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51-556: Sapera is a name given to the snake charmers of India. Since the introduction of the Wildlife Protection Act of 1972 the Sapera's numbers have been dwindling - what was in the thousands is now limited to only a few hundred. Their professions and their religion are slowly being 'phased out' by a law that was put in place to stop the illegal skin/fur trade. Many Sapera practice their trade/snake handling based upon their following of

102-771: A Hindu caste found in North India . They are also known as Barwa Sampheriya in West Bengal , Sapela in Punjab and Sparera in Madhya Pradesh . They are a community of snake charmers and one of a number of semi-nomadic communities found in North India which live in camps at the outskirts of most North Indian towns. In Haryana , the community is known as the Sapera Nath. They are further divided into ten sub-groups, some of which are

153-496: A "theistic relationship" between the deity and devotee. The complete identification of the goddess with Shakti was not fully realised until the classical period of Hinduism. This period saw the epics Ramayana and Mahabharata including the Bhagavad Gita . They were largely complemented by Puranas , a body of literature that built upon the ideas of Upanishads but were primarily made up of myth and legend that proclaimed

204-757: A long period of time before. The Veda Samhitas are the oldest scriptures that specified the Hindu goddesses. The Rigveda and the Atharvaveda are the main sources of knowledge about various goddesses from the Vedic period . Ushas , the goddess of dawn was the most praised. Though male deities such as Indra and Agni have been more popular in the Vedic era, female deities were represented as personifications of important aspects like Earth ( Prithvi ), Mother of Gods ( Aditi ), Night ( Ratri ), and Speech ( Vāc/Vāk ). The Devīsūkta in

255-482: A male consort like other puranic era goddesses, here she takes powers from the gods–who all "surrender their potency to her" at the time of her manifestation. The Devi Mahatmya elucidated the goddess so meticulously that it clarifies the changeableness of her character and makes it clear that she cannot be classified readily as she is the embodiment of all facets of energy, which are described as concurrently "creative, preservative and destructive". The text described

306-571: A more favourable manner as an intrinsic aspect of the goddess' power. Also, the concept of Maya is treated with respect instead of disdain and is presented as a necessary factor in the creation. The Devi Bhagavata Purana significantly differs in the conception of maya from the Bhagavata Purana , wherein Vishnu is the "controller and possessor of māyā", while in the Devi Bhagavata Purana ,

357-482: A number of clans, the main ones being the Marar, Goar, Bhambi, Doom and Ladhu. All these clans are of equal status and intermarry. The Sapela are still largely involved in their traditional occupation of snake charming and snake catching, as well as collecting wild root and tubers, which they use for medicinal purposes. They are nomadic are often employed in the villages to catch snakes. The community are also associated with

408-644: Is purusha , pure consciousness, which creates the universe through the female creative energy of Shakti, which is prakriti , 'nature'. The term Shakta is used for the description of people associated with Shakti worship. The Shakta pithas are shrines, which are believed to be the sacred seats of Shakti. According to the Monier-Williams dictionary, Shakti ( Śakti ) is the Sanskrit feminine term meaning "energy, ability, strength, effort, power, might, capability", and "capacity for" or "power over". Though

459-544: Is bestower of power to both gods and humans. The prominent characteristics of goddess Vāc were later incorporated into the identity of Saraswati , who was a minor river goddess in the Vedas, but later became the goddess of knowledge and the "Mother of the Vedas". Most of the goddesses in the Vedic era were presented as wives of the gods. They had no special powers nor an individual name either, rather they took their respective husband's name with feminine suffixes, as with Indrani ,

510-635: Is declared as nirguna (not having gunas or unmanifest), thus making her incomprehensible. But, to liberate her devotees, Devi "becomes saguna (with gunas or manifest) in a form that can be known and appreciated" by humans. The intrinsic nature of the Mahadevi in the Devi Bhagavata Purana comprises the twofold realities of Samkhya philosophy — " prakṛti (material nature), in its unmanifest and manifest forms, and puruṣa (pure consciousness)". The Devi Bhagavata Purana , differing from Samkhya and other traditions, specifically Advaita Vedanta , presents prakṛti in

561-540: Is her form; woman is the foundation of the world, she is the true form of the body. In woman is the form of all things, of all that lives and moves in the world. There is no jewel rarer than woman, no condition superior to that of a woman. In the Smarta Advaita tradition, Shakti is one of the five equal personal forms of God, as in the panchadeva system, advocated by Adi Shankara . The Smarta tradition, also called Smartism, developed and expanded with

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612-493: Is rather the gods who are completely subdued to the will of Devi, and are entirely dependent on her power. The Devi Bhagavata Purana repeatedly describes the goddess as being "eternal, the basis of everything and identical with Brahman ". The goddess here, addressed as "Ādya or Primordial Śakti", is unambiguously presented as "the source of all goddesses, from the highest to the lowest forms", with higher forms presenting prominent aspects of her energy or power and conform with

663-408: Is separate from a deity and something which is not inherently present within it. In later Hindu texts , the idea of Shakti as divine feminine energy became more pronounced as wives of the gods began to personify the powers of their husbands. Despite arriving at this stage, it was only later, after a lot of philosophical speculation and understanding the connecting factor underlying the universe that

714-429: Is still subordinated to her consort's will. Though there was an individual goddess named śakti , the term referred to a quality held by both male and female deities. An apparent identity between feminine divinity and cosmic energy was not yet vouched. The perception of the divine feminine was radically altered by two texts: the earlier Devi Mahatmya and the later Devi Bhagavata Purana . The Devi Mahatmya , which

765-527: Is the Devi Bhagavata Purana . Compiled some five to ten centuries after the Devi Mahatmya , the Devi Bhagavata Purana presents a Shakta reply to the various puranic ideals. The Devi Gita , which forms skandha (book) 7, chapters 30–40 of the Devi Bhagavata Purana , is modeled after the Bhagavad Gita , but with a Shakta outlook. The Devi Bhagavata Purana is metaphysically more coherent than

816-452: Is the "Universal Power" that underlies and sustains all existence. Conceived as feminine in essence, Shakti refers to the personified energy or power of a male deity and, more specifically, is identified as the consort of the god Shiva . In Tantric Shaktism, Shakti is the foremost deity, akin to Brahman. In Puranic Hinduism, Shiva and Shakti are the masculine and feminine principles that are complementary to each other. The male deity

867-743: Is united with Mula Prakriti, 'nature'; shakti is a synonym for this unity of Turiya Brahman and Mula Prakriti. In the details of its philosophy and practice, Shaktism resembles Shaivism. However Shaktas focus most or all worship on Shakti as the dynamic feminine aspect of the Supreme Divine. According to this tradition, all Hindu goddesses are manifestations of the same goddess, Mahadevi , also referred to as Adi Parashakti, Adi Shakti, and Abhaya Shakti. Vaishnavas consider her to be Lakshmi ; whereas Shaivas consider her to be Parvati , Durga , Lalita and Kali ; while Shaktas believe her to be Durga , Tripura Sundari , Bhuvaneshvari , and Kali . In

918-752: The Hindu tantric view, Shakti correlates with the Kundalini energy. Shakti is considered the "creative dynamic energy" that permeates and "animates" all existence. In the Brihannila Tantra , the God Shiva says: "O Goddess I am the body ( deha ) and you are the conscious spirit within the body ( dehin )". "Shiva without Shakti is but a corpse, it is said." Animated and inanimated objects like rivers, stones, trees, mountains are worshipped as embodiments of shakti. Women are believed to be inherently divine; coalescence of

969-462: The Purana genre of literature. It reflects a synthesis of four philosophical strands: Mimamsa , Advaita , Yoga , and theism . The Smarta tradition rejects theistic sectarianism, and is notable for the domestic worship of five shrines with five deities, all treated as equal— Ganesha , Shiva , Adi Parashakti , Vishnu and Surya . The Smarta tradition contrasted with the older Shrauta tradition, which

1020-517: The Son River valley, where a triangular stone known as the Baghor stone , estimated to have been created around 9,000–8,000  BCE was found. The excavation team, which included Kenoyer , considered it is highly probable that the stone was associated with Shakti or the female principle. The representation of Shakti in a stone is considered an early example of yantra . Scholars assume goddess worship

1071-457: The devas (gods), the gods created an all-powerful goddess from their combined anger by channelling their essential powers that took the form of a feminine being, which was assented as the Mahadevi, the supreme goddess fully independent of the gods, and considered the embodiment of śakti with additional powers of her own. Here when she finishes her work, she doesn't return to her source, the gods, but instead vanishes. The Devi Mahatmya bolstered

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1122-447: The menstrual cycle with the moon 's lunar cycle is held important. The menstrual blood ( Kula ) is revered and is offered in rituals to propitiate the deities. In some cases, Animal sacrifices have replaced menstrual blood offerings, however female animals are not sacrificed. The Shakta pithas , located across the Indian subcontinent , are believed to be the sacred seats of Shakti. At

1173-518: The Brahmin Sapera, Jhinwar Sapera, Soggar Sapera, BihaL Sapera, Nakphule Sapera, and Sandenath Sapera. These divisions are said to reflect the diverse origin of this community, where people of different caste backgrounds took to the occupation of snake charming, and over time evolved into a distinct community. They now have Scheduled Caste status in Haryana. In Punjab , the word Sapela is derived from

1224-568: The God Shiva - depicted with a Cobra. Most of the saperas are found to be in Dehradun, Uttarakhand north part of India. But some saperas are also to be found in some parts of Bihar where they doing business from unstable places, moving here and there, and show their talents with 'saanp' snakes and earn some money. This article about Indian dance is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Sapera caste The Sapera are

1275-645: The Goddess, or Devi , Shakti is "Universal Power". Shaktism regards Shakti as the Supreme Brahman . The Shakta Upanishads and the Shakta Tantras equated Brahman with Shakti, and held them as inseparable. According to V. R. Ramachandra Dikshitar (Professor of Indian history), in Shakta theology : "Brahman is static Shakti and Shakti is dynamic Brahman." Brahman is "the formless ultimate or Turiya Brahman," which

1326-461: The Puranas presented the goddesses as consorts of the gods. The Kurma Purana depicted the goddess Śrī or Lakshmi as a being lower to her husband, the god Vishnu, who "takes possession" of her when she appears at the churning of milk . Nevertheless, Lakshmi is later described as the impetus of Vishnu, who calls her "that great Śakti (potency) of my form". An association between feminine divinity and

1377-457: The Rigveda, addressed to the goddess Vāc , became the progenitor of goddess theology that evolved later. Here, Vāc states: "I bend the bow for Rudra that his arrow may strike and slay the hater of devotion. I rouse and order battle for the people, and I have penetrated Earth and Heaven". This hymn presented the goddess as an all powerful pervasive being, who is both "immanent and transcendent", and

1428-648: The Saharpua and the Baiga in Uttar Pradesh , especially the Bareilly district . These are further segmented into exogamous clans, and they maintain a strict system of clan exogamy. The principal occupation of the Sapera remains snake charming, and they wander from village to village, performing with deadly snakes like cobras . They are also expert snake catchers, and are often called in by other villagers to catch snakes and remove

1479-404: The all-pervasive Mahadevi as being both devi (goddess) and asuri (demoness), for she represents positive as well as negative aspects of power and energy. Here, the ultimate reality was completely equated with Devi, who is presented as the power enabling the trimurti —Vishnu, Shiva, and Brahma—to engage in the "preservation, dissolution and creation" of the universe respectively. Devi appeared at

1530-404: The altars in these shrines, Shakti is often worshipped in the form of a stone, which is painted red, considered the colour of Shakti, and is decorated with anthropomorphic features like eyes. From Devi-Mahatmya : By you this universe is borne, By you this world is created, Oh Devi, by you it is protected. From Shaktisangama Tantra : Woman is the creator of the universe, the universe

1581-546: The concept of the Mahadevi or the great goddess, an amalgamate of manifold powers, with numerous epithets. Besides the term Devi , the most general name of the goddess is Chandi or Caṇḍikā, meaning "violent and impetuous one", this was the first instance of the use of this term in a Sanskrit text and was probably conceived for this distinct incarnation, represented in aggressive and often unorthodox mode, with an affinity for drink and approval of blood offerings. The idea of independence and not confirming to widely held notions of

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1632-399: The creative power of god was established when the goddess was projected as an embodiment of three important principles — "śakti (energy), prakṛti (primordial or primary matter) and māyā (illusion)". In the puranic era, even though the goddess was considered the source behind manifest creation, she was nevertheless a personification of her consort's energy and was referred to as prakṛti, who

1683-434: The earlier Devi Mahatmya and includes a rendition of the later, with a retelling of the many pauranic myths. The Devi Bhagavata Purana repeatedly extols the goddess as the "Eternal" and "Ever Constant Primordial Force" who is also "the power behind all other deities". Of noteworthy, is the fact that the goddess of the Devi Bhagavata Purana is invariably presented as being "independent of any male authority and control". It

1734-403: The emergence of cosmic crisis, accordingly her role is assumed to be identical to that of Vishnu , who in his various avatars , vowed to manifest himself at the time of crisis. Devi, also, vows to manifest whenever her help is needed. The largest and possibly the most exhaustive Shakta purana, considered as "justification or vindication of the Goddess tradition, as well as an elaboration of it"

1785-517: The feminine lover to experience the " lila " (divine play) of her divine consciousness. The Devi Bhagavata Purana presents Brahman as containing both male and female, purusha and prakriti , Shiva and Devi. The Devi Bhagavata Purana considers the nature of Shakti as being made up of three existential qualities, similar to prakriti in Samkhya : Sattva (calm and balanced), Rajas (passionate and active), and Tamas (lethargic and inactive). As

1836-446: The goddess apart from being the wielder of "the power of māyā, actually is māyā". In the Devi Bhagavata Purana , the workings of the universe appear way more deeply related with the goddess, for Devi recourses to none but herself, whereas Vishnu and Shiva seek assistance of their respective Shaktis. Scriptural texts such as Devi Bhagavata Purana , Kalika Purana , Markandeya Purana , and Mahabhagavata Purana held Shakti as

1887-440: The goddess has been an intriguing trait in the character of Devi in the Devi Mahatmya . The goddess here, primarily identified as Durga , is not dependent on a male consort and she successfully handles male roles herself. In battles, she fights without a male ally, and when needed aide, creates female peers from herself like Kali . Also the ideation of the goddess as a personification of Shakti varies, instead of providing power to

1938-472: The idea of Shakti as being the feminine unity pervading all existence was developed. The Upanishads did not feature goddesses notably. However, the ideas devised during this period became significant in later conceptions of Shakti. The theory of Shakti advocated in Shakta Upanishads was predicated on the concept of Brahman , a gender-neutral Absolute . Brahman's all-encompassing nature gave rise to

1989-459: The idea of a connecting factor, called Atman , between the absolute and human. The early Upanishads postulated a transcendental absolute that cannot be depicted or understood, but be known only through Jñāna (insight, intuition). The later Upanishads however presented the idea of Saguna Brahman (manifest absolute), thus giving it an accessible form. The Shvetashvatara Upanishad portrayed Brahman as "manifest Lord or Īśvara ", thereby enabling

2040-812: The manifestation of the divine energy corresponding with Vishnu , she is Lakshmi ." In Hindu custom, the wife of a man is considered his Shakti. In the Ramayana , Sita , the wife of Rama was his Shakti; in the Mahabharata , Draupadi was the Shakti of the Pandavas . In the Puranas Shakti gains in imprortance. The Markandeya Purana conceives Shakti as "pure consciousness " overseeing creation, preservation, and destruction; and identifies Shakti with nature or prakriti . It potrays he feminine (shakti) in various roles, such as

2091-646: The playing the gourd pipe, known as a been . Like other Sapera groups, they are extremely marginalised, and have been granted Scheduled Caste status. Most Sapera are Hindu by faith, although a small number have converted to Islam , and form a distinct community of Muslim Saperas . The Hindu Sapera are followers of the Shakti cult and worship the goddess Kali . Shakti Traditional Shakti ( Devanagari : शक्ति, IAST : Śakti; lit. 'energy, ability, strength, effort, power, might, capability') in Hinduism ,

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2142-526: The poison from persons bitten by snakes. A small number of Sapera have also been involved in the manufacture of a coarse rope called the munj. As with other nomadic groups, the Indian state has exerted pressure for them to settle down. A few have now taken up permanent settlement and are mainly sharecroppers. They remain an extremely marginalised group, suffering from poverty. The Sapela community in Punjab consists of

2193-465: The supremacy of a particular deity and equated their nirguna (unmanifest) form with the Brahman. Most of these Puranas were dedicated to the male deities, particularly Vishnu and Shiva , the later Shakta puranas were allotted to the goddess. Shakti worship that receded in the Vedic period became prominent from the classical period during which she was personified as Devi —a goddess. Majority of

2244-570: The supreme over all deities and promoted her worship. In Puranic Hinduism , Shakti is the "energizing material power" of the Hindu Gods. "The God and his Shakti together represent the Absolute, the god being nonactivated Eternity, the goddess being activated Time." Shakti is generally personified as the wife of a specific Hindu god, particularly Shiva , for whom she took forms as Durga , Kali , and Parvati , forming complementary principles. "As

2295-555: The term Shakta ( Sanskrit : शक्त , Śakta ) is used for people and customs associated with Shakti worship. The term Shakta became popular from the ninth-century onwards, before that the term Kula or Kaula , which referred to clans of female ancestry, besides to the menstrual and sexual fluids of females, was used to describe Shakti followers. The origins of Shakti concept are prevedic . Sites related to worship of Mother goddess or Shakti were found in Paleolithic context at

2346-474: The term Shakti has broad implications, it mostly denotes "power or energy". Metaphysically, Shakti refers to the "energetic principle" of the fundamental reality, ideated as "primordial power". Shakti, is principally identified with the feminine , and with the numerous Hindu goddesses , who are seen as "tangible" expressions-visible personifications of the intangible Shakti. The formulation of such an idea for Shakti took place over many centuries. Relatedly,

2397-400: The three traits or the gunas in all life, namely: " sattva (purity, goodness, the illuminating principle), rajas (activity, passion, the energetic principle) and tamas (darkness, inertia, dullness)". Corresponding with sattva, she is Maha-Lakshmi ; with rajas, she is Maha-Saraswati ; and with tamas, she is Maha-kali . However, Devi is still characterized as "being beyond all form", and

2448-410: The wife of Indra . Though the goddesses had no power, one Rigvedic hymn (10.159) addressed Indrani as Śacī Poulomī and presented her as the " deification " of Indra's power. The term Śacī meant "the rendering of powerful or mighty help, assistance, aid, especially of the 'deeds of Indra'." This use of the term Śacī is seen as a major step in the later conception of Śakti as the divine power that

2499-513: The word sap, which means snake in Punjabi . They are also known as Nath. The community are as much snake catchers as snake charmers, and are employed by villagers as snake charmers. According to their traditions, the community descend from a Kanipa, a Jhinwar , who took to snake charming. They are nomadic, and are possibly of Dom origin. The Punjab Sapela speak Punjabi and found throughout the state. The Sapera are divided into two endogamous groups,

2550-509: Was initially part of the Markandeya Purana , is the most prominent goddess-centric text that clarified the concept of an all-encompassing goddess or the Mahadevi (great goddess). Allegorically, through the mythical warring deeds of the goddess, it was asserted, rather by a deduction than by plain words that she's the "ultimate reality". When the asuras (demons) endangered the existence of

2601-562: Was prevalent in the Indus Valley Civilisation (3300–1300  BCE ) as many terracotta female figurines with smoke-blacked headgears , suggesting their use in rituals, had been found in almost all the houses of Mohenjo-daro and Harappa . Numerous artefacts that appear to portray female deities were also found. This development however is not assumed to be the earliest precursor of goddess worship in India; it has evolved for over

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