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70-457: Schinderling was a popular name for the pfennigs with a sharply decreased content of fine silver from the time around 1457 to 1460, which were in circulation mostly in the region of Inner Austria . The cause of the decrease in silver content were the probate disputes between Emperor Frederick III and the master of his mint in Graz , Balthasar Eggenberger . As an independent entrepreneur, Balthasar

140-426: A One Standard German Axiom is a defining feature of Germanistik. Outside of Switzerland, Austria and South Tyrol, local dialects tend to be used mainly in informal situations or at home and in dialect literature, but more recently, a resurgence of German dialects has appeared in mass media. In German, Standard German is generally called Hochdeutsch , reflecting the fact that its phonetics are largely those of

210-568: A written language developed over a process of several hundred years in which writers tried to write in a way that was understood in the largest area. Martin Luther's translation of the Bible in 1522 (New Testament, Old Testament 1534) was an important development towards an early standardization of written German. Luther based his translation largely on the already developed language of the Saxon chancery, which

280-541: A distinction was made between white pfennigs ( Wißpennig , Albus , Silberpfennig ) and black pfennigs ( Kupferpfennig = "copper pfennigs"). A well-known example is the Haller Pfennig , which was later legally defined as a heller or haller in subsequent imperial coinage regulations as a separate denomination valued at two to a pfennig until the 19th century e.g. in Bavaria. Even the early hellers ( Händleinheller' ) had

350-404: A fee. The so-called Palatine Weckelers , named after their depiction of a lozenged shield or heraldic lozenge (German: Wecke ) were minted from about 1390. From the 15th century, a characteristic feature of the pfennig was its curved shape and a prominent circle of beads, which surrounded the coin image. The pearl circle does not occur in the later Schüsselpfennigs minted from the 16th to

420-530: A hyphen after their stems. Words that are written with capital letters in Standard German are nouns. English has taken many loanwords from German, often without any change of spelling (aside from frequently eliminating umlauts and not capitalizing nouns ): The Duden is the de facto official dictionary of the Standard High German language, first published by Konrad Duden in 1880. The Duden

490-671: A larger planchet . As a result, the rim of the coin was pressed upwards into the shape of a bowl or plate. The forerunners of the Schüsselpfennigs were the one-sided silver Engelpfennigs and Lilienpfennigs of the Free Imperial City Strasbourg and the Trier pfennigs, which were being minted as early as the beginning of the 14th century. They are so-called Ewiger Pfennige ("eternal pfennigs"), since unlike most bracteates , they didn't have to be exchanged regularly for

560-571: A low-denomination silver coin) can be traced back to the 8th century and also became known as the Penning , Panni(n)g , Pfenni(n)c , Pfending and by other names, e.g. in Prussia until 1873, Pfenning . The -ing - or -inc suffix was used, in addition to -ung , the formation of affiliation substantives and also appears in other coin denominations, for example in the schilling . Beyond that, its origin has not been clarified, but an early borrowing from

630-543: A noticeable addition of copper, so that the heller very quickly became the first German "pure" copper coin. The pfennigs of the Schinderling period, the black pfennigs, were minted from 1457 mainly in southern Germany, especially in Austria and Bavaria, with almost no silver. The so-called Böse Halser ("Evil Halser") of this time essentially consisted of a copper-tin alloy. The period of the so-called Schinderlings ended with

700-477: Is a pluricentric Dachsprache with currently three codified (or standardised) specific national varieties: German Standard German , Austrian Standard German and Swiss Standard German . Regarding the spelling and punctuation, a recommended standard is published by the Council for German Orthography which represents the governments of all majority and minority German-speaking countries and dependencies. Adherence

770-533: Is encoded in Unicode at U+20B0 ₰ GERMAN PENNY SIGN . Unicode has U+3338 ㌸ SQUARE PENIHI , a square combination of ペニヒ ( penihi ), Japanese for "pfennig", for compatibility with earlier Japanese character sets . Charlemagne established, in the so-called Carolingian coin standard , that from a Carolingian Pfund ("pound") of silver , 240 coins were to be minted (corresponding to about 1.7 g of silver per coin). The coin

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840-448: Is generally used in radio and television as well as in German learning materials for non-natives and at least aspirationally by language teachers. The accent is documented in reference works such as Deutsches Aussprachewörterbuch (German Pronunciation Dictionary) by Eva-Maria Krech et al., Duden 6 Das Aussprachewörterbuch (Duden volume 6, The Pronunciation Dictionary) by Max Mangold and

910-420: Is obligatory for government institutions, including schools. Regarding the pronunciation, although there is no official standards body, there is a long-standing de facto standard pronunciation ( Bühnendeutsch ), most commonly used in formal speech and teaching materials. It is similar to the formal German spoken in and around Hanover . Adherence to those standards by private individuals and companies, including

980-501: Is preserved in dialect literature and scholarly descriptions. It can thus be argued that it is the spread of Standard German as a language taught at school that defines the German Sprachraum , which was thus a political decision, rather than a direct consequence of dialect geography . That allowed areas with dialects with very little mutual intelligibility to participate in the same cultural sphere. Some linguists claim today that

1050-630: Is the Austrian counterpart to the German Duden and contains a number of terms unique to Austrian German or more frequently used or differently pronounced there. A considerable amount of this "Austrian" vocabulary is also common in Southern Germany , especially Bavaria , and some of it is used in Switzerland as well. Since the 39th edition in 2001 the orthography of the ÖWB has been adjusted to

1120-441: Is updated regularly, with new editions appearing every four or five years. As of August 2017 , it was in its 27th edition and in 12 volumes, each covering different aspects such as loanwords , etymology , pronunciation , synonyms , and so forth. The first of these volumes, Die deutsche Rechtschreibung (German Orthography), has long been the prescriptive source for the spelling of Standard High German. The Duden had become

1190-521: The Duden , in 1880. The first spelling codification by the Second Orthographic Conference of 1901 , based on Duden's work, came into effect in 1902. In 1944 there was a failed attempt at another reform; this was delayed on the order of Hitler and not taken up again after the end of World War II . In the following decades German spelling was essentially decided de facto by the editors of

1260-563: The Rentenpfennig and the Reichspfennig ) until 2001. The last West German one- and two-pfennig coins were steel with a copper coating. The five- and ten-pfennig coins were steel with a brass coating. The latter was called a Groschen , while the five-pfennig coin, half a groschen, was regionally (east of the river Elbe ) also referred to as the Sechser (English: sixpence ), deriving from

1330-515: The German spelling reform of 1996 . The dictionary is also officially used in the Italian province of South Tyrol . It is currently available in 44th edition, from 2022, and includes an online version with limited access. Several organisations promote the use and learning of the Standard German language. The government-backed Goethe-Institut , (named after Johann Wolfgang von Goethe ) aims to enhance

1400-593: The High German spoken in the southern uplands and the Alps (including Austria , Switzerland , Liechtenstein and parts of northern Italy as well as southern Germany ). The corresponding term Low German reflects the fact that these dialects belong to the lowlands stretching towards the North Sea . The widespread but mistaken impression that Hochdeutsch is so-called because it is perceived to be "good German" has led to use of

1470-461: The Holy Roman Empire minted their regional pfennigs to very different standards in terms of gross and fine weights , because the German "kingdom" handed over minting rights or did not enforce as a uniform imperial standard consistently. As a result, many regional pfennigs with different exchange rates arose over time. Somes coins had a black tint due to the large addition of copper, and so

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1540-453: The Kipper and Wipper era . For example, the terms a Schockpfennig (= 60 pf), Schockgroschen or "pound sterling" (= 240 d). From the 8th to the 13th century, the pfennig (or denarius ) consisted of high-quality silver, and was the only denomination in circulation, other units being used purely as arithmetic units and it thus had a high purchasing power. As a result, this era is also called

1610-452: The Pfennigzeit ("pfennig era") in numismatics. Only very rarely were half-pfennigs minted, which were also known as obole or scherfs . Around 1200, the pfennig was the largest and only German silver denomination, apart from imported foreign gold and silver coins. Smaller denominations were created by cutting the coins in half or quarters, producing something called hacksilver , which

1680-459: The 18th century. Krug gives the following examples of what could be bought for pfennigs in regions of Saxony and Thuringia : The pfennigs concerned were usually the coins from the Freiberg state mint. By the late 17th century, the pfennigs had lost most of their value. The last pfennig coins containing traces of silver are rarities minted in 1805. Effectively, by the end of the 17th century

1750-405: The 1980s, German has widely been considered a pluricentric language with the national standard varieties of German Standard German , Austrian Standard German and Swiss Standard German . These varieties of standard German differ above all in vocabulary , pragmatics and pronunciation , but in some instances also in grammar and, in only a handful of cases, in orthography . In formal writing,

1820-516: The Duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld from 1808 to 1811 and date stamped 1808 and are rare. Even the copper pfennigs were not all of the same value. Bremen therefore called its pfennigs sware penninge ("heavy pfennigs") for which the common name Schwaren prevailed. Some renowned coins made of copper are the Häller or Haller pfennig of Schwäbisch Hall , some centuries later called Heller , and minted throughout

1890-669: The Duden dictionaries. After the war, this tradition was followed with two different centers: Mannheim in West Germany and Leipzig in East Germany . By the early 1950s, a few other publishing houses had begun to attack the Duden monopoly in the West by publishing their own dictionaries, which did not always conform to the "official" spellings prescribed by Duden. In response, the Ministers of Culture of

1960-546: The High German dialects of what is now southern Germany, Switzerland and Austria. High German (and to some extent Central German) dialects form the basis for modern Standard German . The pfennig was the progenitor of a whole series of later coin denominations, which became parts or multiples of the later pfennig. These include the groschen ("big [pfennig]", from the Latin grossus "big, thick" ), Angster ("narrow [pfennig]", from

2030-524: The Latin angustus "narrow, thin"), Albus ("white [pfennig]", from the Latin albus "white"; initially equivalent to a Groschen ), Witte ("white [pfennig]"), Rappen ("pfennig with a raven"), Stäbler ("pfennig with the Basle staff"), Heller ("Haller [pfennig]"), Schwaren ("heavy [pfennig]") etc. There were also "light pfennigs" ( leichte Pfennige ), "good pfennigs" ( gute Pfennige ) or "custom pfennigs" ( Zollpfennige ), which had this name on

2100-563: The Latin pondus ("weight", cf. pound ) is possible. According to an 1848 Leipzig trade lexicon the name pfennig was "originally the general name of every coin in Germany, which is supposed to be derived from the hollow coins or bracteatess , because these had the shape of a pan " (i.e. they were bent)." The word Pfennig is etymologically related to the English penny , the Swedish penning , which

2170-527: The Palatinate, Saxony and other smaller ones), the value of the Pfenni(n)g was fixed at 1/240 of a Gulden by the coinage act of 1506 and that remained in force until 1871. (1 gulden = 60 kreuzer , 1 kreuzer = 4 Pfennings , 1 Pfenning = 2 Hellers ). The half-pfennig ( heller ) was the only coin of the gulden period that remained officially valid after the introduction of the imperial currency (because of

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2240-409: The Standard German varieties must not be confused with the variation of the local German dialects . Even though the Standard German varieties are to a certain degree influenced by the local dialects, they are very distinct. All varieties of Standard German are based on the common tradition of the written German language, whereas the local dialects have their own historical roots that go further back than

2310-602: The ascender, to form a descender , that hooked clockwise, thus making it a distinct symbol, different from any of the other Kurrent letters in its own right: ₰ . The pfennig symbol has nearly fallen out of use since the 1950s, with the demise and eventual abolition of the Reichsmark with its Reichspfennig , as well as the abolition of Kurrent by the Nazis on 3 January 1941, thus making it increasingly cryptic as familiarity with Kurrent script has decreased since that time. The symbol

2380-550: The beer tax in Bavaria). In some southern German states, the term heller was a synonym for the pfennig (e.g. in the city of Frankfurt and in the Duchy of Nassau). In Bavaria, the heller was half a penny. The Mark gold currency , introduced by the German Coinage Act of 1871 was the currency of the newly founded German Empire , was divided into = 100 pfennigs. This partition was retained through all German currencies (including

2450-642: The bible of the Standard High German language, being the definitive set of rules regarding grammar, spelling, and usage of Standard High German. The Österreichisches Wörterbuch ("Austrian Dictionary"), abbreviated ÖWB , is the official dictionary of the Standard High German language in the Republic of Austria . It is edited by a group of linguists under the authority of the Austrian Federal Ministry of Education, Arts and Culture (German: Bundesministerium für Unterricht, Kunst und Kultur ). It

2520-524: The centuries. The widespread fluctuations in the weight of the same pfennigs were partly due to the manufacturing process, with the heavier pfennig specimens being sought out by private individuals in accordance with Gresham's law . At that time and even partly up to modern times, it was the total weight of a certain number of similar pfennigs that had to be right for larger payments, a practice that tended to promote deviating exchange rates between smaller and larger coin denominations and which found its climax in

2590-515: The coin. Some types of pfennig were given special names in the vernacular, such as the Erfurt "coffin pfennig" ( Sargpfennig ). As a currency sign a variation of the minuscule letter 'd' for ' denarius ' in German Kurrent script was modified so the terminal end of the minuscule Kurrent 'd', that trailed at the top of the ascender in an anticlockwise loop, was instead brought down behind the right of

2660-446: The constant reduction in the silver content of the groschen meant that new ordinances to reduce the silver content of the pfennigs that the cities sometimes minted themselves. The Schüsselpfennig ("bowl pfennig") minted from 1374 to the 18th century is a concave pfennig, stamped on one side only, that was minted from 1374 onwards, and was so called due to its minting technique. It was created by stamping using one upper die only onto

2730-559: The country, and the Kreuzer (from "Kreuz", the cross minted on the coins), minted in Austria , Switzerland , and some regions of Upper Germany . Until 1821, various smaller coin systems were in use in the Prussian provinces. Only in the provinces of Brandenburg and Westphalia was the pfennig the smallest coin in terms of value. With the Prussian small coin reform of 1821, a uniform small coin system

2800-451: The difference between British and American English. The pronouncing dictionary of the Duden dictionary group codifies the standard pronunciation for German Standard German and allows for a small number of divergences; for example, the string "äh" has two authorized pronunciations, /ɛː/ and /eː/. Some regions see only the first as correct, and others use only the second; Duden now recognizes both as correct. Standardized High German pronunciation

2870-625: The differences are small; in regards to the spoken language, the different varieties of Standard German are easily recognized by most speakers. These three national standards (German, Austrian and Swiss) have each been adopted by other German-speaking countries and communities as their standard form of German. The German standard is applied in Luxembourg , Belgium , and Namibia while the Swiss standard has been adopted in Liechtenstein . The variation of

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2940-462: The federal states in West Germany officially declared the Duden spellings to be binding as of November 1955 ("Duden-Monopol" or "Dudenmonopol", "Duden-Privileg" or "Dudenprivileg"). The orthography reform of 1996 was based on an international agreement signed by the governments of the German -speaking countries Germany , Austria , Liechtenstein and Switzerland ; but acceptance of the reform

3010-462: The former duodecimal division of the groschen. All four coins had their value imprinted on the obverse and an oak tree on the reverse. The coins of the Mark der DDR were made of aluminium, except for the 20 pfennig coin, which was made of an aluminium copper alloy. After the introduction of the euro, some, mainly older, Germans tend to use the term pfennig instead of cent for the copper-coloured coins (and

3080-662: The knowledge of German culture and language within Europe and the rest of the world. This is done by holding exhibitions and conferences with German-related themes, and providing training and guidance in the learning and use of the German language. For example, the Goethe-Institut teaches the Goethe-Zertifikat German language qualification. The German state broadcaster Deutsche Welle provides radio and television broadcasts in Standard German and 30 other languages across

3150-443: The letter ß because it contains a long vowel, even though that letter occurs at the end of a syllable. The logic of this change is that an 'ß' is a single letter whereas 'ss' are two letters, so the same distinction applies as (for example) between the words den and denn . This is a selection of cognates in both English and Standard German. Instead of the usual infinitive ending -en , Standard German verbs are indicated by

3220-466: The period, Balthasar became quite wealthy and influential through these activities until the emperor was forced to act in the spring of 1460. He issued an arrest warrant for Balthasar, who received word of the order and fled to Venice with what was a vast sum in gold, silver and jewels of about £40000. By July of that year Balthasar and the emperor had come to some sort of arrangement, the details of which have been lost. Through this arrangement Balthasar

3290-442: The pfennig had been reduced to a pure copper coin. In the 18th century, some German mints minted copper and billonpfennigs at around the same time. From the middle of the 18th century, however, the proportion of billon coins compared to pure copper pfennig coins tended to decrease, which was also reflected in the 2 to 4 pfennig coins. The last silver-containing 1 pfennig coins with the designation " Pfenig " were minted in Germany in

3360-465: The phasing out of the 5-lot pfennigs in 1460. The black pfennigs undermined confidence in Austria's silver currency for a long time. For the successful introduction of the silver groschen currency, which replaced the regional pfennig, sufficient coins of lower denomination had to be available. The silver-rich Saxon dukes, for example, had hollow pfennigs and hollow hellers minted at Gotha and Langensalza to prescribed coinage ordinances. However,

3430-420: The print and audio-visual media, is voluntary. Austrian German has had standard pronunciation exceptions since 1904 ( Luick's österreichische Bühnenaussprache). In Switzerland, no such official pronunciation codex exists, yet most Standard Swiss German speakers are markedly different sounding from Hanover-type phonetic targets. Standard German originated not as a traditional dialect of a specific region but as

3500-616: The production cost of the coins against their value as currency. According to Austrian chronicler and contemporary of Balthasar's: "The emperor allowed bad coins to be minted; these coins were named Schinderlings . Anyone with lots of old copper kettles could mint better. He allowed such coins to be minted...by a citizen in Graz named Eggenberg, who had the lease on the minting operations in Graz and in St. Veit in Carinthia ." According to another chronicle from

3570-400: The reform, some newspapers, such as Die Zeit , Neue Zürcher Zeitung and Süddeutsche Zeitung , created their own in-house orthographies. After 10 years, without any intervention by the federal parliament, a major revision of the spelling reform was installed in 2006 because there were disagreements regarding capitalization and splitting of German words. Also revised were

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3640-512: The rest of Northern Germany. Standard High German is written in the Latin alphabet . In addition to the 26 standard letters, German has three vowels with an umlaut mark , namely ä , ö and ü , as well as the Eszett or scharfes s (sharp s): ß . In Switzerland and Liechtenstein, ss is used instead of ß . A first step to standardisation, although non-prescriptive, of Early New High German

3710-452: The rules governing punctuation marks. The most noticeable change was probably in the use of the letter ß , called scharfes s ( Sharp S ) or Eszett (pronounced ess-tsett , coming from ſz). Traditionally, this letter was used in three situations: Examples are Füße , paßt , and daß . Currently, only the first rule is in effect, making the reformed spellings Füße , passt , and dass . The word Fuß 'foot' has

3780-535: The supposedly less judgmental Standarddeutsch ("Standard German"), deutsche Standardsprache ("German standard language"). On the other hand, the "standard" written languages of Switzerland and Austria have each been codified as standards distinct from that used in Germany. For this reason, "Hochdeutsch" or "High German", originally a mere geographic designation, applies unproblematically to Swiss Standard German and Austrian German as well as to German Standard German and may be preferred for that reason. Since

3850-618: The term Groschen for the 10-cents-coin). The pfennig ligature is defined and coded in Unicode as follows: Standard German Standard High German ( SHG ), less precisely Standard German or High German ( German : Standardhochdeutsch , Standarddeutsch , Hochdeutsch or, in Switzerland, Schriftdeutsch ), is the umbrella term for the standardized varieties of the German language , which are used in formal contexts and for communication between different dialect areas. German

3920-494: The training materials at the Westdeutscher Rundfunk (West German Broadcasting) and Deutschlandfunk (Radio Germany). It is an invented accent, rather than one radiating from any particular German-speaking city. It is often said that the people of Hannover speak German with an accent that comes closest to the standard of the Duden dictionaries, but the claim is debatable, particularly since it may apply equally well to

3990-437: The unification of the written language, and in the case of Low German, belong to a different language entirely. In most regions, the speakers use a continuum of mixtures from more dialectal varieties to more standard varieties according to situation. However, there are two (or three) exceptions: While the three principal national varieties are recognized as three distinct standards, the differences are few, perhaps comparable to

4060-532: Was almost entirely a written language. People in Northern Germany who spoke mainly Low Saxon dialects , which were very different from Standard German, learned it more or less as a foreign language. However, the Northern pronunciation (of Standard German) later became considered standard and spread southward. In some regions such as around Hanover , the local dialect has completely died out as spoken language but

4130-603: Was also model for the Finnish penni (1860–2001), the Estonian penn (1918–1927), the Polish fenig (1917–1918), the Lithuanian word for money pinigai and the pfenig (fening) of Bosnia and Herzegovina (1998–today). The /pf/ rather than /p/ in both pronunciation and spelling is a result of the High German consonant shift or second Germanic sound shift which affected

4200-561: Was called in the Latin language of the time, a denarius after the old Roman coin (see Sachsenpfennig – Coin standard ). From this coin evolved later the French denier and the Italian denaro . The Arabic word dinar (دينار) can also be traced back to the Latin word denarius . In the Old High German language, the denarius was already called the pfennig ("phenninc") at the time of Charlemagne. In North German and Dutch-speaking countries it

4270-416: Was doing business at his own risk and his profit margin was based on the ratio of the value of the actual silver content of the coins against their value as currency. When the emperor increased the fees for the minting lease or raised taxes to pay debts, merchants had to pass that cost on by increasing prices or, as in the mint master's case, decreasing the actual amount of silver in the coinage thereby lowering

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4340-560: Was introduced by the Luther Bible of 1534. In consequence, the written language of the chancery of Saxony-Wittenberg rose in importance in the course of the 17th century so much so that it was used in texts such as the 1665 revision of the Zürich Bible . The First Orthographical Conference convened in 1876 by order of the government of Prussia , but failed. Konrad Duden published the first edition of his dictionary, later simply known as

4410-459: Was introduced for all Prussian provinces. To distinguish it from the pfennigs before the reform, the new denomination was called Pfenning . One thaler was no longer 288 pfennigs, but 360 Pfennings . This new ratio was also reflected on the side with the coat of arms: 360 EINEN THALER . Other states, such as Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach , minted 1½ pfennig coins well into the 19th century. In the southern German states (Baden, Württemberg, Bavaria including

4480-583: Was key in the development of German writing and standardization of the language. Similarly to Luther, Gottsched based his manual on the Central German variant of the Upper Saxon area. Over the course of the mid-18th century and onward, a written standard then began to emerge and be widely accepted in German-speaking areas, thus ending the period of Early New High German . Until about 1800, Standard German

4550-637: Was later called a Penning and in England the penny . The term paenig for the Roman denarius first appeared in England around 765, when King Offa had denarii struck out of silver based on the Carolingian model. This explains the abbreviation "d" as in d enarius, which was used for the "old" penny in Great Britain until 1971. The early pfennigs weighed around 1.3g to 2g, its weight tending to steadily decrease over

4620-489: Was limited and led to public controversy and considerable dispute. The states ( Bundesländer ) of North Rhine-Westphalia and Bavaria refused to accept it. At one point, the dispute reached the highest court, which quickly dismissed it, claiming that the states had to decide for themselves and that only in schools could the reform be made the official rule – everybody else could continue writing as they had learned it. While, as of 2004 , most German print media followed

4690-408: Was more widely understood than other dialects and as a Central German dialect, was felt to be "halfway" between the dialects of the north and south. Luther drew principally on Eastern Upper and East Central German dialects and preserved much of the grammatical system of Middle High German . Later in 1748, a grammar manual by Johann Christoph Gottsched , Grundlegung einer deutschen Sprachkunst ,

4760-399: Was one of the first cases of open inflation in the German linguistic area shortly before the beginning of modern times . As a result of this the emperor also issued a decree in 1460 fixing wages and prices based on the value of better coins to be minted under the new agreement between the emperor and Balthasar. Pfennig The word Pfennig (replacing the denarius or denarius as

4830-424: Was to pay the emperor an unknown sum in exchange for renewal of the minting lease under the stipulation that the minted coins could not have less than a specified amount of silver and amnesty to return to his lands in Graz. This shortage of money for the payment of the mercenaries linked with the disputes between Balthasar and Emperor Frederick III created a financial crisis. The Schinderlingszeit (Schinderling era)

4900-407: Was very easy to do with the one-sided thin hollow pfennigs or strubben , which were then referred to as bracteates from the 17th century. The "change" that was often still required for price and quantity equalization by buyers and sellers on the city markets were small amounts of natural produce and goods that were included in the overall purchase process. Around 1200, the different mint lords of

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