February 18, 1799. He was the son of Cornelius Grinnell (1758–1850) and Sylvia ( née Howland) Grinnell (1765–1837). His siblings included Joseph Grinnell and Moses Hicks Grinnell . After graduating from the New Bedford Academy, Grinnell moved to New York City in 1818, where he became
10856-580: The rules of the alien society with which they had to interact. In addition, the generally Protestant missionaries of the British preached a moral code very different from the one Inuit had as part of their tradition. Many Inuit were systematically converted to Christianity in the 19th and 20th centuries, through rituals such as the Siqqitiq . World War II and the Cold War made Arctic Canada strategically important to
10974-450: The season and the location. There is a vast array of different hunting technologies that Inuit used to gather their food. In the 1920s, anthropologist Vilhjalmur Stefansson lived with and studied a group of Inuit. The study focused on Stefansson's observation that Inuit's low-carbohydrate diet apparently had no adverse effects on their health, nor indeed, on his own health. Stefansson (1946) also observed that Inuit were able to get
11092-469: The seventeen survivors resolved to stay with the brig and hope for survival through the winter, the other eight set out on the 28th for Upernavik, although one returned to the brig the next day. Those that remained with Kane on the Advance quickly began winter preparations. Those staying with Kane were Brooks, McGary, Wilson, Goodfellow, Morton, Ohlsen, Hickey and the Inuk, Hans Christian. Taking lessons from
11210-404: The ship as shelter and hunting together, which strengthened their bond. Local exploration and hunting continued into early October, when the Inuit quietly left. Hoarding their remaining bread, beef and pork before full darkness came, they extended their winter rations with occasional polar bear, fox , hares and ultimately rats, the latter of which they shot aboard ship with bow and arrow to pass
11328-441: The sled dogs. By March, the outside temperatures averaged around −46 °F (−43 °C), having reached a winter low of −67 °F (−55 °C) on February 5, 1854 . By the end of winter, most of the sled dogs had died of a progressive ailment resembling lockjaw , and much of the crew were exhibiting signs of scurvy . On March 20, a depot party set out, with temperatures slightly improving. Late on March 30, three of
11446-406: The span of perhaps two generations, transformed into a small, impoverished minority, lacking skills or resources to sell to the larger economy, but increasingly dependent on it for survival. Although anthropologists like Diamond Jenness (1964) were quick to predict that Inuit culture was facing extinction, Inuit political activism was already emerging. In the 1960s, the Canadian government funded
11564-516: The temperature rose above freezing, and several months of polar night . The families were told by the RCMP they would be able to return to their home territory within two years if conditions were not right. However, two years later more Inuit families were relocated to the High Arctic. Thirty years passed before they were able to visit Inukjuak. By 1953, Canada's prime minister Louis St. Laurent publicly admitted, "Apparently we have administered
11682-428: The time. Kane also experimented making root beer from willow shoots. Mid October, Morton and Hans set out by sledge to locate the Inuit, in hopes of locating hunting grounds. They reached a small seasonal settlement near Hartstene Bay , and successfully hunted walrus with their hosts, returning to the brig with meat on the 21st. The brig was periodically chain-lifted above the ice to prevent it from being crushed by
11800-513: The traditional structure and culture of Inuit society. In the 1950s, the Government of Canada undertook what was called the High Arctic relocation for several reasons. These were to include protecting Canada's sovereignty in the Arctic , alleviating hunger (as the area currently occupied had been over-hunted), and attempting to solve the "Eskimo problem", by seeking assimilation of the people and
11918-427: The vast territories of the north in an almost continuing absence of mind." The government began to establish about forty permanent administrative centers to provide education, health, and economic development services. Inuit from hundreds of smaller camps scattered across the north began to congregate in these hamlets. Regular visits from doctors and access to modern medical care raised the birth rate and decreased
12036-467: The vessel, hopelessly beset in the ice, was abandoned. In 1856, Grinnell was instrumental in having the recently salvaged HMS Resolute restored at the expense of the United States government, and returned to Great Britain as a good-will gesture. This was partly in the hope that the vessel would be used for a further search for the Franklin expedition. On later occasions, Grinnell manifested his unabated interest in polar exploration by contributing to
12154-518: The voyage of Isaac Israel Hayes in 1860, and the three expeditions of Charles Francis Hall between 1860 and 1870. He was also a regular correspondent with the writer and unsuccessful explorer William Parker Snow . Henry Grinnell was also one of the founders, and the first president, of the American Geographical and Statistical Society . In 1853, he was elected as a member to the American Philosophical Society . On June 12, 1822, Grinnell
12272-571: The voyage, but his health was already in decline, stating "The book, poor as it is, has been my coffin." He was joined by his family and William Morton in Cuba, where he died on February 16, 1857 . His life was publicly celebrated and widely mourned. The expedition contributed little to the efforts to determine the fate of Franklin, and concluded Grinnell's American contributions to this effort. Surgeon Hayes would launch his own Arctic expedition in 1860, which included Sonntag as astronomer and Hans Christian –
12390-437: The women's lives, such as where they were from, who their family was, their life achievements, and their position in the community. When Catholic missionaries arrived in the area in the early 20th century they outlawed the practice, but it is now making a comeback thanks to some modern Inuit women who want to revive the practices of their ancestors and get in touch with their cultural roots. The traditional method of tattooing
12508-567: The world is L'anse au Clair, Labrador. In other areas south of the tree line , non-Inuit Indigenous cultures were well established. As a result, being challenged by the groups below the tree line including Chukchi and Siberian Yupik for Russian Iñupiat, Arctic Athabascan and Gwichʼin for Alaskan Iñupiat and Inuvialuit, Cree for Nunavummiut (Nunavut Inuit) and Nunavimmiut (Northern Quebec Inuit), and Innu for Nunatsiavummiut (Labrador Inuit) and NunatuKavummiut (Southern Inuit or Inuit-metis), Inuit did not make significant progress South, or in
12626-548: Was almost nothing, but whose value to Inuit was enormous. From then on, contacts between the national groups in Labrador were far more peaceful. The exchanges that accompanied the arrival and colonization by the Europeans greatly damaged Inuit way of life. Mass death was caused by the new infectious diseases carried by whalers and explorers, to which the Indigenous peoples had no acquired immunity. The high mortality rate contributed to
12744-444: Was brought along as fuel. Provisions, ammunition, cooking gear, and a few precious scientific instruments were packed within these. Each man was allowed eight pounds of personal effects. On the 17th, they set out on their 1,300 miles (2,100 km) journey, with the sledges being man-hauled by the recently invalid crew. Only two miles (3.2 km) were gained the first day, but they gradually improved in their task, recuperating aboard
12862-424: Was done with needles made of sinew or bone soaked in suet and sewn into the skin, but today they use ink. The Inuit Tattoo Revitalization Project is a community that was created to highlight the revitalization of this ancient tradition. Inuit hunted sea animals from single-passenger, seal-skin covered boats called qajaq (Inuktitut syllabics: ᖃᔭᖅ ) which were extraordinarily buoyant, and could be righted by
12980-542: Was formally closed, with all attention focused on escape. All effort was focused on the manufacture of equipment and clothing for the escape. As the escape planning progressed, May 17 was selected as the day for setting out. A base supply of food would be transported with the sledges, supplemented by hunting and limited dogsled trips back to the brig. The two dried out cypress whaleboats Faith and Hope were strengthened where possible with oak, fit with collapsible masts, and covered by stretched canvas. A third boat, Red Eric ,
13098-444: Was grave. While attempting to reach the Inuit settlement of Etah near Littleton Island, fierce storms held Kane's dogsled party down, forcing them to burrow into the snow before retreating. A second attempt produced meat, blubber and fresh dogs from the generous natives, whose regular assistance was invaluable. Refreshed, Kane retrieved the four invalids from their shelter at Annoatok, one by one. On June 6, after raising sails on
13216-484: Was in 1850, when he purchased and loaned to the United States Navy the brigs Rescue and Advance to search the Arctic under the overall command of Lieutenant Edwin De Haven . After these vessels returned unsuccessful, he funded a second expedition with the Advance under Elisha Kent Kane which explored the region named Grinnell Land off the north-western coast of Greenland between 1853 and 1855, when
13334-486: Was influential in convincing him to acquire more sewing accessories and beads for trade with Inuit. During the early 20th century, a few traders and missionaries circulated among the more accessible bands. After 1904, they were accompanied by a handful of North-West Mounted Police (NWMP). Unlike most Aboriginal peoples in Canada, however, Inuit did not occupy lands that were coveted by European settlers. Used to more temperate climates and conditions, most Europeans considered
13452-544: Was married to Sarah Minturn (d. 1881) the daughter of William Minturn Jr. and Sarah (née Bowne) Minturn from the prominent merchant and shipping family . Together, they were the parents of: Grinnell died on June 30, 1874, and was buried at Green-Wood Cemetery in Brooklyn, New York . In 1880, the British Government presented his widow with a lady's desk made from timbers from the recently demolished HMS Resolute . This
13570-503: Was not the Resolute desk , but a companion desk made from other timbers from the same vessel. Through his daughter Sarah, he was the grandfather of Frances Sherborne Ridley "Fanny" Watts (b. 1852). Fanny was a childhood friend of the artist John Singer Sargent , who painted her in 1877. The painting was the first that Sargent submitted to the Paris Salon . Through his son Robert, he was
13688-431: Was recaptured at an Inuit village by Kane on April 18 without incident. With some improvement in health, planning began for the escape to open water across the ice, which showed no sign of releasing the Advance . Partnering and hunting with the local Inuit secured walrus and bear meat, helping the crew to recover. The few remaining ship-timbers were harvested as runners for two 17.5-foot-long (5.3 m) sledges for
13806-630: Was the grandfather of Sylvia Leith-Ross (1884–1980), who was an anthropologist and writer who worked in Nigeria. Inuit Inuit are a group of culturally and historically similar Indigenous peoples traditionally inhabiting the Arctic and subarctic regions of North America, including Greenland , Labrador , Quebec , Nunavut , the Northwest Territories , Yukon (traditionally ), Alaska , and Chukotsky District of Chukotka Autonomous Okrug, Russia . Inuit languages are part of
13924-662: Was with the Vikings who had settled in Greenland centuries prior. The sagas recorded meeting skrælingar , probably an undifferentiated label for all the Indigenous peoples whom the Norse encountered, whether Tuniit , Inuit, or Beothuk . After about 1350, the climate grew colder during the period known as the Little Ice Age . During this period, Russian and Alaskan natives were able to continue their whaling activities. But, in
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