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102-494: Scagliola is a composite substance made from plaster of Paris , glue and natural pigments, imitating marble and other hard stones. The material may be veined with colors and applied to a core, or desired pattern may be carved into a previously prepared scagliola matrix. The pattern's indentations are then filled with the colored, plaster-like scagliola composite, and then polished with flax oil for brightness, and wax for protection. The combination of materials and technique provides

204-520: A diplomatic rank for the head of a mission ranking just below envoy , usually reflecting the relatively low status of the states of origin and/or residency or else difficult relations. On occasion, the resident minister's role could become extremely important, as when in 1806 the Bourbon king Ferdinand IV fled his Kingdom of Naples , and Lord William Bentinck , the British Resident, authored (1812)

306-657: A Libyan kingdom, Britain maintained a Resident in Tripolitania April 1949 – 24 December 1951 and another in Cyrenaica 17 September 1949 – 24 December 1951, and France one in Fezzan 1950 – 24 December 1951. In a later phase a former colony could itself appoint such Residents, as India did 5 December 1950 – 16 May 1975 in its Himalayan protectorate Sikkim , then still an independent monarchy (afterwards absorbed into India as an additional constitutive state) where Britain had obtained

408-478: A binder. In Martin E. Weaver 's seminal work he says, "Mud plaster consists of clay or earth which is mixed with water to give a 'plastic' or workable consistency. If the clay mixture is too plastic it will shrink, crack and distort on drying. Sand, fine gravels and fibres were added to reduce the concentrations of fine clay particles which were the cause of the excessive shrinkage." Manure was often added for its fibre content. In some building techniques straw or grass

510-630: A bucket of plaster as part of a school art project. Plaster that contains powdered silica or asbestos presents health hazards if inhaled repeatedly. Asbestos is a known irritant when inhaled and can cause cancer, especially in people who smoke, and inhalation can also cause asbestosis . Inhaled silica can cause silicosis and (in very rare cases) can encourage the development of cancer . Persons working regularly with plaster containing these additives should take precautions to avoid inhaling powdered plaster, cured or uncured. British Resident A resident minister , or resident for short,

612-460: A common practice at that time not just in the construction of Economy village when the settlement was founded in 1824. Specifications for the construction of, "Lock keepers houses on the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, written about 1828, require stone walls to be laid with clay mortar, excepting 3 inches on the outside of the walls … which (are) to be good lime mortar and well pointed." The choice of clay

714-466: A complex texture, and richness of color not available in natural veined marbles. A comparable material is terrazzo . Marmorino is a synonym, but scagliola and terrazzo should not be confused with plaster of Paris , which is one ingredient. Batches of pigmented plaster, modified with animal glue are applied to molds, armatures and pre-plastered wall planes in a manner that accurately mimics natural stone, breccia and marble. In one technique, veining

816-462: A cult arose where human skulls were decorated with plaster and painted to appear lifelike. The Romans brought plaster-work techniques to Europe . Clay plaster is a mixture of clay , sand and water often with the addition of plant fibers for tensile strength over wood lath . Clay plaster has been used around the world at least since antiquity. Settlers in the American colonies used clay plaster on

918-429: A degree of indirect control . Some such residents were former military officers, rather than career diplomats, who resided in smaller self-governing protectorates and tributary states and acted as political advisors to the ruler. A trusted resident could even become the de facto prime minister to a native ruler. In other respects, they acted as an ambassador of the government of the country they were posted to, but at

1020-425: A detergent agent (such as sodium dodecylbenzene sulfonate ). Plaster may also be used to create complex detailing for use in room interiors. These may be geometric (simulating wood or stone) or naturalistic (simulating leaves, vines, and flowers). These are also often used to simulate wood or stone detailing found in more substantial buildings. In modern days this material is also used for false ceiling . In this,

1122-403: A fire. Early versions of protective plasters often contain asbestos fibres, which since have been outlawed in many industrialized nations. Recent plasters for fire protection either contain cement or gypsum as binding agents as well as mineral wool or glass fiber to add mechanical strength. Vermiculite , polystyrene beads or chemical expansion agents are often added to decrease the density of

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1224-451: A hand-made and pleasing textured alternative to machine-made modern substrate finishes. But clay plaster finishes are rare and fleeting. According to Martin Weaver, "Many of North America's historic building interiors … are all too often … one of the first things to disappear in the frenzy of demolition of interiors which has unfortunately come to be a common companion to 'heritage preservation' in

1326-407: A letter dated 26 November 1741 Mann writes to Walpole: Your scagliola table was near finished when behold the stone on which the stuff is put, opened of itself so that all that was done, to his [Hugford's] great mortification is spoilt. He would have been off for beginning again on account of his eyes etc., but I have begged he will do it and he is about it and on 15 July 1742: Your scagliola table

1428-467: A lime and sand mortar to provide a weather proof seal to protect from water penetration. This allowed a rendering of clay plaster and setting coat of thin lime and fine sand on exterior-walled rooms. Split lath was nailed with square cut lath nails, one into each framing member. With hand split lath the plasterer had the luxury of making lath to fit the cavity being plastered. Lengths of lath two to six foot are not uncommon at Economy Village. Hand split lath

1530-639: A local Prefect, on seven individual islands, notably: Cephalonia (Kephalonia), Cerigo (Kythira), Ithaca , Paxos , Santa Maura (Leucada/Lefkada) and Zante (Zakynthos) In the Dutch East Indies , Dutch residents and lower ranks such as assistant residents were posted alongside a number of the many native princes in present Indonesia, compared to Regentschap . For example, in Sumatra , there were Dutch residents at Palembang , at Medan in Deli sultanate ; another

1632-660: A log of straight grained wood of the required length. The log is split into quarters and then smaller and smaller bolts with wedges and a sledge. When small enough, a froe and mallet were used to split away narrow strips of lath. Farm animals provided hair and manure for the float coat of plaster. Fields of wheat and grains provided straw and hay to reinforce the clay plaster. But there was no uniformity in clay plaster recipes. Manure provides fiber for tensile strength as well as protein adhesive. Unlike casein used with lime plaster, hydrogen bonds of manure proteins are weakened by moisture. With braced timber-framed structures clay plaster

1734-660: A lower level, since they were protectorates or tributaries of Western nations. Instead of being a representative to a single ruler, a resident could be posted to more than one native state, or to a grouping of states which the European power decided for its convenience. This could create an artificial geographical unit, as in Residency X in some parts of the Indian Empire . Similar positions could carry alternative titles, such as political agent and resident commissioner . In some cases,

1836-622: A mixture of suitable plaster, sand, Portland cement and water which is normally applied to masonry interiors and exteriors to achieve a smooth surface. Interior surfaces sometimes receive a final layer of gypsum plaster. Walls constructed with stock bricks are normally plastered while face brick walls are not plastered. Various cement-based plasters are also used as proprietary spray fireproofing products. These usually use vermiculite as lightweight aggregate. Heavy versions of such plasters are also in use for exterior fireproofing, to protect LPG vessels, pipe bridges and vessel skirts. Cement plaster

1938-621: A new and relatively liberal constitution. Residents could also be posted to nations that had significant foreign influence. For instance, the British sent residents to the Mameluk Beys who ruled Baghdad province as an autonomous state (1704–1831) in the north of present-day Iraq , until the Ottoman sultans reasserted control over it (1831) and its Wali (governor). After the Congress of Vienna restored

2040-648: A number of chimneypieces in Dublin of very good quality. Scagliola inlay proved to be desirable in Ireland and there appears to be a continuation long after it became unfashionable in England. In 1911, Herbert Cescinsky, in English Furniture remarked that scagliola had been popular in Dublin fifty years before. This would explain one at 86, Stephen's Green, clearly an 18th. Century chimneypiece, which has been later embellished in

2142-471: A patient's head and neck, and liquid plaster is used to fill the impression and produce a plaster bust. The transparent material polymethyl methacrylate (Plexiglas, Perspex) is then vacuum formed over this bust to create a clear face mask which will hold the patient's head steady while radiation is being delivered. In dentistry, plaster is used for mounting casts or models of oral tissues. These diagnostic and working models are usually made from dental stone,

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2244-454: A plaster positive was desired this would be constructed or cast to form a durable image artwork. As a model for stonecutters this would be sufficient. If intended for producing a bronze casting the plaster positive could be further worked to produce smooth surfaces. An advantage of this plaster image is that it is relatively cheap; should a patron approve of the durable image and be willing to bear further expense, subsequent molds could be made for

2346-410: A plaster secondary support. Some, like Michelangelo's Sistine Chapel ceiling , are executed in fresco , meaning they are painted on a thin layer of wet plaster, called intonaco ; the pigments sink into this layer so that the plaster itself becomes the medium holding them, which accounts for the excellent durability of fresco. Additional work may be added a secco on top of the dry plaster, though this

2448-464: A plastic material suited to molding in ornate shapes. Scagliola columns are not generally built of the solid material. Instead scagliola is trowelled onto a canvas which is wrapped around the column's core, and the canvas peeled away when semi-hardened. The scagliola is then surfaced in place. The verd antique columns and pilasters in the Anteroom at Syon House are made out of marble not scagliola as it

2550-407: A positive model of the limb and used in fabricating the final medical device. In addition, dentures (false teeth) are made by first taking a dental impression using a soft, pliable material that can be removed from around the teeth and gums without loss of fidelity and using the impression to creating a wax model of the teeth and gums. The model is used to create a plaster mold (which is heated so

2652-400: A primary advantage of the material is that it is resistant to a fire within a room and so can assist in reducing or eliminating structural damage or destruction provided the fire is promptly extinguished. Lime plaster is used for frescoes , where pigments , diluted in water, are applied to the still wet plaster. USA and Iran are the main plaster producers in the world. Cement plaster is

2754-679: A protectorate over the Maharaja in 1861, see above. In the Colony of Western Australia , colonial administration and local government were sometimes controlled at the regional level, by government residents, under the direction of the Colonial Secretary (i.e. the "Governor in Council"). The main responsibility of a government resident was the role of Resident Magistrate , and the two titles were often used interchangeably. However, they also often directed

2856-420: A remarkable property of setting into a hard mass on wetting with water. CaSO 4 ⋅ 1 2 H 2 O + 1 1 2 H 2 O ⟶ CaSO 4 ⋅ 2 H 2 O {\displaystyle {\ce {CaSO4.1/2H2O + 1 1/2H2O -> CaSO4.2H2O}}} Plaster of Paris

2958-431: A rigid denture base. Moreover, in dentistry there are 5 types of gypsum products depending on their consistency and uses: 1) impression plaster (type 1), 2) model plaster (type 2), dental stones (types 3, 4 and 5) In orthotics and prosthetics, plaster bandages traditionally were used to create impressions of the patient's limb (or residuum). This negative impression was then, itself, filled with plaster of Paris, to create

3060-416: A stronger, harder and denser derivative of plaster which is manufactured from gypsum under pressure. Plaster is also used to invest and flask wax dentures, the wax being subsequently removed by "burning out," and replaced with flowable denture base material. The typically acrylic denture base then cures in the plaster investment mold. Plaster investments can withstand the high heat and pressure needed to ensure

3162-450: A transitional process to a new constitutional status, such as full independence. Such function could also be performed under another title, such as Commissioner or High Commissioner. Thus after World War I, there were residents in some mandate territories: Also after World War II, and not only in former mandate territories; e.g. in parts of Libya , a former Italian colony, put under UN administration since 1946 prior to their unification as

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3264-410: A young Pietro Bossi with him. The name Bossi is associated with a family of Northern Italian scagliolisti. Bartoli supplied table tops to Ireland and one chimneypiece at Belvedere House in Dublin could be attributed to Richter. Their styles are very different. There is little evidence that either of them came to Ireland. Pietro Bossi arrived in Dublin in 1784 and probably died there in 1798. He produced

3366-415: Is a government official required to take up permanent residence in another country. A representative of his government, he officially has diplomatic functions which are often seen as a form of indirect rule . A resident usually heads an administrative area called a residency . "Resident" may also refer to resident spy , the chief of an espionage operations base. This full style occurred commonly as

3468-462: Is accompanied by a slight expansion of volume. It is used in making casts for statues, toys , and more. The initial matrix consists mostly of orthorhombic crystals: the kinetic product. Over the next 72 hours, the rhombic crystals give way to an interlocking mass of monoclinic crystal needles, and the plaster increases in hardness and strength. If plaster or gypsum is heated to between 130 °C (266 °F) and 180 °C (350 °F), hemihydrate

3570-405: Is almost finished (you remember the first he [Hugford] undertook broke when near done) and is very handsome, but even in this commission my success is not complete, for I cannot persuade the padre [Hugford] to make its companion and on 30 October 1742: Your scagliola table is finished, though I have not got it home. The nasty priest [Hugford] will have 25 zecchins [£12 10s] besides many thanks, for

3672-519: Is commonly based on the reaction of gypsum plaster with water, where the water is selectively applied by the inkjet head. The chemical reaction that occurs when plaster is mixed with water is exothermic . When plaster sets, it can reach temperatures of more than 60 °C (140 °F) and, in large volumes, can burn the skin. In January 2007, a secondary school student in Lincolnshire , England sustained third-degree burns after encasing her hands in

3774-429: Is created by drawing strands of raw silk saturated in pigment through the plaster mix. Another technique involves trowelling on several layers of translucent renders and randomly cutting back to a previous layer to achieve colour differential similar to jasper . When dry, the damp surface was pumiced smooth, then buffed with a linen cloth impregnated with Tripoli (a siliceous rottenstone ) and charcoal; finally it

3876-456: Is formed, which will also re-form as gypsum if mixed with water. On heating to 180 °C (350 °F), the nearly water-free form, called γ-anhydrite (CaSO 4 · n H 2 O where n = 0 to 0.05) is produced. γ-anhydrite reacts slowly with water to return to the dihydrate state, a property exploited in some commercial desiccants . On heating above 250 °C (480 °F), the completely anhydrous form called β-anhydrite or dead burned plaster

3978-436: Is formed. Lime plaster is a mixture of calcium hydroxide and sand (or other inert fillers). Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere causes the plaster to set by transforming the calcium hydroxide into calcium carbonate ( limestone ). Whitewash is based on the same chemistry. To make lime plaster, limestone (calcium carbonate) is heated above approximately 850 °C (1600 °F) to produce quicklime (calcium oxide). Water

4080-715: Is generally less durable. Plaster (often called stucco in this context) is a far easier material for making reliefs than stone or wood, and was widely used for large interior wall-reliefs in Egypt and the Near East from antiquity into Islamic times (latterly for architectural decoration, as at the Alhambra ), Rome, and Europe from at least the Renaissance, as well as probably elsewhere. However, it needs very good conditions to survive long in unmaintained buildings – Roman decorative plasterwork

4182-490: Is mainly known from Pompeii and other sites buried by ash from Mount Vesuvius . Plaster may be cast directly into a damp clay mold. In creating this piece molds (molds designed for making multiple copies) or waste molds (for single use) would be made of plaster. This "negative" image, if properly designed, may be used to produce clay productions, which when fired in a kiln become terra cotta building decorations, or these may be used to create cast concrete sculptures. If

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4284-587: Is no longer in Florence. Here is a scholar of his [Don Pietro Belloni?], but vastly inferior to him, and so slow in working that he has been almost three years about a pair for a Mr Leson [Joseph Leeson], and requires still six months more. I will endeavour to get somebody to write to the first friar [Hugford] and to engage him to make two tables in his convent and send them to Florence, of which I hope to be able to give you an account by next post. and on 10 October 1749: I am glad your scagliola tables please. You must make

4386-477: Is not uniform like sawn lath. The straightness or waviness of the grain affected the thickness or width of each lath, and thus the spacing of the lath. The clay plaster rough coat varied to cover the irregular lath. Window and door trim as well as the mudboard (baseboard) acted as screeds. With the variation of the lath thickness and use of coarse straw and manure, the clay coat of plaster was thick in comparison to later lime-only and gypsum plasters. In Economy Village,

4488-594: Is often used as an artistic material for casting. Plaster is also commonly spread over an armature (form), made of wire mesh, cloth, or other materials; a process for adding raised details. For these processes, limestone or acrylic based plaster may be employed, known as stucco. Products composed mainly of plaster of Paris and a small amount of Portland cement are used for casting sculptures and other art objects as well as molds. Considerably harder and stronger than straight plaster of Paris, these products are for indoor use only as they degrade in moist conditions. Plaster

4590-533: Is produced by heating gypsum to about 120–180 °C (248–356 °F) in a kiln: CaSO 4 ⋅ 2 H 2 O ⟶ heat CaSO 4 ⋅ 1 2 H 2 O + 1 1 2 H 2 O ↑ {\displaystyle {\ce {CaSO4.2H2O {\overset {heat}{{}->{}}}{CaSO4.1/2H2O}+ 1\!1/2 H2O ^}}} (released as steam). Plaster of Paris has

4692-419: Is stored in moisture -proof containers, because the presence of moisture can cause slow setting of plaster of Paris by bringing about its hydration, which will make it useless after some time. When the dry plaster powder is mixed with water, it rehydrates over time into gypsum. The setting of plaster slurry starts about 10 minutes after mixing and is complete in about 45 minutes. The setting of plaster of Paris

4794-478: Is the use of scagliola, including the richly coloured and figured Sienna shafts of the eight fluted Corinthian columns...and the urns, entablature and balustrade to the second-floor landing which gives access to four plaster-vaulted ante rooms serving the main bedrooms. All this scagliola was produced by Richard Feroze, England's leading contemporary scagliola-maker. Italian plasterworkers produced scagliola columns and pilasters for Robert Adam at Syon House (notably

4896-421: Is then added to produce slaked lime (calcium hydroxide), which is sold as a wet putty or a white powder. Additional water is added to form a paste prior to use. The paste may be stored in airtight containers. When exposed to the atmosphere, the calcium hydroxide very slowly turns back into calcium carbonate through reaction with atmospheric carbon dioxide, causing the plaster to increase in strength. Lime plaster

4998-400: Is to replace conventional gypsum plasters in cases where the temperature can get too high for gypsum plaster to stay on the wall or ceiling. An example of a heat-resistant plaster composition is a mixture of Portland cement , gypsum, lime, exfoliated insulating aggregate ( perlite and vermiculite or mica ), phosphate shale , and small amounts of adhesive binder (such as Gum karaya ), and

5100-632: Is typically used without the addition of animal glues. Marezzo scagliola is often called American scagliola because of its widespread use in the United States in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. Slabs of Marezzo scagliola may be used as table tops. When set, scagliola is hard enough to be turned on a lathe to form vases, balusters and finials. While there is evidence of scagliola decoration in ancient Roman architecture, scagliola decoration became popular in Italian Baroque buildings in

5202-450: Is used to make dental models by pouring the material into dental impressions . Various types of models and moulds are made with plaster. In art, lime plaster is the traditional matrix for fresco painting; the pigments are applied to a thin wet top layer of plaster and fuse with it so that the painting is actually in coloured plaster. In the ancient world, as well as the sort of ornamental designs in plaster relief that are still used, plaster

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5304-500: Is used. The walls are painted with the plaster which (in some countries) is nothing but calcium carbonate. After drying the calcium carbonate plaster turns white and then the wall is ready to be painted. Elsewhere in the world, such as the UK, ever finer layers of plaster are added on top of the plasterboard (or sometimes the brick wall directly) to give a smooth brown polished texture ready for painting. Mural paintings are commonly painted onto

5406-452: Is widely perceived (a beautiful and rare, predominantly green marble that was quarried in Larissa of Greece since antiquity). These columns are not solid. Round sections of marble were painstakingly cut as a veneer of an approximate thickness of 5–6 mm and then glued onto a column core that is hollow and was probably made out of plaster. On closer inspection the viewer can see the joints of

5508-401: Is widely used as a support for broken bones; a bandage impregnated with plaster is moistened and then wrapped around the damaged limb, setting into a close-fitting yet easily removed tube, known as an orthopedic cast . Plaster is also used in preparation for radiotherapy when fabricating individualized immobilization shells for patients. Plaster bandages are used to construct an impression of

5610-421: Is worked in some way to produce relief decoration, rather than flat surfaces. The most common types of plaster mainly contain either gypsum , lime , or cement , but all work in a similar way. The plaster is manufactured as a dry powder and is mixed with water to form a stiff but workable paste immediately before it is applied to the surface. The reaction with water liberates heat through crystallization and

5712-526: The Choson Monarch (rendered as King or Emperor) 21 Dec 1905 – 1 Oct 1910 three incumbents (including Hirobumi Ito the former Prime Minister of Japan), all Japanese peers (new western-type styles, rendered as: Marquess/Duke or Viscount); the last stayed on as the first Governor-General after full annexation to Japan. See: List of Japanese Residents-General of Korea On occasion, residents were maintained, notably by former colonial powers, in territories in

5814-488: The French Lick Resort Casino , French Lick, IN which recently underwent a major restoration. Scagliola has historically been considered an Ersatz material and an inexpensive alternative to natural stone. However, it has eventually come to be recognised as an exceptional example of the plasterer's craft and is now prized for its historic value as well as being used in new construction because of its benefits as

5916-569: The Grand Duchy of Tuscany in 1815, the British posted a resident to Florence to handle their affairs there. As international relations developed, it became customary to give the highest title of diplomatic rank – ambassador – to the head of all permanent missions in any country, except as a temporary expression of down-graded relations or where representation was merely an interim arrangement. Some official representatives of European colonial powers, while in theory diplomats, in practice exercised

6018-659: The Northern Territory , government residents were appointed by the Government of South Australia from the establishment of the territory in 1864 until its transfer to the Australian Government on 1 January 1911. The last incumbent stayed on as first of six administrators; then again 1 February 1927 Robert Hunter Weddell was Government Resident for North Australia , until from 12 June 1931. Administrators were (and still are) appointed, even after 1978 when self-government

6120-518: The United States of the Ionian Islands became a federal republic of seven islands (Corfu, Cephalonia, Zante, Santa Maura, Ithaca, Cerigo, and Paxos), as a protectorate (nominally of the allied Powers; de facto UK protectorate; the highest office was the always-British Lord High Commissioner ), until its 1 June 1864 incorporation into independent Greece, there were British residents, each posted with

6222-658: The (Maha)Raja of Manipur ; to the (Maha)Raja of Travancore ; to the Maharana of Mewar in Udaipur. Even when Lord Lake had broken the Maratha power in 1803, and the Mughal emperor was taken under the protection of the East India Company , the districts of Delhi and Hisar were assigned for the maintenance of the royal family, and were administered by a British Resident, until in 1832

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6324-515: The 17th century, and was imitated throughout Europe until the 19th century. Superb altar frontals using this technique are to be found at the Certosa di Padula in the Campania, Southern Italy. An early use of scagliola in England is in a fireplace at Ham House , Surrey, which was brought from Italy along with the window sill in the reign of Charles II. This employs the use of a scagliola background which

6426-576: The British Governor (1 April 1946 – 1 February 1948) stayed on as first of four High Commissioners as de facto governor-general of the Federation of Malaya until independence on 31 August 1957 saw the creation of an elective federal paramount ruler styled Yang Dipertuan Agong (since 16 September 1961 with the addition bagi Malaysia ). There were specific residents accredited in most constituent Malay states : A similar position, under another title,

6528-588: The German colonies, the title was also Resident; the post was called Residentur . At the "national" level of British Malaya , after the post of High Commissioner had been filled (1 July 1896 – 1 April 1946) by the governors of the Straits Settlements (see Singapore), Britain appointed the following residents-general: Then there were various British chief secretaries 1911–1936 and two federal secretaries until 31 January 1942; after three Japanese military governors,

6630-572: The Irishman Friar Ferdinando Henrico Hugford (1695–1771) around 1740 Walpole had asked his friend Mann to acquire some more... (one of these tables is at The Vyne . That table has the arms of Walpole (with his post 1726 Garter Knight embellishments) impaling Shorter - for Prime Minister Sir Robert Walpole and his first wife Catherine Shorter, who died 20 August 1737. He married Maria Skerret in early 1738, thus The Vyne's table could seem have been ordered before c1736-37). In

6732-404: The addition of animal glues such as isinglass or hide glue. 'Marezzo scagliola' is worked with the pigmented batches of plaster in a liquid state and relies mainly on the use of Keene's cement, a unique gypsum plaster product in which plaster of Paris was steeped in alum or borate, then burned in a kiln and ground to a fine powder; invented around 1840, it sets to an exceptionally hard state. It

6834-1005: The columns in the Anteroom) and at Kedleston Hall (notably the pilasters in the Saloon). In 1816 the Coade Ornamental Stone Manufactory extended their practice to include scagliola; their scagliola was used by Benjamin Dean Wyatt at Apsley House , London. In the United States scagliola was popular in the 19th and 20th centuries. Important US buildings featuring scagliola include the Mississippi State Capitol in Jackson, Mississippi (1903), Allen County Courthouse in Fort Wayne, Indiana , Belcourt Castle in Newport, Rhode Island , in

6936-426: The contemporary scagliolist Michael Koumbouzis. Plaster of Paris Plaster is a building material used for the protective or decorative coating of walls and ceilings and for moulding and casting decorative elements. In English, "plaster" usually means a material used for the interiors of buildings, while "render" commonly refers to external applications. The term stucco refers to plasterwork that

7038-445: The creation of a wax image to be used in lost wax casting , a far more expensive process. In lieu of producing a bronze image suitable for outdoor use the plaster image may be painted to resemble a metal image; such sculptures are suitable only for presentation in a weather-protected environment. Plaster expands while hardening then contracts slightly just before hardening completely. This makes plaster excellent for use in molds, and it

7140-540: The day-to-day activities of police, explorers, surveyors, customs officers and other public servants . Government residents were appointed (at various times), at Augusta, Busselton, Carnarvon (Gascoyne District), Champion Bay (Geraldton), Derby (Kimberley District, later West Kimberley), Fremantle, Guildford, King George's Sound (Albany), Newcastle (Toodyay), the North District ( Camden Harbour / Roebourne ), Port Leschenault (Bunbury), Wyndham (East Kimberley) and York. In

7242-803: The days of British India . Often they were appointed to a single state, as with the Resident in Lucknow , the capital of Oudh ; to the Maharaja Gaekwad of Baroda ; to the Maharaja Sindhia of Gwalior ; to the Nizam al-Mulk of Hyderabad ; to the Maharaja of Jhalawar ; to the restored Maharaja of Mysore , after the fall of Tipu Sultan ; to the Maharaja Sena Sahib Subah of the Mahratta state of Nagpur ; to

7344-632: The finished product and increase thermal insulation. One differentiates between interior and exterior fireproofing. Interior products are typically less substantial, with lower densities and lower cost. Exterior products have to withstand harsher environmental conditions. A rough surface is typically forgiven inside of buildings as dropped ceilings often hide them. Fireproofing plasters are losing ground to more costly intumescent and endothermic products, simply on technical merit. Trade jurisdiction on unionized construction sites in North America remains with

7446-411: The greater account of them, as it is impossible to get any more of the same man [Hugford], nor indeed of his disciple here [Belloni], who is a priest too, and has been four years about a pair I bespoke of him, which he tells me plainly he cannot finish in less than two more. They work for diversion and won't be hurried. In modern times—Tusmore House, Oxfordshire: The great triumph of the saloon, however,

7548-441: The guise of building rehabilitation." Gypsum plaster, also known as plaster of Paris , is a white powder consisting of calcium sulfate hemihydrate . The natural form of the compound is the mineral bassanite . The name "plaster of Paris" was given because it was originally made by heating gypsum from a large deposit at Montmartre , a hill in the north end of Paris . Gypsum plaster, gypsum powder, or plaster of Paris,

7650-509: The house with clay and lime, and to fill, lath, and plaister them with lime and haire besides; and to siele and lath them overhead with lime; also to fill, lath, and plaster the kitchen up to the wall plate on every side. 6. The said Daniel Andrews is to find lime, bricks, clay, stone, haire, together with laborers and workmen." Records of the New Haven colony in 1641 mention clay and hay as well as lime and hair also. In German houses of Pennsylvania

7752-519: The hydrated plaster then hardens. Plaster can be relatively easily worked with metal tools and sandpaper and can be moulded, either on site or in advance, and worked pieces can be put in place with adhesive . Plaster is suitable for finishing rather than load-bearing, and when thickly applied for decoration may require a hidden supporting framework. Forms of plaster have several other uses. In medicine, plaster orthopedic casts are still often used for supporting set broken bones. In dentistry, plaster

7854-436: The interiors of their houses: "Interior plastering in the form of clay antedated even the building of houses of frame, and must have been visible in the inside of wattle filling in those earliest frame houses in which … wainscot had not been indulged. Clay continued in use long after the adoption of laths and brick filling for the frame." Where lime was not easily accessible it was rationed and usually substituted with clay as

7956-400: The intertwining of the European power with the traditional native establishment went so far that members of the native princely houses became residents, either in other states or even within their state, provided that they were unlikely ever to succeed as rulers of the state. A resident's real role varied enormously, depending upon the underlying relationship between the two parties and even upon

8058-489: The lime top coats are thin veneers often an eighth inch or less attesting to the scarcity of limestone supplies there. Clay plasters with their lack of tensile and compressive strength fell out of favor as industrial mining and technology advances in kiln production led to the exclusive use of lime and then gypsum in plaster applications. However, clay plasters still exist after hundreds of years clinging to split lath on rusty square nails. The wall variations and roughness reveal

8160-422: The matters not transferred under autonomy (and 1971 self-government) until full independence went in force 1 January 1984. The administrative head of Sarawak's geographical Divisions was, however, titled as Resident. The French word is Résident-général . (Belgium mainly used French in the colonies; the word in its other official language, Dutch, is Resident-generaal ) In the protectorate Korea , accredited to

8262-496: The mid 19th. Century for Crofton Vanderleur, formerly at 4, Parnell Square. A later firm, Sharpe & Emery, Pearce St., Dublin produce a number of examples in the neo-classical Bossi style, sometimes using original chimneypieces. The correspondence between British Resident in Florence Sir Horace Mann and Horace Walpole describes the process of obtaining a prized scagliola table top. Having received his first top from

8364-480: The mix. Because plaster of Paris sets quickly, "retardants" were used to slow setting time enough to allow workers to mix large working quantities of lime putty plaster. A modern form of this method uses expanded metal mesh over wood or metal structures, which allows a great freedom of design as it is adaptable to both simple and compound curves. Today this building method has been partly replaced with drywall , also composed mostly of gypsum plaster. In both these methods,

8466-1187: The old El Paso County Courthouse (Colorado) in Colorado Springs , in the Kansas State Capitol in Topeka, Kansas , in Shea's Performing Arts Center in Buffalo, New York , and in the Navarro County Courthouse in Corsicana, TX. St. Louis Union Station in St. Louis, Missouri, prominently features scagliola in its magnificent Grand Hall, the Rialto Square Theatre , Joliet, IL, Cathedral of St. Helena in Helena, MT, Congregation Shearith Israel in New York City, Milwaukee Public Library Central Library in Milwaukee, WI and

8568-450: The personalities of the Resident and the ruler. Some residents were little more than observers and diplomats, others were seen as unwanted interlopers and were treated with hostility, while some won enough trust from the ruler that they were able to exercise great influence. In French protectorates, such as those of Morocco and Tunisia, the resident or resident general was the effective ruler of

8670-403: The plasterers, regardless of whether the plaster is decorative in nature or is used in passive fire protection. Cementitious and gypsum based plasters tend to be endothermic. Fireproofing plasters are closely related to firestop mortars. Most firestop mortars can be sprayed and tooled very well, due to the fine detail work that is required of firestopping. Powder bed and inkjet head 3D printing

8772-449: The powder form is converted in a sheet form and the sheet is then attached to the basic ceiling with the help of fasteners. It is done in various designs containing various combinations of lights and colors. The common use of this plaster can be seen in the construction of houses. Post-construction, direct painting is possible (which is commonly seen in French architecture), but elsewhere plaster

8874-458: The preference given to me, for some simple English have been tampering with him and offered 30 to get it, though it is by no means such a fine performance. The priest wishes I would not take it, as he would make a present of it to the Pope. He leaves Florence for good and on 11 July 1747: You bid me get you two scagliola tables, but don't mention the size or any other particulars. The man who made yours

8976-594: The territory. In 1887, when both Boers and gold prospectors of all nationalities were overrunning his country, the Swazi paramount chief Umbandine asked for a British resident, seeing this as a desirable and effective form of protection. His request was refused. The residents of the governments of the United Kingdom and the dominions to a variety of protectorates include: British residents were posted in various princely states – in major states or groups of states—in

9078-525: The use of clay persisted. Old Economy Village is one such German settlement. The early Nineteenth-Century utopian village in present-day Ambridge , Pennsylvania, used clay plaster substrate exclusively in the brick and wood frame high architecture of the Feast Hall, Great House and other large and commercial structures as well as in the brick, frame and log dwellings of the society members. The use of clay in plaster and in laying brickwork appears to have been

9180-402: The various sections. The discerning eye will soon realise that they are looking at verd antique veneered marble and not verd antique scagliola. The 3.6 metre high verd antique scagliola columns that can be seen at Dropmore House , Buckinghamshire, are based on the colours and design of this historical work at Syon House. Both research and execution of these new columns were undertaken recently by

9282-582: The wax melts and flows out) and the denture materials are injected into the mold. After a curing period, the mold is opened and the dentures are cleaned up and polished. Plasters have been in use in passive fire protection , as fireproofing products, for many decades. Gypsum plaster releases water vapor when exposed to flame, acting to slow the spread of the fire, for as much as an hour or two depending on thickness. Plaster also provides some insulation to retard heat flow into structural steel elements, that would otherwise lose their strength and collapse in

9384-512: The whole area was annexed to British Residents were also posted in major states considered to be connected with India, neighbouring or on the sea route to it, notably: And elsewhere: Even in overseas territories occupied ('preventively' or conquered) to keep the French out of strategic trade and waters, residencies could be established, e.g. at Laye on Sumatra , an island returned to the Dutch East Indies Since on 5 November 1815,

9486-431: Was a common building material for wall surfaces in a process known as lath and plaster , whereby a series of wooden strips on a studwork frame was covered with a semi-dry plaster that hardened into a surface. The plaster used in most lath and plaster construction was mainly lime plaster , with a cure time of about a month. To stabilize the lime plaster during curing, small amounts of plaster of Paris were incorporated into

9588-473: Was also widely used to create large figurative reliefs for walls, though few of these have survived. Plaster was first used as a building material and for decoration in the Middle East at least 7,000 years ago. In Egypt, gypsum was burned in open fires, crushed into powder, and mixed with water to create plaster, used as a mortar between the blocks of pyramids and to provide a smooth wall facing. In Jericho,

9690-404: Was because of its low cost, but also the availability. At Economy, root cellars dug under the houses yielded clay and sand (stone), or the nearby Ohio river yielded washed sand from the sand bars; and lime outcroppings and oyster shell for the lime kiln . The surrounding forests of the new village of Economy provided straight grain, old- growth oak trees for lath. Hand split lath starts with

9792-415: Was buffed with oiled felt; beeswax was sometimes used for this purpose. Because the colours are integral to the plaster, the pattern is more resistant to scratching than with other techniques, such as painting on wood . There are two scagliola techniques: in traditional 'Bavarian scagliola' coloured batches of plaster of Paris are worked to a stiff, dough-like consistency. The plaster is modified with

9894-459: Was first introduced in America around 1909 and was often called by the generic name adamant plaster after a prominent manufacturer of the time. The advantages of cement plaster noted at that time were its strength, hardness, quick setting time and durability. Heat-resistant plaster is a building material used for coating walls and chimney breasts and for use as a fire barrier in ceilings. Its purpose

9996-650: Was held in the other Malay states: In the Straits Settlements , under direct British rule: On Northern Borneo, contrary to the Malay peninsula, no such officials were appointed, in Sarawak and Sabah as there were white rulers or governors; but to the still sovereign Sultans of Brunei , lying between those larger states, British Residents were appointed 1906–1959 (interrupted by Japanese commander Masao Baba 6 January 1942 – 14 June 1945), afterwards only High Commissioners for

10098-591: Was posted with the Sultan of and on Ternate , and one in Bali . France also maintained residents, the French word being résident . However the 'Jacobin' tradition of strict state authority didn't agree well with indirect rule, so often direct rule was preferred. Many were part of a white colonial hierarchy, rather than truly posted with a native ruler or chieftain. This French title, meaning "Superior" (i.e. Senior) Resident, indicates that he had junior Residents under him. In

10200-627: Was then cut into to lay in the design. In 1761, a scagliolista, Domenico Bartoli, from Livorno arrived in London and was employed by William Constable of Burton Constable in Yorkshire. Here he produced two chimneypieces in white marble inlaid with the scagliola embellishments directly into cut matrices in the marble. Apart from the protective edges of altars at Padula this seems to be the first use of this technique. In 1766 he went into partnership with Johannes Richter, possibly from Dresden, who may have brought

10302-486: Was used as reinforcement. In the Earliest European settlers' plasterwork, a mud plaster was used McKee wrote, of a circa 1675 Massachusetts contract that specified the plasterer, "Is to lath and siele the four rooms of the house betwixt the joists overhead with a coat of lime and haire upon the clay; also to fill the gable ends of the house with ricks and plaister them with clay. 5. To lath and plaster partitions of

10404-424: Was used on interior walls and ceilings as well as exterior walls as the wall cavity and exterior cladding isolated the clay plaster from moisture penetration. Application of clay plaster in brick structures risked water penetration from failed mortar joints on the exterior brick walls. In Economy Village, the rear and middle wythes of brick dwelling walls are laid in a clay and sand mortar with the front wythe bedded in

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