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97-643: The Satala Aphrodite is an over-life-sized head of a bronze Hellenistic statue discovered in Satala (classical Armenia Minor , present-day Sadak, Gümüşhane Province , Turkey). Probably created in the 2nd or 1st century BC in Asia Minor , it was acquired by the British Museum in 1873, a year after its discovery. It has been widely admired since its discovery and likened to the Aphrodite of Knidos by some scholars. It

194-593: A Vinča culture site in Pločnik ( Serbia ), and believed to have been smelted from a natural tin-copper ore, stannite . Other early examples date to the late 4th millennium BC in Egypt , Susa (Iran) and some ancient sites in China, Luristan (Iran), Tepe Sialk (Iran), Mundigak (Afghanistan), and Mesopotamia (Iraq). Tin bronze was superior to arsenic bronze in that the alloying process could be more easily controlled, and

291-544: A spoon chisel , which is bent, with the bevel on both sides. To increase the force, stone chisels are often hit with club hammers , a heavier type of hammer. Masonry chisels are typically heavy, with a relatively dull head that wedges and breaks, rather than cuts. Often used as a demolition tool, they may be mounted on a hammer drill , jackhammer , or hammered manually, usually with a heavy hammer of three pounds or more. These chisels normally have an SDS , SDS-MAX , or 1-1/8" Hex connection. Types of masonry chisels include

388-506: A "rare surviving example of ancient Armenian cultural heritage." It is widely known in Armenia as representing Anahit. Robert H. Hewsen argued that while it is "certainly a work of external origin", it is "often touted as an example of Hellenistic art in Armenia." Babken Arakelyan considered it the most prominent of all Hellenistic statues found in historical Armenia. Dickran Kouymjian described it as "magnificent" and an "important object" that

485-465: A "sweep number" is specified that expresses the part of a circle defined by the curve of the blade. The sweep number usually ranges from #1, or flat, up to #9, a semi-circle, with additional specialized gouges at higher numbers, such as the U-shaped #11, and a v-tool or parting tool, which may be an even higher number such as #41. In addition to sweep, gouges are also specified by the distance from one edge of

582-532: A Greek or Hellenistic original, or a Roman copy". In 1878 the German archaeologist Richard Engelmann, who first described it in detail, considered it a replica of the Aphrodite of Knidos (Cnidian Aphrodite). Olivier Rayet and Zhores Khachatryan believed it was either a replica of Aphrodite of Knidos or was inspired by it. Vrej Nersessian noted that it is "now generally recognized" that its style reflects that of Scopas rather than that of Praxiteles (the author of

679-518: A copper oxide (eventually becoming copper carbonate) layer is formed, the underlying metal is protected from further corrosion . This can be seen on statues from the Hellenistic period. If copper chlorides are formed, a corrosion-mode called " bronze disease " will eventually completely destroy it. Bronze, or bronze-like alloys and mixtures, were used for coins over a longer period. Bronze was especially suitable for use in boat and ship fittings prior to

776-399: A craftsperson to cut into areas that may not be possible with a regular, straight-bladed gouge. The cutting shape of a gouge may also be held in an adze , roughly as the shape of a modern-day mattock. Gouges are used in woodworking and arts. For example, a violin luthier uses gouges to carve the violin, a cabinetmaker may use it for running flutes or paring curves, or an artist may produce

873-655: A major influence on the development of cultures. In Europe, a major source of tin was the British deposits of ore in Cornwall , which were traded as far as Phoenicia in the eastern Mediterranean . In many parts of the world, large hoards of bronze artifacts are found, suggesting that bronze also represented a store of value and an indicator of social status. In Europe, large hoards of bronze tools, typically socketed axes (illustrated above), are found, which mostly show no signs of wear. With Chinese ritual bronzes , which are documented in

970-586: A more probable subject than Aphrodite. The Armenian scholar Ghevont Alishan , in his 1890 book Ayrarat , insisted that the head represents Anahit (from Iranian Anahita or Anaïtis), the Armenian equivalent of Aphrodite. Some scholars have adopted this view, based on the proximity of the location of its discovery to a major temple of Anahit in Erez (Eriza) in present-day Erzincan , around 30 km (19 mi) south of Satala. The temple at Erez, which "enjoyed great fame",

1067-421: A pair of tongs . This tool is also often used in combination with a "top fuller" type of hotcut, when the piece being cut is particularly large. Stone chisels are used to carve or cut stone, bricks or concrete slabs. To cut, as opposed to carve, a brick bolster is used; this has a wide, flat blade that is tapped along the cut line to produce a groove, then hit hard in the centre to crack the stone. Sculptors use

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1164-507: A poem titled "Head of Anahit/British Museum", which was published in Poetry magazine in 2016. Khachatur Yesayan  [ hy ] , a Soviet Armenian artist, proposed in 1966 to start talks with the British Museum to move the head to Armenia. In February 2012, three months prior to the 2012 Armenian parliamentary election , Armenia's Education and Science Minister Armen Ashotyan from

1261-599: A range of alloys that may be harder than copper alone, or have other useful properties, such as strength , ductility , or machinability . The archaeological period in which bronze was the hardest metal in widespread use is known as the Bronze Age . The beginning of the Bronze Age in western Eurasia and India is conventionally dated to the mid-4th millennium BC (~3500 BC), and to the early 2nd millennium BC in China; elsewhere it gradually spread across regions. The Bronze Age

1358-556: A representation of the Iranian goddess Anahita." Jones, Craddock, and Barker described it as an "eastern representation" of Aphrodite. Nina Garsoïan suggested that it is of a "mixed Greco-Iranian type." Mardiros Ananikian wrote in The Mythology of All Races (1925) that it is a "Greek work (probably Aphrodite)" that was "worshiped by the Armenians." Soviet art historians wrote in 1962 that

1455-546: A sharper edge longer. Bronze was still used during the Iron Age, and has continued in use for many purposes to the modern day. There are many different bronze alloys, but typically modern bronze is 88% copper and 12% tin. Alpha bronze consists of the alpha solid solution of tin in copper. Alpha bronze alloys of 4–5% tin are used to make coins, springs, turbines and blades. Historical "bronzes" are highly variable in composition, as most metalworkers probably used whatever scrap

1552-627: A type of chisel that serves to carve small pieces from the material; particularly in woodworking , woodturning and sculpture . Gouges most frequently produce concave surfaces and have a U-shaped cross-section. Chisel comes from the Old French cisel , modern ciseau , Late Latin cisellum , a cutting tool, from caedere , to cut. Chisels are common in the archeological record. Chisel-cut materials have also been found. Woodworking chisels range from small hand tools for tiny details, to large chisels used to remove big sections of wood, in 'roughing out'

1649-405: A very smooth finish is not required or when the work cannot be done easily with other tools, such as a hacksaw , file, bench shears or power tools. The name cold chisel comes from its use by blacksmiths to cut metal while it was cold as compared to other tools they used to cut hot metal. Because cold chisels are used to form metal, they have a less-acute angle to the sharp portion of the blade than

1746-410: A woodworking chisel. This gives the cutting edge greater strength at the expense of sharpness. Cold chisels come in a variety of sizes, from fine engraving tools that are tapped with very light hammers, to massive tools that are driven with sledgehammers . Cold chisels are forged to shape and hardened and tempered (to a blue colour) at the cutting edge. The head of the chisel is chamfered to slow down

1843-425: Is "surely not to be identified with any Armenian deity." Terence Mitford suggests that an identification as Anaitis (Anahita) is "wholly implausible". Satala was also, for centuries, the base of Roman legions , including Legio XV Apollinaris and Legio XVI Flavia Firma . Zhores Khachatryan stated that "the Armenian origin of the statue still has to be proven". He believed that "it is more possible that it may be

1940-416: Is a better conductor of heat and electricity than most steels. The cost of copper-base alloys is generally higher than that of steels but lower than that of nickel -base alloys. Bronzes are typically ductile alloys, considerably less brittle than cast iron. Copper and its alloys have a huge variety of uses that reflect their versatile physical, mechanical, and chemical properties . Some common examples are

2037-483: Is associated with Armenia because of the location of its discovery. Kouymjian argued that the "imported head", among other archaeological findings, "testify to the interest in and market for classical art in Armenia." It may have been imported to Armenia by the royal court, possibly by Tigranes the Great , or by Greek priests and cults. The head has "long become an inextricable staple of the Armenian cultural imagery." The head

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2134-590: Is currently displayed at the History Museum in Yerevan as part of an exhibition entitled "Mother Goddess: From Anahit to Mary" from September 21, 2024 to March 21, 2025. The statue was greeted at the History Museum by Gallagher and Andreasyan on September 16. Its transfer to the museum was live broadcast by Armenia's Public TV . Gallagher described it as a "landmark moment in British–Armenian cultural ties". He said

2231-480: Is dated no earlier than the Augustan period. Most scholars agree that it was probably created in Asia Minor . James R. Russell suggested western Asia Minor. Lethaby suggested that it is a work in an Alexandrian style. Matthew P. Canepa described it as of "Hellenistic workmanship". Dyfri Williams and Lucilla Burn believe it came from a Greek or Hellenistic cult statue. Reynold Higgins suggested that "it may be

2328-411: Is indicative of a 2nd century BC dating. Babken Arakelian also argued in favor of the 2nd century BC, while Reynold Higgins suggested that "it may be a cast from a mould made in c.  150   BC ". Lucilla Burn argues for a late Hellenistic date, while Terence Mitford suggested it is from the "late Hellenistic or early Roman period". Brunilde Sismondo Ridgway writes that it

2425-513: Is likely that 'nehoshet' refers to copper and its alloys with tin, now called bronze. In the King James Version, there is no use of the word 'bronze' and 'nehoshet' was translated as 'brass'. Modern translations use 'bronze'. Bronze (nehoshet) was used widely in the Tabernacle for items such as the bronze altar (Exodus Ch.27), bronze laver (Exodus Ch.30), utensils, and mirror (Exodus Ch.38). It

2522-588: Is portrayed in a mural crafted by Van Khachatur  [ hy ] (Vanik Khachatrian) in 1959, inside the Matenadaran in Yerevan, symbolizing Armenia's Hellenistic period. A faithful replica of the head has been on display at the History Museum of Armenia in Yerevan since 1968. The head appeared on two postage stamp issued by Armenia in 1992 and 2007 (the latter jointly with Greece), 5,000 Armenian dram banknotes in circulation from 1995 to 2005 (along with

2619-569: Is spun on a lathe . These tools have longer handles for more leverage, needed to counteract the tendency of the tool to react to the downward force of the spinning wood being cut or carved. In addition, the angle and method of sharpening is different. Chisels used in metal work can be divided into two main categories: hot chisels and cold chisels. A cold chisel is a tool made of tempered steel used for cutting 'cold' metals, meaning that they are not used in conjunction with heating torches, forges, etc. Cold chisels are used to remove waste metal when

2716-453: Is used to make hammers , mallets , wrenches and other durable tools to be used in explosive atmospheres or in the presence of flammable vapors. Bronze is used to make bronze wool for woodworking applications where steel wool would discolor oak . Phosphor bronze is used for ships' propellers, musical instruments, and electrical contacts. Bearings are often made of bronze for its friction properties. It can be impregnated with oil to make

2813-541: Is used to make the tone rings of many professional model banjos . The tone ring is a heavy (usually 3 lb; 1.4 kg) folded or arched metal ring attached to a thick wood rim, over which a skin, or most often, a plastic membrane (or head) is stretched – it is the bell bronze that gives the banjo a crisp powerful lower register and clear bell-like treble register. Bronze has also been used in coins; most "copper" coins are actually bronze, with about 4 percent tin and 1 percent zinc. As with coins, bronze has been used in

2910-457: Is usually assigned to the Greek goddess Aphrodite , but has been associated with her Armenian equivalent Anahit , whose major temple was located not far from Satala. Consequently, head has been widely depicted in Armenian culture as a symbol of the country's pre-Christian heritage. Although not found in modern-day Armenia, there have been unsuccessful efforts to move the fragments to Armenia. The head

3007-489: Is worth far more to the Armenians than to the tourists and visitors of the British Museum". On March 7, 2012, some one hundred people, joined by Ashotyan, demonstrated in front of the British embassy in Yerevan, chanting "Anahit, come home!" A letter was handed over to the embassy thanking the United Kingdom for preserving the fragments, but claimed that "historical justice requires" that they "be repatriated and find refuge in

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3104-547: The Etruscans were making bronze mirrors in the sixth century BC, and Greek and Roman mirrors followed the same pattern. Although other materials such as speculum metal had come into use, and Western glass mirrors had largely taken over, bronze mirrors were still being made in Japan and elsewhere in the eighteenth century, and are still made on a small scale in Kerala , India. Bronze is

3201-673: The Garni Temple ), and the first gold commemorative coin issued by the Central Bank of Armenia in 1997. A 2000 painting, Still Life with Venus's Mask (alternatively titled Still Life with Anahit's Mask ) by Lavinia Bazhbeuk-Melikyan is inspired by the head. It currently hangs at the President's Residence in Yerevan. It is depicted on the logo of the Artists' Union of Armenia  [ hy ] . Armenian-American Peter Balakian authored

3298-602: The Garni Temple . The exhibition attracted more than 12,000 visitors in the first two months. The head has been displayed at the 1967 International and Universal Exposition in Montreal; at the British Library in 2001; in Manarat Al Saadiyat , Abu Dhabi in 2012; and Palazzo Strozzi , Florence in 2015. It will be exhibited at the History Museum of Armenia between September 21, 2024 and March 2025. The replica from

3395-503: The Golden Age , when men lived among the gods; the Silver age , where youth lasted a hundred years; and the Bronze Age , the era of heroes. It was first adopted for a sports event at the 1904 Summer Olympics . At the 1896 event, silver was awarded to winners and bronze to runners-up, while at 1900 other prizes were given rather than medals. Bronze is the normal material for the related form of

3492-743: The Kingdom of Benin ; in Europe, Grecian bronzes typically of figures from Greek mythology ; in east Asia , Chinese ritual bronzes of the Shang and Zhou dynasty —more often ceremonial vessels but including some figurine examples. Bronze continues into modern times as one of the materials of choice for monumental statuary. Tiffany Glass Studios, made famous by Louis C. Tiffany commonly referred to his product as favrile glass or " Tiffany glass ," and used bronze in their artisan work for his Tiffany lamps . The largest and most ornate bronze fountain known to be cast in

3589-539: The plaquette , normally a rectangular work of art with a scene in relief , for a collectors' market. Bronze is also associated with eighth wedding anniversaries. There are over 125 references to bronze ('nehoshet'), which appears to be the Hebrew word used for copper and any of its alloys. However, the Old Testament era Hebrews are not thought to have had the capability to manufacture zinc (needed to make brass) and so it

3686-463: The "exceptional quality of the surviving elements" suggest that the statue "must have formed a highly impressive figure." The head appears on the cover of The Oxford History of Greece and the Hellenistic World (2002) and in the title sequence of the 2017 film Call Me by Your Name . The tentative association of the head with Anahit has led to it becoming a symbol of Armenian culture, and

3783-623: The 12th-century Romanesque Baptismal font at St Bartholomew's Church, Liège is sometimes described as bronze and sometimes as brass . In the Bronze Age, two forms of bronze were commonly used: "classic bronze", about 10% tin, was used in casting; and "mild bronze", about 6% tin, was hammered from ingots to make sheets. Bladed weapons were mostly cast from classic bronze, while helmets and armor were hammered from mild bronze. Modern commercial bronze (90% copper and 10% zinc) and architectural bronze (57% copper, 3% lead , 40% zinc) are more properly regarded as brass alloys because they contain zinc as

3880-450: The Armenian monarchy, with kings travelling annually to the goddess's festival. Dickran Kouymjian wrote that it was "probably imported into Armenia by the royal court." Sirarpie Der Nersessian noted that tradition says Greek statues were brought from the Hellenistic cities by Tigranes the Great, while George Bournoutian argued that the statues were brought to Armenia by Greek priests and cults. After Armenia's conversion to Christianity in

3977-450: The British Museum in 1873. Gunning noted that "extraordinary efforts" were made to acquire the statue. She argues that it was sold in violation of both Ottoman and Italian laws. Bartın University archeologist Şahin Yıldırım said the head was "smuggled" from Turkey. Castellani bribed Italian customs officials to export his collection. The acquisition was negotiated by Charles Thomas Newton ,

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4074-618: The British Museum won't give anything to Armenia" and suggested that "the myths about Anahit are used in modern Armenia as a way to earn political points", which he described as populism . Armenian authorities announced in January 2024 that the statue will be displayed in Armenia for the first time as a result of an agreement between the History Museum of Armenia and the British Museum. It was officially confirmed in April by Armenia's culture minister Zhanna Andreasyan and British ambassador John Gallagher. It

4171-577: The Cnidian Aphrodite), because of the "low broad forehead, the intensely gazing deep-set eyes, and the large heavy nose, are all characteristic of the strongly marked individuality of that sculptor's heads". As early as 1873 Charles Thomas Newton identified the head with Venus . It has been generally assigned to Aphrodite . However, this has not been universally accepted, with Otto Benndorf suggesting commonalities with male deities, such as Apollo or Dionysos . Babken Arakelyan found Artemis to be

4268-483: The History Museum of Armenia was displayed at Russia's State Historical Museum in Moscow in 2016. Bronze Bronze is an alloy consisting primarily of copper , commonly with about 12–12.5% tin and often with the addition of other metals (including aluminium , manganese , nickel , or zinc ) and sometimes non-metals, such as phosphorus , or metalloids , such as arsenic or silicon . These additions produce

4365-456: The Preservation of Historical-Cultural Heritage, noted that the fragments were "not illegally exported from [Armenia], nor was it a war trophy, so that the ministry could try to return it with references to international treaties. It's possible only as an act of good will." Mark Grigorian  [ ru ; hy ] , an Armenian-born BBC Russian journalist, noted that "it is quite obvious that

4462-502: The West since its discovery. In a 1873 letter to Prime Minister Gladstone, Charles Thomas Newton wrote that the head is "the finest example of Greek work in metal" he had seen. He added that it is "the work which in beauty of conception and mastery of execution has most claim to rank next to the marbles of the Parthenon ." In a Times article, Newton wrote that the first impression produced by

4559-452: The barrel. It is still widely used today for springs, bearings, bushings, automobile transmission pilot bearings, and similar fittings, and is particularly common in the bearings of small electric motors . Phosphor bronze is particularly suited to precision-grade bearings and springs. It is also used in guitar and piano strings. Unlike steel, bronze struck against a hard surface will not generate sparks, so it (along with beryllium copper )

4656-399: The battle of David and Goliath in I Samuel 17:5-6;38 (also see II Chron. 12:10). Chisel Chiselling use involves forcing the blade into some material to cut it. The driving force may be applied by pushing by hand, or by using a mallet or hammer . In industrial use, a hydraulic ram or falling weight (' trip hammer ') may be used to drive a chisel into the material. A gouge is

4753-446: The blade to the other (this corresponds to the chord of the circle section defined by the edge of the blade). Putting these pieces together, two numbers are used to specify the shape of the cutting edge of a gouge, such as a '#7-20mm'. Some manufacturers provide charts with the sweeps of their blades shown graphically. In addition to varying blade sweeps, bevels, and widths, blade variations include: All of these specialized gouges allow

4850-404: The bronze head as "one of the glories of the British Museum". Sara Anderson Immerwahr called the bronze head "famous" and "lovely" that depicts "restless" and "ideal beauty." David Marshall Lang described it as "singularly fine", while James R. Russell called it a piece of "very fine workmanship." Lucilla Burn, former Curator in the Greek and Roman department at the British Museum, wrote that

4947-484: The country of their origin". In response, the British ambassador Kathy Leach was quoted by the Armenian media as saying that the head will be temporarily exhibited in Armenia. Ashotyan responded that while he was thankful, "our ultimate goal is permanent return." Zhores Khachatryan criticized the campaign as "pointless" and "populism that failed from the start." Vahan Gasparyan, head of the Ministry of Culture's Agency for

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5044-585: The cutting edge to provide clearance. The round nose chisel is used for cutting semi-circular grooves for oil ways in bearings. The diamond point chisel is used for cleaning out corners or difficult places and pulling over centre punch marks wrongly placed for drilling. Although the vast majority of cold chisels are made of steel, a few are manufactured from beryllium copper , for use in special situations where non- sparking tools are required. Cold chisels are predominantly used in Repoussé and chasing processes for

5141-439: The early 4th century, Anahit's images were destroyed. Lethaby suggested that the head and hand "bear manifest evidence of violent destruction" of the "Greek statues of bronze brought to Armenia". The British Museum describes the work as a "bronze head from a cult statue of Anahita in the guise of Aphrodite or Artemis ." The authors of a 2002 British Museum publication described it as being "in Hellenistic style" but "identified as

5238-436: The fabrication of bronze and aluminium sculptures . A hot chisel is used to cut metal that has been heated in a forge to soften the metal. One type of hot chisel is the hotcut hardy , which is used in an anvil hardy hole with the cutting edge facing up. The hot workpiece to be cut is placed over the chisel and struck with a hammer. The hammer drives the workpiece into the chisel, which allows it to be snapped off with

5335-434: The following: A plugging chisel has a tapered edge for cleaning out hardened mortar . The chisel is held with one hand and struck with a hammer. The direction of the taper in the blade determines if the chisel cuts deep or runs shallow along the joint. In leather work , a chisel is a tool used to punch holes in a piece leather. The chisel has between one and seven (or possibly more) tines that are carefully placed along

5432-453: The formation of the mushroom shape caused by hammering and is left soft to avoid brittle fracture splintering from hammer blows. There are four common types of cold chisels. These are the flat chisel , the most widely known type, which is used to cut bars and rods to reduce surfaces and to cut sheet metal that is too thick or difficult to cut with tin snips . The cross cut chisel is used for cutting grooves and slots. The blade narrows behind

5529-483: The fragments were found in the process of making a threshing floor . The head was acquired in Constantinople by Savas Kougioumtsoglou, a Greek antiquities dealer, who passed it to another dealer, Photiades Bey  [ tr ] , who was then Ottoman ambassador to Italy. Photiades took it to Rome, where it was sold to the art dealer Alessandro Castellani , an Italian goldsmith and collector, who in turn sold it to

5626-431: The free flow of the bronze they sometimes added small bridges of wax, say from the hair to the eyebrows and across the lips inside the head, before the core was inserted. Maryon noted that besides the bridges, the inside of the head contains a number of fingermarks, which proves that the core "could not have been made first". The hair was cut into curls with a chisel . The left hand, 29.2 cm (11.5 in) long, which

5723-408: The front of the neck had two faults in casting, which have been repaired by the insertion of strips of bronze. The eyes originally had either inlaid gemstones or glass . The hair is waved with curls on the forehead and ringlets on the sides, while the mouth is slightly open. William Lethaby described the face as wide with a "radiant yet disdainful expression", while Allan and Maitland suggested that

5820-440: The head is that of "majestic godlike beauty." Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine described it as a "unique example of a Greek bronze sculptured in a large commanding style [...] executed with all the feeling and skill which belongs to Greek art." Philip Gilbert Hamerton wrote that the head depicts a "simple and beautiful antique way of dressing the hair which was so suitable for plastic representation." Arthur Frothingham described

5917-423: The head, found in Armenia's western regions, may represent the Armenian goddess Anahit. Lâtife Summerer argues that its discovery in northeastern Anatolia "supports its interpretation as Anaïtis." Timothy Bruce Mitford argues that the statue was looted from the sanctuary of Anaitis at Eriza, but C. S. Lightfoot rejects this view as baseless. Robert H. Hewsen posited that it is "an obviously Hellenistic work" that

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6014-545: The high electrical conductivity of pure copper, low-friction properties of bearing bronze (bronze that has a high lead content— 6–8%), resonant qualities of bell bronze (20% tin, 80% copper), and resistance to corrosion by seawater of several bronze alloys. The melting point of bronze varies depending on the ratio of the alloy components and is about 950 °C (1,742 °F). Bronze is usually nonmagnetic, but certain alloys containing iron or nickel may have magnetic properties. Typically bronze oxidizes only superficially; once

6111-681: The highest form of sculpture in Ancient Greek art , though survivals are few, as bronze was a valuable material in short supply in the Late Antique and medieval periods. Many of the most famous Greek bronze sculptures are known through Roman copies in marble, which were more likely to survive. In India, bronze sculptures from the Kushana ( Chausa hoard ) and Gupta periods ( Brahma from Mirpur-Khas , Akota Hoard, Sultanganj Buddha ) and later periods ( Hansi Hoard) have been found. Indian Hindu artisans from

6208-479: The inscriptions they carry and from other sources, the case is clear. These were made in enormous quantities for elite burials, and also used by the living for ritual offerings. Though bronze is generally harder than wrought iron , with Vickers hardness of 60–258 vs. 30–80, the Bronze Age gave way to the Iron Age after a serious disruption of the tin trade: the population migrations of around 1200–1100 BC reduced

6305-434: The line where the holes are desired, and then the top of the chisel is struck with a hammer until the tines penetrate the leather. They are then withdrawn, and the leather worker then stitches through the resulting holes. A modern gouge is similar to a chisel except its blade edge is not flat, but instead is curved or angled in cross-section. The modern version is generally hafted inline, the blade and handle typically having

6402-824: The main alloying ingredient. They are commonly used in architectural applications. Plastic bronze contains a significant quantity of lead, which makes for improved plasticity, and was possibly used by the ancient Greeks in ship construction. Silicon bronze has a composition of Si: 2.80–3.80%, Mn: 0.50–1.30%, Fe: 0.80% max., Zn: 1.50% max., Pb: 0.05% max., Cu: balance. Other bronze alloys include aluminium bronze , phosphor bronze , manganese bronze, bell metal , arsenical bronze , speculum metal , bismuth bronze , and cymbal alloys . Copper-based alloys have lower melting points than steel or iron and are more readily produced from their constituent metals. They are generally about 10 percent denser than steel, although alloys using aluminum or silicon may be slightly less dense. Bronze

6499-410: The manufacture of various types of medals for centuries, and " bronze medals " are known in contemporary times for being awarded for third place in sporting competitions and other events. The term is now often used for third place even when no actual bronze medal is awarded. The usage in part arose from the trio of gold , silver and bronze to represent the first three Ages of Man in Greek mythology:

6596-643: The massive bronze doors to the United States Supreme Court Building in Washington, DC. Before it became possible to produce glass with acceptably flat surfaces, bronze was a standard material for mirrors. Bronze was used for this purpose in many parts of the world, probably based on independent discoveries. Bronze mirrors survive from the Egyptian Middle Kingdom (2040–1750 BC), and China from at least c.  550 BC . In Europe,

6693-429: The museum's Keeper of Greek and Roman Antiquities. Newton appealed directly to British Prime Minister William Ewart Gladstone , who agreed to provide £27,000 (£2 million in 2021) for Castellani's collection. The hand was donated by Castellani to the British Museum in 1875. The rest of the statue was never found, despite excavations by Alfred Biliotti and David George Hogarth . As of 2022, the fragments are displayed at

6790-415: The museum's Room 22 in a glass case over a ventilation grille. The head is 38.1 cm (15.0 in) high and 93 cm (37 in) in circumference. It weighs 10 kilograms (22 lb) and the bronze is 2–3 mm thick. The back of the head and neck are severely damaged, while the top of the head was damaged during excavation. The face has largely been preserved, but shows signs of oxidisation , while

6887-794: The names of individual alloys. This is done (at least in part) to prevent database searches from failing merely because of errors or disagreements in the naming of historic copper alloys. The word bronze (1730–1740) is borrowed from Middle French bronze (1511), itself borrowed from Italian bronzo ' bell metal, brass ' (13th century, transcribed in Medieval Latin as bronzium ) from either: The discovery of bronze enabled people to create metal objects that were harder and more durable than previously possible. Bronze tools , weapons , armor , and building materials such as decorative tiles were harder and more durable than their stone and copper (" Chalcolithic ") predecessors. Initially, bronze

6984-567: The period of the Chola empire in Tamil Nadu used bronze to create intricate statues via the lost-wax casting method with ornate detailing depicting the deities of Hinduism . The art form survives to this day, with many silpis, craftsmen, working in the areas of Swamimalai and Chennai . In antiquity other cultures also produced works of high art using bronze. For example: in Africa, the bronze heads of

7081-424: The preferred metal for bells in the form of a high tin bronze alloy known as bell metal , which is typically about 23% tin. Nearly all professional cymbals are made from bronze, which gives a desirable balance of durability and timbre . Several types of bronze are used, commonly B20 bronze , which is roughly 20% tin, 80% copper, with traces of silver, or the tougher B8 bronze made from 8% tin and 92% copper. As

7178-452: The proprietary Oilite and similar material for bearings. Aluminum bronze is hard and wear-resistant, and is used for bearings and machine tool ways. The Doehler Die Casting Co. of Toledo, Ohio were known for the production of Brastil , a high tensile corrosion resistant bronze alloy. The Seagram Building on New York City 's Park Avenue is the "iconic glass box sheathed in bronze, designed by Mies van der Rohe ." The Seagram Building

7275-454: The ready availability of silicon bronze brazing rod, which allows color-matched repair of defects in castings. Aluminum is also used for the structural metal aluminum bronze. Bronze parts are tough and typically used for bearings , clips, electrical connectors and springs . Bronze also has low friction against dissimilar metals, making it important for cannons prior to modern tolerancing , where iron cannonballs would otherwise stick in

7372-617: The resulting alloy was stronger and easier to cast. Also, unlike those of arsenic , metallic tin and the fumes from tin refining are not toxic . Tin became the major non-copper ingredient of bronze in the late 3rd millennium BC. Ores of copper and the far rarer tin are not often found together (exceptions include Cornwall in the United Kingdom, one ancient site in Thailand and one in Iran), so serious bronze work has always involved trade with other regions. Tin sources and trade in ancient times had

7469-485: The ruling Republican Party called for moving the fragments of the statue to Armenia. Ashotyan claimed that this was a personal and not a political initiative. By the end of February some 20,000 signatures were collected by the RPA-affiliated Armenia Youth Fund demanding that the fragments be moved to Armenia. One proponent of the campaign argued that the "sentimental value of the goddess Anahit's statue

7566-406: The same long axis. If the bevel of the blade is on the outer surface of the curve the gouge is called an 'outcannel' gouge, otherwise it is known as an 'incannel' gouge. Gouges with angled rather than curved blades are often called 'V-gouges' or 'vee-parting tools'. The blade geometry is defined by a semi-standardized numbering system that varies by manufacturer and country of origin. For each gouge

7663-431: The shape of a pattern or design. Typically, in woodcarving , one starts with a larger tool, and gradually progresses to smaller tools to finish the detail. One of the largest types of chisel is the slick , used in timber frame construction and wooden shipbuilding. There are many types of woodworking chisels used for specific purposes, such as: Woodturners use a woodworking gouge or chisel designed to cut wood as it

7760-471: The shipping of tin around the Mediterranean and from Britain, limiting supplies and raising prices. As the art of working in iron improved, iron became cheaper and improved in quality. As later cultures advanced from hand- wrought iron to machine- forged iron (typically made with trip hammers powered by water), blacksmiths also learned how to make steel . Steel is stronger and harder than bronze and holds

7857-409: The statue has an "enormous significance". Armenian President Vahagn Khachaturyan , Parliament Speaker Alen Simonyan , Prime Minister Nikol Pashinyan and his wife Anna Hakobyan attended the opening of the exhibition on September 21, the country's independence day. In a social media post, Pashinyan said, "Welcome back, Goddess". Armenian neopagans celebrated the "return" of Anahit with a ceremony at

7954-436: The statue of a Roman pagan goddess" as it was found near the site of a Roman camp inhabited during the time period of its assumed creation. Russell argued that Satala "appears to have been sufficiently important in ancient times to have been a religious centre, although there is nothing to suggest that the shrine was Armenian, or Zoroastrian" and suggested that it was a "Roman military shrine." The head has been widely admired in

8051-400: The subject is in a "pensive mood". Herbert Maryon described its creation as a good example of a technique which began in the 4th century BC: They modelled a head, perhaps in clay , and formed the outer mould in the usual manner. They then lined the mould with thin slabs of wax, about 3 ⁄ 16 inch (4.8 mm) thick, pressing the wax fairly closely into all the forms. To ensure

8148-469: The tin content in a bell or cymbal rises, the timbre drops. Bronze is also used for the windings of steel and nylon strings of various stringed instruments such as the double bass , piano, harpsichord , and guitar. Bronze strings are commonly reserved on pianoforte for the lower pitch tones, as they possess a superior sustain quality to that of high-tensile steel. Bronzes of various metallurgical properties are widely used in struck idiophones around

8245-439: The unusual and desirable property of expanding slightly just before they set, thus filling the finest details of a mould. Then, as the bronze cools, it shrinks a little, making it easier to separate from the mould. The Assyrian king Sennacherib (704–681 BC) claims to have been the first to cast monumental bronze statues (of up to 30 tonnes) using two-part moulds instead of the lost-wax method . Bronze statues were regarded as

8342-419: The wide employment of stainless steel owing to its combination of toughness and resistance to salt water corrosion. Bronze is still commonly used in ship propellers and submerged bearings. In the 20th century, silicon was introduced as the primary alloying element, creating an alloy with wide application in industry and the major form used in contemporary statuary . Sculptors may prefer silicon bronze because of

8439-637: The world was by the Roman Bronze Works and General Bronze Corporation in 1952. The material used for the fountain, known as statuary bronze, is a quaternary alloy made of copper, zinc, tin, and lead, and traditionally golden brown in color. This was made for the Andrew W. Mellon Memorial Fountain in Federal Triangle in Washington, DC. Another example of the massive, ornate design projects of bronze, and attributed to General Bronze/Roman Bronze Works were

8536-705: The world, notably bells, singing bowls, gongs , cymbals, and other idiophones from Asia. Examples include Tibetan singing bowls , temple bells of many sizes and shapes, Javanese gamelan , and other bronze musical instruments . The earliest bronze archeological finds in Indonesia date from 1–2 BC, including flat plates probably suspended and struck by a wooden or bone mallet. Ancient bronze drums from Thailand and Vietnam date back 2,000 years. Bronze bells from Thailand and Cambodia date back to 3600 BC. Some companies are now making saxophones from phosphor bronze (3.5 to 10% tin and up to 1% phosphorus content). Bell bronze/B20

8633-520: Was established, according to tradition, by Tigranes the Great in the first century BC and was the "wealthiest and most venerable in Armenia" per Cicero . Both Satala and Erez were located in the Acilisene (Եկեղեաց, Ekełeats‘) province of classical Armenia Minor . Anahit's cult in Acilisene was so great that it was known as Anaetica (the land of Anahit/Anaïtis). Her cult at Eriza was closely linked with

8730-429: Was followed by the Iron Age starting about 1300 BC and reaching most of Eurasia by about 500 BC, although bronze continued to be much more widely used than it is in modern times. Because historical artworks were often made of brasses (copper and zinc) and bronzes of different metallic compositions, modern museum and scholarly descriptions of older artworks increasingly use the generalized term "copper alloy" instead of

8827-633: Was found in 1872 by an old man named Youssouf who was digging in his field with a pickaxe , at a depth of around 2 feet (0.61 m), near the village of Sadak  [ tr ] , in what was once the Roman fortress of Satala , on the Kelkit River , north of Erzincan (then in the Ottoman Empire , now Turkey). The man uncovered fragments of a bronze statue, including the head and a hand. Arthur Frothingham reported two decades later that according to locals

8924-454: Was found together with the head, holds a fragment of drapery . Lâtife Summerer suggested that the original statue was more than 2 metres (6 ft 7 in) in height. The sculpture was initially dated to the 4th century BC, but this was subsequently questioned and it was placed in the 2nd century BC. Modern scholars and the British Museum place its creation in the 2nd or 1st century BC. Sara Anderson Immerwahr argued that its style

9021-520: Was made out of copper and arsenic or from naturally or artificially mixed ores of those metals, forming arsenic bronze . The earliest known arsenic-copper-alloy artifacts come from a Yahya Culture (Period V 3800-3400 BCE) site, at Tal-i-Iblis on the Iranian plateau , and were smelted from native arsenical copper and copper-arsenides, such as algodonite and domeykite . The earliest tin-copper-alloy artifact has been dated to c.  4650 BC , in

9118-468: Was mentioned in the account of Moses holding up a bronze snake on a pole in Numbers Ch.21. In First Kings, it is mentioned that Hiram was very skilled in working with bronze, and he made many furnishings for Solomon's Temple including pillars, capitals, stands, wheels, bowls, and plates, some of which were highly decorative (see I Kings 7:13-47). Bronze was also widely used as battle armor and helmet, as in

9215-424: Was not only the most expensive building of its time — $ 36 million — but it was the first building in the world with floor-to-ceiling glass walls. Mies van der Rohe achieved the crisp edges that were custom-made with specific detailing by General Bronze and "even the screws that hold in the fixed glass-plate windows were made of brass." Bronze is widely used for casting bronze sculptures . Common bronze alloys have

9312-476: Was on hand; the metal of the 12th-century English Gloucester Candlestick is bronze containing a mixture of copper, zinc, tin, lead, nickel, iron, antimony, arsenic and an unusually large amount of silver – between 22.5% in the base and 5.76% in the pan below the candle. The proportions of this mixture suggest that the candlestick was made from a hoard of old coins. The 13th-century Benin Bronzes are in fact brass, and

9409-587: Was the first time that an entire building was sheathed in bronze. The General Bronze Corporation fabricated 3,200,000 pounds (1,600 tons) of bronze at its plant in Garden City, New York . The Seagram Building is a 38-story, 516-foot bronze-and- topaz -tinted glass building. The building looks like a "squarish 38-story tower clad in a restrained curtain wall of metal and glass." "Bronze was selected because of its color, both before and after aging, its corrosion resistance, and its extrusion properties. In 1958, it

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