African diaspora religions , also described as Afro-American religions , are a number of related beliefs that developed in the Americas in various nations of the Caribbean , Latin America and the Southern United States . They derive from traditional African religions with some influence from other religious traditions, notably Christianity and Islam .
177-635: Santería ( Spanish pronunciation: [santeˈɾi.a] ), also known as Regla de Ocha , Regla Lucumí , or Lucumí , is an Afro-Caribbean religion that developed in Cuba during the late 19th century. It arose amid a process of syncretism between the traditional Yoruba religion of West Africa, the Roman Catholic form of Christianity , and Spiritism . There is no central authority in control of Santería and much diversity exists among practitioners, who are known as creyentes ("believers"). Santería teaches
354-463: A creator deity along with a pantheon of divine spirits such as the Orisha , Loa , Vodun , Nkisi and Alusi , among others. In addition to the religious syncretism of these various African traditions, many also incorporate elements of folk Catholicism including folk saints and other forms of folk religion , Native American religion , Spiritism , Spiritualism , Shamanism (sometimes including
531-442: A creyente becomes an ancestor when they die. Adherents believe that everyone has a cuadro espiritual ("spiritual portrait" or "spiritual picture") of egun who protect them. Individuals can have as many as 25 protectores , or protective spirits. The religion maintains that all people have multiple egun accompanying them at all times, and that these can be benevolent, malevolent, or a mix of both. Practitioners also believe that
708-402: A rinconcito ("little corner"), a small area in which they collect together assorted objects, often those typically found in a household, as a material manifestation of the dead. Offerings to the dead may be placed here. Many practitioners will also enshrine their family ancestors under the bathroom sink. This location is chosen so that the ancestors can travel between the realms of the living and
885-404: A santera or santero has, the greater their aché . The "godchildren" are expected to contribute both their labor and finances to events held at the ilé and in return the santero / santera provides assistance for their needs. Within the religion, offending one's godparent is regarded as also offending the oricha that "rules the head". Practitioners express respect both to their godparent and
1062-400: A santero or santera who has attracted a following. An apprentice is known as their ahijado (godson) or ahijada (goddaughter). They refer to their santero / santera as padrino (godfather) or madrina (godmother). The relationship between santeros / santeras and their "godchildren" is central to the religion's social organization, and practitioners believe that the more "godchildren"
1239-451: A secret society . For ritual purposes, the Lucumí language is often used. Sometimes referred to as la lengua de los orichas ("the language of the oricha "), it is regarded as a divine language through which practitioners can contact the deities. Although some practitioners are uncomfortable using it, most initiates know tens or hundreds of Lucumí words and phrases. Most Cubans do not understand
1416-547: A West African ethnic group who mainly inhabit parts of Nigeria , Benin , and Togo . The areas of these countries primarily inhabited by the Yoruba are often collectively referred to as Yorubaland . The Yoruba constitute more than 50 million people in Africa, are over a million outside the continent, and bear further representation among members of the African diaspora . The vast majority of
1593-500: A common form of government in Yorubaland, but they were not the only approach to government and social organization. The numerous Ijebu kingdom city-states to the west of Oyo and the Egba people communities, found in the forests below Ọyọ's savanna region, were notable exceptions. These independent polities often elected a king though real political, legislative, and judicial powers resided with
1770-469: A common identity under the influence of Oyo, a regional empire that developed in the northwestern savanna section of yorubaland as a result of a kingdom founding migration from Ife. As opposed to Oyo which was a highly militaristic grassland polity, the Ife Empire was forest based and spread its influence rather through religion, politics, philosophical Ideology and commerce between 1200 and the mid-1400s. With
1947-407: A descending hierarchy depending on which oricha each is dedicated to, with that of Obatala at the top. Many altars contain few or no anthropomorphic depictions of the oricha , although will often include objects associated with them; a wooden axe for Changó or a fan for Ochún, for instance. Creating these altars is deemed expensive and time-consuming. Material may be selected based on the tastes of
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#17330861202842124-658: A farmers' union, was converted to a network of secret militias throughout the Ẹgba forests, and each lodge plotted and successfully managed to overthrow Ọyọ's Ajeles (appointed administrators) in the late 18th century. Similarly, covert military resistance leagues like the Ekiti Parapọ and the Ogidi alliance were organized during the 19th century wars by often-decentralized communities of the Ekiti, Ijẹsa, Ìgbómìnà and Okun Yoruba to resist various imperial expansionist plans of Ibadan, Nupe, and
2301-683: A federal civilian and military council that represented the city as a whole. Commander Frederick Forbes , a representative of the British Crown writing an account of his visit to the city in the Church Military Intelligencer (1853), described Abẹokuta as having "four presidents", and the system of government as having "840 principal rulers or 'House of Lords,' 2800 secondary chiefs or 'House of Commons,' 140 principal military ones and 280 secondary ones." He described Abẹokuta and its system of government as "the most extraordinary republic in
2478-431: A few people of Hombori " This early 1600's reference implies that the name Yoruba was already in popular demotic use as far back as at least the 1500s. Regarding the source and derivation of this name, guesses were posited by various foreign sociologists of external sources. These include; Ya'rub (son of Canaanite, Joktan ) by Caliph Muhammed Bello of Sokoto , Goru Ba by T.J Bowen , or Yolla Ba ( Mande word for
2655-467: A means of concealing their continued worship of the former from the Spanish authorities, or as a means of facilitating social mobility by assimilating into Roman Catholic social norms. Santería's focus is on cultivating a reciprocal relationship with the oricha , with adherents believing that these deities can intercede in human affairs and help people if they are appeased. Practitioners argue that each person
2832-582: A means to celebrate their people's history, and boost tourism in their local economies. The Yorubas were one of the first groups in West Africa to be introduced to Christianity on a very large scale. Christianity (along with western civilization) came into Yorubaland in the mid-19th century through the Europeans , whose original mission was commerce. The first European visitors were the Portuguese, they visited
3009-475: A member of one of the royal families from any given realm, and the selection is then confirmed by an Ifá oracular request. The Ọbas live in palaces that are usually in the center of the town. Opposite the king's palace is the Ọja Ọba , or the king's market. These markets form an inherent part of Yoruba life. Traditionally their traders are well organized, have various guilds, officers, and an elected speaker. They also often have at least one Iyaloja , or Lady of
3186-404: A more masculinist orientation, such as Palo, have often denigrated it for being dominated by women and men they consider to be "womanly". Santería is a practice-oriented religion; ritual correctness is considered more important than belief . It has an elaborate system of ritual, with its rites termed ceremonias (ceremonies). Most of its activities revolve around the oricha , focusing on solving
3363-415: A place to store ritual paraphernalia, kitchen facilities, and space for visitors to sleep. The ilé refers not only to the building where ceremonies take place, but also the community of practitioners who meet there. In this sense, many ilés trace a lineage back to the 19th century, with some santeros and santeras capable of listing the practitioners who have been initiated into it. In some ceremonies,
3540-464: A possessed person will reprimand others present, for instance for failing to carry out their ritual obligations, or issue them a warning. Some practitioners have also reported becoming possessed by an oricha in non-ritual contexts, such as while sleeping or walking through the streets, or during drumming performances carried out for non-religious purposes. African diaspora religions Afro-American religions involve ancestor veneration and include
3717-512: A prominent role. Santería developed among Afro-Cuban communities following the Atlantic slave trade of the 16th to 19th centuries. It formed through the blending of the traditional religions brought to Cuba by enslaved West Africans, the majority of them Yoruba , and Roman Catholicism, the only religion legally permitted on the island by the Spanish colonial government. In urban areas of West Cuba, these traditions merged with Spiritist ideas to form
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#17330861202843894-400: A regular basis, and at least once a year. Given to strengthen the supernatural forces, to thank them, or as a supplication, they help form a reciprocal relationship with these entities in the hope of receiving something in return. If this fails to materialise, practitioners may resort to several explanations: that the details of the ritual were incorrect, that the priest or priestess carrying out
4071-457: A sense of group identity around a number of cultural concepts, beliefs and practices recognizable by all members of the ethnic group. Prominent among these, is the tracing of the entire Yoruba body through dynastic migrations to roots formed in Ile-Ife, an ancient city in the forested heart of central Yorubaland and its acceptance as the spiritual nucleus of Yoruba existence. Following this linkage to
4248-456: A specific destiny , their destino (destiny) or camino (road), although their fate is not completely predetermined. Ancestor veneration is important in Santería. The religion entails propitiating the spirits of the dead, known as egun , espíritus , or muertos . Practitioners believe that the dead must be treated with respect, awe, and kindness; they are consulted at all ceremonies. Although
4425-410: A specific oricha , a group of oricha , or all of the oricha . Those playing the batá are called batáleros , and have their own hierarchy separate from that of the priesthood. Santería drumming is male dominated; women are discouraged or banned from playing the batá during ceremonies, although by the 1990s some women practitioners in the U.S. had taken on the role. Practitioners explain the taboo with
4602-439: A year-long period, the iyaworaje ("journey of the iyawo "), during which they must observe certain restrictions, the nature of which depends on their tutelary oricha . This may for instance include abstaining from sexual intercourse, wearing only white, or not cutting their hair. The iyaworaje ends with the ebó del año ceremony. Once this is done, they may lead rituals and help initiate others. Thenceforth, they will celebrate
4779-420: Is el Día del Medio ("the middle day"), when guests—including the initiate's family and friends—pay homage to them. It includes drumming and a feast. On the seventh day of the initiation, the new initiate leaves the ilé and visits the marketplace, where they make offerings to Eleguá and steal something small, also as an offering to Eleguá. The initiate can finally take their otanes home. They may then undergo
4956-475: Is non-dualistic and does not view the universe as being divided between good and evil; rather, all things are perceived as being complementary and relative. Several academics have described Santería as having a "here-and-now" ethos distinct from that of Christianity, and the social scientist Mercedes C. Sandoval suggested that many Cubans chose Santería over Roman Catholicism or Spiritism because it emphasizes techniques for dealing with pragmatic problems in life. In
5133-426: Is "born to" a particular oricha , whether or not they devote themselves to that deity. This is a connection that, adherents believe, has been set before birth. Practitioners refer to this oricha as one that "rules the head" of an individual; it is their "owner of the head". If the oricha is male then it is described as the individual's "father"; if the oricha is female then it is the person's "mother". This oricha
5310-519: Is a major cosmological concept in Yoruba traditional religion and has been transferred to Santería. Aché is regarded as the organizing power of the cosmos; the Hispanic studies scholars Margarite Fernández Olmos and Lizabeth Paravisini-Gebert referred to it as "a spiritual-mystical energy or power found in varying degrees and in many forms throughout the universe". The medical anthropologist Johan Wedel described it as "life force" or "divine force", while
5487-441: Is also associated with specific songs, rhythms, colors, numbers, animals, and foodstuffs. Among the oricha are the four "warrior deities", or guerrors : Eleguá , Ogun , Ochosi , and Osun . Eleguá is viewed as the guardian of the crossroads and thresholds; he is the messenger between humanity and the oricha , and most ceremonies start by requesting his permission to continue. He is depicted as being black on one side and red on
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5664-636: Is an Afro-Caribbean religion, and more specifically an Afro-Cuban religion. In Cuba it is sometimes described as "the national religion", although it has also spread abroad. Santería's roots are in the traditional religions brought to Cuba by enslaved West Africans, the majority of them Yoruba, between the 16th and 19th centuries. In Cuba, these religions mixed with the Roman Catholicism introduced by Spanish colonialists . Roman Catholic saints were conflated with West African deities, while enslaved Africans adopted Roman Catholic rituals and sacramentals . In
5841-417: Is associated with lagoons. Agagyú is the oricha of volcanoes and the wasteland. Some oricha are deemed antagonistic to others; Changó and Ogun are for instance enemies. Although in Santería the term santo is regarded as a synonym of oricha and is not a literal reference to Christian saints, the oricha are often conflated with one or more Roman Catholic saints based on similar attributes. For instance,
6018-559: Is commonly described as a "golden age" of Ife. The oba or ruler of Ile-Ife is referred to as the Ooni of Ife. Ife continues to be seen as the " spiritual homeland " of the Yoruba. The city was surpassed by the Oyo Empire as the dominant Yoruba military and political power in the 11th century. The Oyo Empire under its Oba, known as the Alaafin of Oyo , was active in the African slave trade during
6195-434: Is deemed responsible for helping to mould humanity. Babalú Ayé is the oricha associated with disease and its curing, while Osain is linked to herbs and healing. Orula is the oricha of divination, who in Santería's mythology was present at the creation of humanity and thus is aware of everyone's destiny. Ibeyi takes the form of twins who protect children. Olokún is the patron oricha of markets, while his wife Olosá
6372-423: Is deemed to influence the individual's personality, and can be recognised through examining the person's personality traits, or through divination. To gain the protection of a particular oricha , practitioners are encouraged to make offerings to them, sponsor ceremonies in their honor, and live in accordance with their wishes, as determined through divination. Practitioners are concerned at the prospect of offending
6549-491: Is deemed to prefer a particular color and number of otanes in sopera devoted to them; Changó has six or ten black stones, Obatala has eight white stones, while Ochún favors five yellow stones. New otanes undergo a bautismo ("baptism") rite, entailing them being washed in osain , a mixture of herbs and water, and then "fed" with animal blood. When an initiate receives their stones, they take an oath to protect them and feed them at least annually. Other material placed inside
6726-484: Is formed of diverse traditions and has no single founder. Yoruba religious beliefs are part of itan , the total complex of songs, histories, stories, mythologies, and other cultural concepts that make up the Yoruba society. Next to the Veneration of ancestors , one of the most common Yoruba traditional religious concepts has been the concept of Orisa . Orisa (also spelled Orisha) are various gods and spirits, which serve
6903-512: Is given its essential character, and forms a link with the oricha who becomes "the owner of the head". The concept of the eledá derives from Yoruba traditional religion, where it is seen as a person's "spiritual double". In Santería, this concept idea has syncretised with Roman Catholic beliefs about guardian angels and Spiritist notions of the protecciones or protector spirits. There is no strict orthodoxy on this issue and thus interpretations differ. Practitioners often believe that everyone has
7080-430: Is known as kariocha , "making ocha ", or "making santo ". A charge is levied for initiation; this varies depending on the client, but is often equivalent to a year's wage. Each initiation varies in its details, which are often concealed from non-initiates. The initiate is known as an iyabó or iyawó , a term meaning both "slave of the oricha " and "bride of the oricha ". As well as the santero or santera overseeing
7257-399: Is not a baptised Roman Catholic—and others consider themselves to be Spiritists, Hindus , Vodouists, or Jews . Different vocabulary indicates the level of a practitioner's involvement, with the various terms sometimes reflecting different political and social agendas. Practitioners of both Santería and other Afro-Cuban religions are called creyentes ("believers"). Some people external to
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7434-475: Is often first in Yoruba culture, nonetheless, it is the philosophy – the thought of man – that actually leads spiritual consciousness (ori) to the creation and the practice of religion. Thus, it is believed that thought (philosophy) is an antecedent to religion. Values such as respect, peaceful co-existence, loyalty and freedom of speech are both upheld and highly valued in Yoruba culture. Societies that are considered secret societies often strictly guard and encourage
7611-428: Is perceived as the "guardian" of the crossroads. At that point the practitioner may turn to divination to determine the precise meaning of the encounter. The information obtained from these messages may then help practitioners make decisions about their life. Santería teaches that the human head contains a person's essence, their eledá or orí . It maintains that before birth, the eledá goes before Olodumare, where it
7788-420: Is permitted entry. The initiate is given their own otanes , as well as objects representing the warrior oricha . They are also given beaded necklaces, known as collares or elekes ( ilekes ). Each necklace is a different color associated with a specific deity. During the prendición ("pinning") ritual, a heavy necklace known as the collar de mazo is placed on the initiate. During the lavatorio ("washing"),
7965-436: Is present in both the visible and invisible world. It is nevertheless deemed to sometimes congregate more densely, for instance in the forces of nature, specific locales, and in certain human individuals; initiates are believed to attract more of it than other humans. Santería holds that aché can emanate from the human body via speech, song, dance, and drumming, and can be transmitted through such acts as singing praise songs for
8142-655: Is regarded as the creator of all beings, while Olofi dwells in all creation. In taking a triplicate form, this deity displays similarities with the Christian Trinity . Santeria is polytheistic , revolving around deities called oricha , ocha , or santos ("saints"). The term oricha can be both singular and plural, because Lucumí, the ritual language of Santería, lacks plural markers for nouns. Practitioners believe that some oricha were created before humanity, while others were originally humans who became oricha through some remarkable quality. Some practitioners perceive
8319-446: Is the toque de santo , in which practitioners drum, sing, and dance to encourage an oricha to possess one of their members and thus communicate with them. Several forms of divination are used, including Ifá , to decipher messages from the oricha . Offerings are also given to the spirits of the dead, with some practitioners identifying as spirit mediums . Healing rituals and the preparation of herbal remedies and talismans also play
8496-791: Is the conduit between Òrunn (Heaven) and Ayé (Earth). Oshumare is a god that manifests in the form of a rainbow, also known as Òsùmàrè in Yoruba, while Obatala is the god of clarity and creativity.These gods feature in the Yoruba religion, as well as in some aspects of Umbanda , Winti , Obeah , Vodun and a host of others. These varieties, or spiritual lineages as they are called, are practiced throughout areas of Nigeria, among others. As interest in African indigenous religions grows, Orisa communities and lineages can be found in parts of Europe and Asia as well. While estimates may vary, some scholars believe that there could be more than 100 million adherents of this spiritual tradition worldwide. Oral history of
8673-649: Is understood to "rule over" a particular aspect of the universe, and they have been described as personifications of different facets of the natural world. They live in a realm called orún , which is contrasted with ayé , the realm of humanity. Oricha each have their own caminos ("roads"), or manifestations, a concept akin to the Hindu concept of avatars . The number of caminos an oricha has varies, with some having several hundred. Practitioners believe that oricha can physically inhabit certain objects, among them stones and cowrie shells, which are deemed sacred. Each oricha
8850-516: Is used for removing malevolent influences and in ceremonies for baptising ritual tools. Santería's animal sacrifice has been a cause of concern for many non-practitioners. It has sometimes brought adherents into confrontation with the law, as with the 1993 case of Church of the Lukumi Babalu Aye v. City of Hialeah , in which the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that animal cruelty laws targeted specifically at Santería were unconstitutional. Initiation
9027-535: Is used in a fuzzy, ahistorical and uncritical manner in which all manner of movements and migrations between countries and even within countries are included and no adequate attention is paid to the historical conditions and experiences that produce diasporic communities and consciousness—how dispersed populations become self-conscious diaspora communities. Yoruba people The Yoruba people ( / ˈ j ɒr ʊ b ə / YORR -uub-ə ; Yoruba : Ìran Yorùbá , Ọmọ Odùduwà , Ọmọ Káàárọ̀-oòjíire ) are
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#17330861202849204-469: The Ijẹsa and other groups, which saw a corresponding rise in the social influence of military adventurers and successful entrepreneurs. The Ìgbómìnà were renowned for their agricultural and hunting prowess, as well as their woodcarving, leather art, and the famous Elewe masquerade. Occupational guilds, social clubs, secret or initiatory societies, and religious units, commonly known as Ẹgbẹ in Yoruba, included
9381-745: The Ogboni , a council of notable elders. The notion of the divine king was so important to the Yoruba, however, that it has been part of their organization in its various forms from their antiquity to the contemporary era. During the internecine wars of the 19th century, the Ijebu forced citizens of more than 150 Ẹgba and Owu communities to migrate to the fortified city of Abeokuta . Each quarter retained its own Ogboni council of civilian leaders, along with an Olorogun , or council of military leaders, and in some cases, its own elected Obas or Baales . These independent councils elected their most capable members to join
9558-636: The 1960s till date. The oldest known textual reference to the name Yoruba is found in an essay (titled – Mi'rāj al-Ṣu'ūd ) from a manuscript written by the Berber jurist Ahmed Baba in the year 1614. The original manuscript is preserved in the Ahmed Baba Institute of the Mamma Haidara Library , while a digital copy is at the World Digital Library . Mi'rāj al-Ṣu'ūd provides one of
9735-457: The Alaafin consulted on all political decisions with the prime minister and principal kingmaker (the Basọrun ) and the rest of the council of leading nobles known as the Ọyọ Mesi . Traditionally kingship and chieftainship were not determined by simple primogeniture , as in most monarchic systems of government. An electoral college of lineage heads was and still is usually charged with selecting
9912-507: The British colonial administration most Yoruba already lived in well-structured urban centers organized around powerful city-states ( Ìlú ) centered around the residence of the Oba (king) . In ancient times, most of these cities were fortresses, with high walls and gates. Yoruba cities have always been among the most populous in Africa. Archaeological findings indicate that Òyó-Ilé or Katunga, capital of
10089-595: The Chinese migrants who came to Cuba in the 19th century, while in continental North America, Santería has also incorporated influences from Central American and Mexican religions as well as from New Age and modern Pagan practices. As well as it being common for Cubans to idiosyncratically blend ideas from different religions, many of Santería's practitioners claim multiple religious allegiances. Santería's adherents often consider themselves to be Roman Catholics—some priests and priestesses of Santería refuse to initiate anyone who
10266-752: The Gbe -speaking Mahi , Gun , Fon , and Ewe who border Yoruba communities in Benin and Togo, to the west they are bordered by the Kwa -speaking Akebu , Kposo of Togo, and to the northwest, by the Kwa-speaking Anii , and the Gur speaking Kabiye , Yom-Lokpa and Tem people of Togo. Significantly Yoruba populations in other West African countries can also be found in Ghana , Benin , Ivory Coast , and Sierra Leone . Outside Africa,
10443-622: The Holy Infant of Atocha , a depiction of Christ as a child, is conflated with Eleguá, who is seen as having a childlike nature. Babalú Ayé, who is associated with disease, is often identified with the Catholic Saint Lazarus , who rose from the dead, while Changó is conflated with Santa Barbara because they both wear red. Cuba's patron saint , Our Lady of Charity , is equated with Ochún. It has been argued that Yoruba slaves initially linked their traditional deities with Christian saints as
10620-694: The New World as divinities brought across the Atlantic by people of Yoruba descent. There in their new ex-situ environment, they serve as a mechanism of maintaining group identity, as well as a powerful connection to the Yoruba homeland among people of Yoruba descent and others. Examples of such new world practices are: Santeria , Candomble , Umbanda , Kélé and Trinidad Orisha , which are not only religious societies, but also actual ethnic societies for those who sought to maintain their unique heritages over time, although anyone could join as long as they became immersed in
10797-638: The Niger river ) etc. These guesses suffer a lack of support by many locals for being alien to (and unfounded in) the traditions of the Yorubas themselves. In his work, Abeokuta and the Camaroons Mountains c.1863, the English ethnologist Richard F. Burton reports of a Yoruba account in 1861, noting that the name "Yoruba" derives from Ori Obba , i.e. -The Head King . It was applied ex-situ originally in reference to
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#173308612028410974-511: The Oyo Empire derives the Yoruba as an ethnic group from the population of the City State of Ile-Ife. Ile-Ife, as the capital of the former empire, held a prominent position in Yoruba history. The Yoruba were the dominant cultural force in southern and northwestern Nigeria as far back as the 11th century. The Yoruba are among the most urbanized people in Africa. For centuries before the arrival of
11151-506: The Parakoyi (or league of traders) and Ẹgbẹ Ọdẹ (hunter's guild), and maintained an important role in commerce, social control, and vocational education in Yoruba polities. There are also examples of other peer organizations in the region. When the Ẹgba resisted the imperial domination of the Ọyọ Empire, a figure named Lisabi is credited with either creating or reviving a covert traditional organization named Ẹgbẹ Aro . This group, originally
11328-541: The Sokoto Caliphate . Cities indigenous to the Yoruba people include but are not limited to Ibadan, Lagos, Abeokuta, Ilorin, Ogbomoso, Oyo, Osogbo, Ile Ife, Okitipupa, Ijebu Ode, Akure, Offa, among others. In the city-states and many of their neighbours, a reserved way of life remains, with the school of thought of their people serving as a major influence in West Africa and elsewhere. Today, most contemporary Yoruba are Muslims or Christians. Be that as it may, many of
11505-715: The Yoruba diaspora consists of two main groupings; the first being that of the Yorubas taken as slaves to the New World between the 16th to 19th centuries , notably to the Caribbean (especially in Cuba) and Brazil, and the second consisting of a wave of relatively recent migrants, the majority of whom began to migrate to the United Kingdom and the United States following some of the major economic and political changes encountered in Africa in
11682-626: The fundamentos are stones termed otanes (sing. otán ), which are regarded as the literal and symbolic representation of the oricha , and thus living entities. They are deemed to be sources of aché , with older otanes having more aché than younger ones. Practitioners will collect stones from the landscape and then use divination to determine which ones contain an oricha and, if so, which oricha it is. Specific otanes sometimes display traits linking them to particular oricha ; for example ocean stones are linked with Yemaya, river pebbles with Ochún, and meteorite fragments with Changó. Each oricha
11859-403: The igbodu ("sacred grove of the festival"), where the most important rituals take place. There will also be an eyá aránla or sala , often a living room, where semi-private rites can be conducted. Another space, the iban balo , or patio , will be used for public occasions, as well as for the cultivation of plants and the housing of animals due to be sacrificed. The ilé will typically include
12036-432: The iyá is the largest, the itótele is smaller, and the okónkolo is the smallest. For ceremonial purposes, these drums must be wooden; adding metal elements could offend Changó, who is associated with wooden artefacts, because of their links with his enemy, Ogun. They may however have brass bells associated with Ochún, known as chaworo , affixed to their rim. Each ceremonial drum has to be "born" from an existing example,
12213-402: The oricha as facets of Olodumare, and thus think that by venerating them they are ultimately worshipping the creator god. Certain oricha are female, others male. They are not regarded as wholly benevolent, being capable of both harming and helping humans, and displaying a mix of emotions, virtues, and vices. Origin myths and other stories about the oricha are called patakíes . Each oricha
12390-425: The oricha or sacrificing an animal. Among practitioners, aché is sometimes described as conveying notions of luck, health, and prosperity, and has the power to fortify a person's health. Santería has standards for behavior expected of practitioners, encouraging behaviors influenced by the mythological stories about the oricha . The religion presents strict rules regarding how to interact with other people and with
12567-404: The oricha or the egun . Next comes the ceremonia del río ("ceremony of the initiate"), in which offerings are given to Ochún, and the rompimiento ("breaking"), in which the oyubona takes the initiate to purify themselves in a river. The rest of the initiation takes place in the igbodu , where the initiate sleeps upon a mat on the floor for the seven days. No one uninvolved in the initiation
12744-514: The oricha via a ritual prostration, the moforibale , in which they bow their head to the floor. The precise form of the moforibale differs depending on whether the individual's personal oricha is male or female. Altars or shrines to the oricha are typically found both within the igbodu and in practitioners' homes. Central to these altars are sacred objects, termed fundamentos ("fundamentals"), which are contained within porcelain vessels, often tureens , called sopera . The most important of
12921-460: The oricha . Once killed, the animals' severed heads may be placed on top of the sopera belonging to the oricha to which the sacrifice has been directed. After the carcass has been butchered, some of the organs—known as acheses —may be cooked and offered to the oricha ; other parts will be eaten by practitioners. Some of the blood may be collected and added to omiero , an infusion of herbs and water. Believed to contain much aché , this liquid
13098-406: The oricha . Creyentes believe that the oricha can communicate with humans through divination, prayers, dreams, music, and dance. Many practitioners also describe how they "read" messages from the oricha in everyday interactions and events. For instance, a practitioner who meets a child at a traffic intersection may interpret this as a message from Eleguá, who is often depicted as a child and who
13275-430: The sopera includes cowrie shells; usually 18 are added although the precise number differs depending on which oricha the sopera is devoted to. The sopera will often be covered by a cloth known as a pañuelo that is colored in accordance with the oricha in question. Often laid over the sopera are necklaces known as collares , again representing a particular oricha . On the altar, the sopera will be arranged in
13452-410: The toque de santo are believed to generate aché , strengthening the link between the realms of the oricha and humanity. Dancing either alone or first in front of the drums at the toque de santo is considered a privilege and is usually reserved for the most experienced initiate present. There are specific rules of engagement that are laid out for taking part in the toque de santo ; dancing poorly at
13629-606: The 14th century, as a result of trade with Wangara (also Wankore) merchants, a mobile caste of the Soninkes from the then Mali Empire who entered Yorubaland (Oyo) from the northwestern flank through the Bariba or Borgu corridor, during the reign of Mansa Kankan Musa . Due to this, Islam is traditionally known to the Yoruba as Esin Male or simply Imale i.e. religion of the Malians. The adherents of
13806-433: The 1800s by a polyglot group of refugees, soldiers, and itinerant traders after the fall of Ọyọ, largely dispensed with the concept of monarchism, preferring to elect both military and civil councils from a pool of eminent citizens. The city became a military republic, with distinguished soldiers wielding political power through their election by popular acclaim and the respect of their peers. Similar practices were adopted by
13983-484: The 18th century, in the days of Ajagbo , an Oba of Oyo, the rulers of the Yoruba-speaking kingdoms of Oyo, Egba , Ketu , and Jebu styled each other "brothers" while recognizing the leadership role Oyo plays among them. At the beginning of the 19th century, the Yoruba community was made up of the following principal units; The British colony of Lagos, traditionally called Eko; Ketu, a western Yoruba state bordering
14160-494: The 18th century. The Yoruba often demanded slaves as a form of tribute of subject populations, who in turn sometimes made war on other peoples to capture the required slaves. Part of the slaves sold by the Oyo Empire entered the Atlantic slave trade . Most of the city states were controlled by Obas (or royal sovereigns with various individual titles) and councils made up of Oloye , recognized leaders of royal, noble and, often, even common descent, who joined them in ruling over
14337-542: The 19th century, elements from Spiritism —a French variant of Spiritualism —were drawn into the mix, with Santería emerging as a distinct religion in western Cuba during the late 19th century. Although Santería is the best known of the Afro-Cuban religions, and the most popular, it is not the only one. Others include Palo , which derives from practices originating in the Congo Basin , and Abakuá , which has its origins among
14514-401: The African diaspora—indeed, in defining the term diaspora . Contemporary theorizations of the term diaspora tend to be preoccupied with problematizing the relationship between diaspora and nation and the dualities or multiplicities of diasporic identity or subjectivity; they are inclined to be condemnatory or celebratory of transnational mobility and hybridity. In many cases, the term diaspora
14691-460: The Americas were already Muslim. The mosque served the spiritual needs of Muslims living in Ọyọ. Progressively, Islam started to gain a foothold in Yorubaland, and Muslims started building mosques. Iwo led, its first mosque built in 1655, followed by Iseyin in 1760, Eko/Lagos in 1774, Shaki in 1790, and Osogbo in 1889. In time, Islam spread to other towns like Oyo (the first Oyo convert
14868-460: The Americas which collectively form the "Orisha religion", "Orisha Tradition", or "Orisha worship." These include Haitian Vodou and Brazilian Candomblé , sometimes characterized as "sister religions" of Santería due to their shared origins in Yoruba traditional religion. [Santería] in Cuba was not just a continuation of Yoruba religious and cultural practices but something new, born from the encounter of
15045-428: The Americas, such as Haitian Vodou and Brazilian Candomblé . Since the late 20th century, some practitioners have emphasized a "Yorubization" process to remove Roman Catholic influences and created forms of Santería closer to traditional Yoruba religion. Practitioners of Santería are primarily found in Cuba's La Habana and Matanzas provinces, although communities exist across the island and abroad, especially among
15222-456: The Cuban diasporas of Mexico and the United States. The religion remains most common among working-class Afro-Cuban communities although is also practiced by individuals of other class and ethnic backgrounds. The number of initiates is estimated to be in the high hundreds of thousands. These initiates serve as diviners and healers for a much larger range of adherents of varying levels of fidelity, making
15399-755: The Egbado, Akoko groups, Yagba, Awori as well as independent townships, consisting of a town and its outlying dependent villages such as Oke odan, Ado, Igbessa. Various other cultural factors which bind the Yoruba people include historic dynastic migrations of royals and the micro migrations of people within the Yoruba cultural space which has led to the mixing of people evidenced by the duplication and multiplication of place names and royal titles across Yoruba country. Today, places with names containing; Owu, Ifon, Ife, Ado, etc., can be found scattered across Yorubaland regardless of subgroup. The same can be observed of certain localized royal titles, e.g. Ajalorun, Owa, and Olu. Olofin,
15576-503: The Islamic faith are called Musulumi in Yoruba to correspond to Muslim, the Arabic word for an adherent of Islam having as the active participle of the same verb form, and means "submitter (to Allah)" or a nominal and active participle of Islam derivative of "Salaam" i.e. (Religion of) Peace. Islam was practiced in Yorubaland so early on in history, that a sizable proportion of Yoruba slaves taken to
15753-457: The Lucumí language, barring a few words that have filtered into Cuban Spanish . Lucumí derives from the Yoruba language, although it has become "increasingly fragmented and unintelligible" since the 19th century. As Yoruba transitioned into Lucumí, the Yoruba pronunciations of many words were forgotten, and in the early 21st century some practitioners have studied the Yoruba language to better understand
15930-514: The Maliki school of law. In addition to Christianity and Islam, a large number of Yoruba people continue to practice their traditional religion. Yoruba religious practices such as the Eyo and Osun-Osogbo festivals are witnessing a resurgence in popularity in contemporary Yorubaland. They are largely seen by the adherents of the modern faiths as cultural, rather than religious, events. They participate in them as
16107-460: The Market, who is expected to represent their interests in the aristocratic council of oloyes at the palace. The monarchy of any city-state was usually limited to a number of royal lineages. A family could be excluded from kingship and chieftaincy if any family member, servant, or slave belonging to the family committed a crime, such as theft, fraud, murder or rape. In other city-states, the monarchy
16284-534: The Oyo-Yoruba recounts Odùduwà to be the progenitor of the Yoruba and the reigning ancestor of their crowned kings. He came from the east, understood in Ife traditions to be the settlement of Oke Ora , a hilltop community situated to the east of Ife. After the death of Oduduwa, there was a dispersal of his children in a series of kingdom founding migrations from Ife to found other kingdoms. Each child made his or her mark in
16461-522: The U.S., some African American adherents have contrasted what they regard as the African-derived ethos of Santería with the non-African origins of Christianity, thus adopting it as a religion readily combined with black nationalism . The scholar of religion Mary Ann Clark labelled Santería a "female oriented and female normative" religion, arguing that all of its practitioners are expected to take on "female gender roles" during its rituals. Women can hold
16638-632: The Yoruba are known by across West Africa include; Alata in southern Ghana, Eyagi in Nupe which produced descendant terms such as; Ayagi (the pre-modern Hausa word for the Yoruba people) and Iyaji in Igala. The Yoruba people also refer to themselves by the epithet "Ọmọ Káàárọ̀-oòjíire", literally meaning, "The People who ask 'Good morning, did you wake up well?". This is in reference to the mode of greeting associated with Yoruba culture . Through parts of coastal West Africa where Yorubas can be found, they have carried
16815-430: The Yoruba empire of Oyo (fl. between the 16th and 19th centuries CE), had a population of over 100,000 people. For a long time also, Ibadan , one of the major Yoruba cities founded in the 1800s, was the largest city in the whole of Sub Saharan Africa . Today, Lagos ( Yoruba : Èkó ), another major Yoruba city, with a population of over twenty million, remains the largest on the African continent. Archaeologically ,
16992-522: The Yoruba grammar compiled in the 1850s by Bishop Crowther , who himself was a Sierra Leonean Recaptive of Oyo origin. This was exemplified by the following remark by Adetugbọ (1967), as cited in Fagborun (1994): "While the orthography agreed upon by the missionaries represented to a very large degree the phonemes of the Abẹokuta dialect, the morpho-syntax reflected the Ọyọ-Ibadan dialects" Yoruba people have
17169-532: The Yoruba people as members of the same ethnicity include the universal recognition of a number of spiritual concepts and chief divinities ( Orisha ), who have achieved pan-Yoruba statuses. These divinities are venerated as embodiments of natural forces and divine power. They are also the mediators between the common people and Olodumare , God. They include some now well-known divinities as; Obatala, Ogun , Orunmila , Osun , Eshu , Olokun , Yemoja , Osanyin , and Shango , Among others . These are now recognizable in
17346-535: The Yoruba population is today within the country of Nigeria, where they make up 20.7% of the country's population according to Ethnologue estimations, making them one of the largest ethnic groups in Africa . Most Yoruba people speak the Yoruba language , which is the Niger-Congo language with the largest number of native or L1 speakers. In Africa, the Yoruba are contiguous with the Yoruboid Itsekiri to
17523-540: The Yoruba sociolinguistic group as a whole. Centuries later however, it evolved to be applied exclusively to the Ọ̀yọ́ subgroup when this subgroup rose to attain imperial status, particularly at its apogee (c.1650 – c.1750) until in the mid-1800s when this trend was reversed back to the original context. The name Yoruba is the most well known ethnonym for the group of people that trace a common origin to Ife , but synonymous terms have been recorded in history such as; Nago/Anago , Lucumi/Olukumi and Aku/Oku . Some Exonyms
17700-687: The Yoruba word for "method or process") started missions in Agbadarigi / Gbegle by Thomas Birch Freeman in 1842. Agbadarigi was further served by E. C. Van Cooten , E. G. Irving, and A. A. Harrison. Henry Townsend , C. C. Gollmer, and Ajayi Crowther of the CMS worked in Abeokuta , then under the Egba division of Southern Nigeria in 1846. Hinderer and Mann of CMS started missions in Ibadan / Ibarapa and Ijaye divisions of
17877-610: The Yoruba worldview. Linguistically, the Yoruboid languages, and in particular the Edekiri subgroup, form a closed group of mutually intelligible dialects which strongly bound the people who speak them together as members of the same linguistic community. This dialectal area spans from the lands of the Ana-Ife people in central Togo and eastern Ghana eastwards to the lands of the Itsekiri people in
18054-659: The Yorubas as Ijo Aguda, so named after returning former Yoruba slaves from Latin America, who were mostly Catholic, and were also known as the Agudas or Amaros ) started the race, followed by Protestants, whose prominent member – Church Mission Society (CMS) based in England made the most significant in-roads into the hinterland regions for evangelism and became the largest of the Christian missions. Methodists (known as Ijo-Eleto, so named after
18231-419: The adherent; anthropologists have observed practitioners who have included Taoist figurines or statues of wizards , on their altars. Food and flowers are often placed on the altar as offerings. Although rarely included on their altars, practitioners will often have statues of Roman Catholic saints elsewhere in their homes. In addition to their altar to the oricha , many practitioners have altars set aside for
18408-409: The ancient city of Ife is the acknowledgement of an historic crowned king, Oduduwa, a personage nominally considered the 'father' of the Yoruba people. According to Ife's own account, Oduduwa 'descended' into the originally thirteen semi-autonomous proto-Ife communities which existed in a state of confederacy based around a swampy depression surrounded by seven hills that would later on become Ife from
18585-438: The annual anniversary of their initiation, their cumpleaños de santo ("birthday in the saint"). Although a largely orally-transmitted tradition, santeros and santeras often emphasise teaching in a non-verbal manner, encouraging their initiates to learn through taking part in the ritual activities. Since at least the 20th century, some initiates have kept libretas , notebooks in which they have written down material relevant to
18762-461: The community of Oke Ora , an elevated abode located at the summit of a hill to Ife's East. The intervention of Oduduwa, a native of Oke Ora and considered an outsider in the politics of the Ife valley, is widely acknowledged in Ife to be the turning point that revolutionized the politics of the confederacy which was at the time, led by Obatala Beyond the historical accounts surrounding Ife and its ancient rulership, more cultural markers which unite
18939-477: The culture of lauding one another with greetings applicable in different situations along with them. Another epithet used is, "Ọmọ Oòduà", meaning "The Children of Oduduwa ", referencing the semi-legendary Yoruba king. The historical Yoruba developed in situ, out of earlier Mesolithic Volta-Niger populations, by the 1st millennium BCE . By the 8th century, a powerful city-state already existed in Ile-Ife , one of
19116-585: The dead are not deemed as powerful as the oricha , they are still thought capable of assisting the living, with whom they can communicate through dreams, intuition, and spirit possession. Santería teaches that a person can learn to both see and communicate with the dead . Practitioners will often provide offerings, typically seven glasses of water, to the egun to placate and please them. Especially propitiated are those egun regarded as ancestors; these ancestors can include both hereditary forebears or past members of one's congregation, with practitioners believing that
19293-416: The dead via the water in the pipes. Offerings are called ebbó (or ebó ), and are given to the oricha , ancestral spirits, to a person's own ori , and sometimes to the earth. These offerings can consist of fruit and other foodstuffs, liquor, flowers, candles, money, or slaughtered animals. Divination is often used to determine the exact nature of the offering; initiates are supposed to provide offerings on
19470-568: The decline of Ife, Oyo expanded as the new Yoruba power and established its own influences over Kingdoms stretching from central Togo in the west to central Yorubaland in the east, and from the Niger river in the north to the Atlantic coast in the south, taking in the whole of Dahomey , southern Borgu , the Mahi states , southern Nupe and the Aja people . Between the 16th and 19th centuries, Oyo had numerous campaigns in
19647-421: The deity, and accordingly they often claim no memory of the events that occurred during the possession. Some have stated that reaching the mental state whereby an individual can become possessed takes much practice. The onset of the trance is marked by body spasms, termed arullarse . Once an individual is possessed, they may be taken into an adjacent room where they are dressed in the ritual clothing pertaining to
19824-554: The diverse Yoruba tribes with one another, with non-Yoruba Africans, and with the Europeans in a new environment and a new social order governed by [a] set of institutions different from those of Africa. Santería is a flexible and eclectic tradition, with considerable variation in how it is practiced. There is no strict orthodoxy, no key sacred text , and no central authority in control of the entire religion. It has absorbed elements from many cultures that it has encountered, such as that of
20001-421: The drum. Practitioners believe that the consecrated batá contain a substance called añá , itself an avatar of Ochún, and a manifestation of aché . Many drummers avoid mentioning the añá in public and may not refer to it by name. Drums which have not been baptised are not viewed as containing añá , and are called tambores judìos ("Jewish drums"). Particular rhythms played on the drums may be associated with
20178-638: The earliest ilés during the late 19th century. After the Cuban War of Independence resulted in an independent republic in 1898, its new constitution enshrined freedom of religion . Santería nevertheless remained marginalized by Cuba's Roman Catholic, Euro-Cuban establishment, which typically viewed it as brujería (witchcraft). In the 1960s, growing emigration following the Cuban Revolution spread Santería abroad. The late 20th century saw growing links between Santería and related traditions in West Africa and
20355-464: The earliest in Africa. This City, whose oral traditions link to figures like Oduduwa and Obatala, would later become the heart of the Ife Empire , the first empire in Yoruba History. The Ife Empire, flourishing between roughly 1200 and 1420 CE, extended its influence across a significant portion of what is now southwestern Nigeria and eastern Benin and to modern-day Togo. Oral history recorded under
20532-709: The earliest known ideas about the ethnic composition of the West African interior. The relevant section of the essay which lists the Yoruba group alongside nine others in the region as translated by John Hunwick and Fatima Harrak for the Institute of African Studies Rabat, reads: "We will add another rule for you, that is that whoever now comes to you from among the group called Mossi , or Gurma , or Bussa , or Borgu , or Dagomba , or Kotokoli , or Yoruba, or Tombo , or Bobo , or K.rmu – all of these are unbelievers remaining in their unbelief until now. Similarly Kumbe except for
20709-406: The existence of a transcendent creator divinity, Olodumare , under whom are spirits known as oricha . Typically deriving their names and attributes from traditional Yoruba deities, these oricha are equated with Roman Catholic saints and associated with various myths. Each human is deemed to have a personal link to a particular oricha who influences their personality. Olodumare is believed to be
20886-420: The existence of an overarching divinity, known as Olodumare , Olofi , or Olorun . Practitioners believe that this divinity created the universe but takes little interest in human affairs. As this creator deity is inaccessible to humanity, no major offerings are dedicated to it. The three facets of this divinity are understood slightly differently; Olodumare represents the divine essence of all that exists, Olorun
21063-454: The fact that Southeast and Central Yoruba areas generally have older settlements, suggests a later date of immigration into Northwestern Yoruba territory. The area where North-West Yoruba (NWY) is spoken corresponds to the historical Oyo Empire. South-East Yoruba (SEY) was closely associated with the expansion of the Benin Empire after c. 1450. Central Yoruba forms a transitional area in that
21240-444: The folklorist Michael Atwood Mason called aché the "ritual generative power". The ethnomusicologist Katherine Hagedorn described aché as "the realized and inherent divine potential in all aspects of life, even in apparently inert objects." She added that " Aché is neither good nor bad; rather, aché is motion". While deeming Olodumare the ultimate embodiment of aché , practitioners believe that aché permeates all life, and
21417-510: The forced migration of African captives of the Old and New Worlds to the voluntary emigration of free, skilled Africans in search of political asylum or economic opportunities; from a diaspora with little contact with the point of origin (Africa) to one that maintains active contact with the mother continent; all culminating in the birth of a unique African who straddles continents, worlds and cultures. There are several conceptual difficulties in defining
21594-443: The highest leadership positions, although restrictions are placed on them while menstruating. Similar restrictions are also placed on homosexual males, traditionally prohibiting them from taking part in certain forms of divination and ritual drumming. Many gay men are nevertheless santeros , and some santeras are lesbians. A stereotype exists that all male Santería priests are homosexual, and members of other Afro-Cuban traditions with
21771-435: The initiate's head is bathed in omiero , designed to rid them of any malevolent spirits attached to them. Often, their hair will be shaved off. On the día del itá ("day of history"), usually the third day, the initiate will undergo the itá , a session with a diviner. The diviner will reveal the initiate's Lucumí ritual name, a praise name of the oricha that rules their head. This name often incorporates elements indicating
21948-565: The initiate's tutelary oricha ; devotees of Yemajá for instance usually include omí ("water"), while those of Changó often have obá ("king"). Next comes the asiento ("seating"), or coronación ("coronation"), which marks the point when the aché of the tutelary oricha is believed to literally enter the initiate's cranium. The otanes of several oricha are placed to the initiate's head, culminating in those of their tutelary oricha . An animal sacrifice usually follows, involving at least five four-legged animals and 25 birds. The following day
22125-438: The initiation ceremony, the event may be attended by an oyubona or oyugbona ("one who witnesses"), who acts as a secondary godparent to the new initiate. The initiation process takes seven days, plus two days of preparatory rituals. During this preparation, a misa espiritual ("spiritual mass") will typically take place to gain the blessings of the ancestral egun , and an ebó de entrada ("opening sacrifice") will be made to
22302-456: The killing of animals as an acceptable substitute to human sacrifice , and in Cuba there have been persistent rumours of children being sacrificed in Santería rites. The oricha and egun are believed to "eat" the blood of the victim; the latter's lifeforce is deemed to transfer to the oricha , thus strengthening its aché . An animal that struggles to avoid being killed is sometimes understood as having particular strength which will then pass to
22479-463: The kingdom of Dahomey; Egba, with its capital at Abeokuta; Jebu, a southern Yoruba kingdom in the immediate vicinity of an inland lagoon; A confederation of Ekiti sub-tribes in the hilly country to the northeast; Ibadan, a successor republican state to Oyo; Ijesha; The historic kingdom of Ife which continued to maintain its sacred primacy; Ondo, on the east; The littoral Mahin/Ilaje on the southeastern maritime coast, and several other smaller states such as
22656-497: The kingdoms through a series of guilds and cults. Different states saw differing ratios of power between the kingships and the chiefs' councils. Some, such as Oyo, had powerful, autocratic monarchs with almost total control, while in others such as the Ijebu city-states, the senatorial councils held more influence and the power of the ruler or Ọba , referred to as the Awujale of Ijebuland ,
22833-403: The latter constituting its "godfather," and in this way they form lineages. Before being used in ceremonies, these drums are baptized, after which they are referred to as a tambor de fundamento . This baptism entails washing the drums in omiero , making sacrifices to Osain, and affixing an afoubo , a small leather bag containing items including a parrot feather and glass beads, to the interior of
23010-515: The lexicon has much in common with NWY, whereas it shares many ethnographical features with SEY. Literary Yoruba is the standard variety taught in schools and spoken by newsreaders on the radio. It is mostly entirely based on northwestern Yoruba dialects of the Oyos and the Egbas , and has its origins in two sources; The work of Yoruba Christian missionaries based mostly in the Egba hinterland at Abeokuta , and
23187-600: The markets. Then came Moremi Ajasoro into the scene; she was said to have played a significant role in the quelling of the marauder advancements. But this was at a great price; having to give up her only son Oluorogbo. The reward for her patriotism and selflessness was not to be reaped in one lifetime as she later passed on and was thereafter deified . The Edi festival celebrates this feat among her Yoruba descendants. Yoruba culture consists of cultural philosophy, religion and folktales. They are embodied in Ifa divination, and are known as
23364-408: The most popular oricha , Changó or Shango is associated with lightning and fire. Another prominent oricha is Yemaja , the deity associated with maternity, fertility, and the sea. Ochún is the oricha of rivers and of romantic love, while Oyá is a warrior associated with wind, lightning, and death, and is viewed as the guardian of the cemetery. Obatalá is the oricha of truth and justice and
23541-446: The mythological creatures in the visible and invisible worlds. His time favored the artist-philosophers who produced magnificent naturalistic artworks of civilization during the pre-dynastic period in Yorubaland. The second epoch is the epoch of metaphysical discourse, and the birth of modern artist-philosophy. This commenced in the 19th century in terms of the academic prowess of Bishop Samuel Ajayi Crowther (1807–1891). Although religion
23718-644: The names of these individuals, who are regarded as the ancestors of the house, are recited in chronological order. Although members of different houses often interact, each ilé is largely autonomous, allowing for variation in their practices. In Cuba, it is common for Santería practitioners to meet with each other regularly, and to regard each other as being akin to a family: the familia de santo . Conversely, in an area like Veracruz in Mexico, many practitioners attend group rituals and then leave, sometimes never seeing their co-practitioners again. Most ilés are established by
23895-814: The neighboring Bini kingdom in the late 16th century. As time progressed, other Europeans – such as the French, the British, the Dutch, and the Germans, followed suit. The British and the French were the most successful in their quest for colonies (these Europeans actually split Yorubaland, with the larger part being in British Nigeria, and the minor parts in French Dahomey, now Benin, and German Togoland ). Home governments encouraged religious organizations to come. Roman Catholics (known to
24072-407: The number and identities of these spirits can be determined through divination. It draws a distinction between evolved spirits, who can help those they are attached to, and unevolved spirits, who lack the wisdom and skill to be useful and instead cause havoc. Santería teaches that through offerings and prayers, individuals can help some of their unevolved spirits to become evolved. Santería also divides
24249-569: The observance of moral values. Today, the academic and nonacademic communities are becoming more interested in Yoruba culture. More research is being carried out on Yoruba cultural thought as more books are being written on the subject. The Yoruba are traditionally very religious people, and are today pluralistic in their religious convictions. The Yoruba are one of the more religiously diverse ethnic groups in Africa. Many Yoruba people practice Christianity in denominations such as Anglicanism while others are Muslims practicing mostly under Sunni Islam of
24426-454: The original meaning of Lucumí words. Rituals take place in the ilé ("house"), sometimes called the ilé-oricha ("house of the oricha "), casa templo ("house of worship"), casa de santos ("house of saints"), or casa de religión ("house of religion"). The ethnomusicologist María Teresa Vélez called this the "house-temple", with the ilé usually being the personal home of a santero or santera . It will typically have an inner room,
24603-440: The original title of Oduduwa in Ife, is remembered in the lore of most places in Yorubaland. Occupational engagements like farming, hunting, crafting, blacksmithing, trading, as well as fishing for the coastal or riparian groups are commonplace. Joint customs in greeting, birth, marriage and death, a strong sense of community, urbanism, festivities and a respect for the elderly are also all universal Yoruba concepts. Monarchies were
24780-440: The other, and practitioners will frequently place a cement head decorated with cowrie shells that represents Eleguá behind their front door, guarding the threshold to the street. The second guerro is Ogun, viewed as the oricha of weapons and war, and also of iron and blacksmiths. The third, Ochosi, is associated with woods and hunting, while the fourth, Osun, is a protector who warns practitioners when they are in danger. Perhaps
24957-453: The participants. It is believed that the collective energy built up by the group is necessary in achieving this. In turn, the oricha are believed capable of soothing the grieving, healing the sick, blessing the deserving, and rebuking those who have behaved badly. The toque de santo uses double-headed drums called batá ; these are deemed sacred, and are sometimes regarded as the central symbol of Santería. There are multiple types of batá:
25134-610: The past, gives solutions to problems in the present, and influences the future through the Ifa divination system , which is practised by oracle priests called Babalawos . Olorun is one of the principal manifestations of the Supreme God of the Yoruba pantheon, the owner of the heavens, and is associated with the Sun known as Oòrùn in the Yoruba language. The two other principal forms of the supreme God are Olodumare —the supreme creator—and Olofin , who
25311-403: The patronage of King Obalufon II , the man who today is identified as the Yoruba patron deity of brass casting, weaving and regalia. The dynasty of kings at Ile-Ife, which is regarded by the Yoruba as the place of origin of human civilization, remains intact to this day. The urban phase of Ile-Ife before the rise of Oyo signifies, a significant peak of political centralization in the 14th century,
25488-516: The possessing oricha , after which they are returned to the main room. As well as speaking in the Lucumí language, those possessed may then display gestures associated with a particular oricha ; for instance, those believing themselves possessed by Ochún may wipe their skirt over other people, representing the waves of the ocean, while those regarding themselves as being possessed by Eleguá may steal from assembled participants. The possessed individual will then provide healing or dispense advice; sometimes
25665-410: The practice of Santería. These may be shared with their own initiates or kept private. Santería's main public ritual is a drumming ceremony called the toque de santo , or tambor . Lasting for up to several hours, this is usually seen as an offering to the oricha , performed to gain their favor. The goal of the rhythms and songs is to summon the oricha to earth, at which point they can possess one of
25842-419: The precise numbers of those involved in Santería difficult to determine. Many of those involved also identify as practitioners of another religion, typically Roman Catholicism. The term Santería translates into English as the "way of the saints". This term was first used by scholarly commentators in the 1930s and later spread among the religion's practitioners themselves. It has become the most popular name for
26019-667: The present Oyo state in 1853. Baptist missionaries – Bowen and Clarke – concentrated on the northern Yoruba axis – (Ogbomoso and environs). With their success, other religious groups – the Salvation Army and the Evangelists Commission of West Africa – became popular among the Igbomina , and other non-denominational Christian groups joined. The increased tempo of Christianity led to the appointment of Saros (returning slaves from Sierra Leone) and indigenes as missionaries. This move
26196-513: The principles of the traditional faith of their ancestors are either knowingly or unknowingly upheld by a significant proportion of the populations of Nigeria, Benin and Togo . The Yoruba religion comprises the traditional religious and spiritual concepts and practices of the Yoruba people. Its homeland is in Southwestern Nigeria and the adjoining parts of Benin and Togo, a region that has come to be known as Yorubaland. Yoruba religion
26373-413: The problems of everyday life. Practitioners usually use the term "work" in reference to ritual activity; thus "working ocha " describes its rites. Santería is an initiatory religion, one which is organized around a structured hierarchy. An ethos of secrecy pervades many of its practices, with initiates often refusing to discuss certain topics with non-initiates. For this reason, Mason described Santería as
26550-521: The region and established a reputation among the neighbouring kingdoms of; Ashanti, Dahomey, Borgu, Nupe, Igala and Benin as well as further afield in the lands of the Songhai, Hausa Kingdoms and others, solidifying its place in the greater region as a powerhouse strategically placed between the forest and the Savanna and representative of a cultural unit it powerfully defended and stood in association with. During
26727-460: The religion have referred to its practitioners as "santerians" although this is not used by adherents themselves. A non-initiate, including those who may attend public Santería ceremonies, is an aleyo ("stranger"); these non-initiates make up the majority of people involved in the religion. Initiates are known as santero if male, and santera if female, although these two terms have sometimes been used for anyone, initiate or not, who participates in
26904-466: The religion, although some practitioners find it offensive. A common alternative is Regla de Ocha , meaning "the rule of ocha", ocha being a term for the religion's deities. Some adherents regard this as the religion's "official" name. The tradition has also been called Lucumí , in reference to the colonial Spanish term for the Yoruba people , or alternatively La Religión Lucumí ("the Lucumí religion") or Regla Lucumí ("the rule of Lucumí"). Santería
27081-402: The religion. Alternative terms for an initiate are babalocha or babaloricha ("father-deity") if male and an iyalocha or iyaloricha ("mother-deity") if female. Those who have a sustained engagement with the religion are also referred to as omoricha ("children of the oricha"), aboricha ("one who worships the oricha"), and an oloricha ("one who belongs to the oricha"). Santería teaches
27258-522: The rite lacked sufficient aché , or that the wrong ebbó was provided for the situation. Animal sacrifice is called matanza , with the person carrying it out termed the matador . This is usually a man, with menstruating women prohibited from involvement. Birds—including guinea fowl , chickens, and doves—are commonly sacrificed, usually by having their throats slit or their heads twisted and ripped off. For rituals of greater importance, sacrifices are often of four-legged animals. Some practitioners describe
27435-409: The ritual is considered an insult to the oricha . Possession is important in Santería, and the purpose of the toque de santo is to call down an oricha to possess one of the participants. The possessed individual is referred to as the "horse", with the oricha having "mounted" them. According to practitioners, becoming possessed by an oricha requires an individual giving up their consciousness to
27612-526: The secret male societies practiced among the Efik-Ibibio . Many practitioners of Palo and Abakuá also follow Santería. Another Afro-Cuban religion is Arará , which derives from practices among the Ewe and Fon ; although its origins are not Yoruba, it is sometimes considered a branch of Santería rather than a separate system. Santería also has commonalities with other West African and West African-derived traditions in
27789-593: The settlement of Ile-Ife showed features of urbanism in the 12th–14th-century era. This period coincided with the peak of the Ife Empire, during which Ile-Ife grew into one of West Africa's largest urban centers. In the period around 1300 CE when glass bead production reached an Industrial scale, floors were paved with potsherds and stones. The artists at Ile-Ife developed a refined and naturalistic sculptural tradition in terracotta, stone, and copper alloy – copper, brass, and bronze many of which appear to have been created under
27966-421: The song, the akpwón may break into a personal prayer. The akpwón can switch from song to song quickly, with the drummers having to adapt their rhythm accordingly. A chorus of singers will respond to the akpwón , often while swaying back and forth. These choral responses may split into a two or three-part harmony. Dancing also takes place, with each oricha associated with a particular dance style. The dances at
28143-765: The south-east in the northwest Niger Delta , Bariba to the northwest in Benin and Nigeria, the Nupe to the north, and the Ebira to the northeast in Central Nigeria. To the east are the Edo , Ẹsan , and Afemai groups in Mid-Western Nigeria. To the northeast and adjacent to the Ebira and Northern Edo, groups are the related Igala people on the left bank of the Niger River . To the south are
28320-472: The spirits into categories that each exhibit different traits, reflecting stereotypes about different social groups, with such spirits often portrayed as African, Haitian, Gypsy, Arab, or Plains Indian . The gitano (gypsy) spirits for instance are believed capable of foreseeing impending troubles and diagnosing illnesses while the congo spirits of Africa are perceived as strong-willed, powerful, and adept at guiding people through hostile circumstances. Aché
28497-504: The spirits of the dead. These typically consist of a white-covered table known as a bóveda , something derived from the White Table of Spiritism. Bóveda often feature photographs of deceased relatives, to whom offerings are given; popular offerings for the spirits of the dead include seven glasses of water, a cafecito coffee, and the aguardiente liquor. Alternatively, many practitioners of Santería—like those who follow Palo—will have
28674-517: The subsequent urbanization and consolidation of the Yoruba confederacy of kingdoms, with each kingdom tracing its origin due to them to Ile-Ife. After the dispersal, the aborigines became difficult, and constituted a serious threat to the survival of Ife. Thought to be survivors of the old occupants of the land before the arrival of Oduduwa, these people now turned themselves into marauders. They would come to town in costumes made of raffia with terrible and fearsome appearances, and burn down houses and loot
28851-508: The supernatural, for instance placing emphasis on respect for elders and superiors. A general attitude in Santería is that if an individual maintains good character, the oricha will aid them. Practitioners generally take socially conservative stances, having high regard for traditional family structures, marriage, fidelity, and child-rearing; adherents in the United States often adopt more progressive stances on issues surrounding gender and sexuality than their counterparts in Cuba. The religion
29028-501: The tripartite Book of Enlightenment in Yorubaland and in its diaspora. Yoruba cultural thought is a witness of two epochs. The first epoch is a history of cosmogony and cosmology. This is also an epoch-making history in the oral culture during which time Oduduwa was the king, the Bringer of Light, pioneer of Yoruba folk philosophy, and a prominent diviner. He pondered the visible and invisible worlds, reminiscing about cosmogony, cosmology, and
29205-513: The two ethnic groups bear such a close resemblance that researchers such as Forde (1951) and Westermann and Bryan (1952) regarded Igala as a dialect of Yoruba. The Yoruboid languages are assumed to have developed out of an undifferentiated Volta-Niger group by the first millennium BCE. There are three major dialect areas: Northwest , Central , and Southeast . As the North-West Yoruba dialects show more linguistic innovation, combined with
29382-408: The ultimate creator force in the Yoruba religious system (Ase). Some widely known Orisa are Ogun , (a god of metal, war and victory), Shango or Jakuta (a god of thunder, lightning, fire and justice who manifests as a king and who always wields a double-edged axe that conveys his divine authority and power), Esu Elegbara (a trickster who serves as the sole messenger of the pantheon , and who conveys
29559-433: The ultimate source of aché , a supernatural force permeating the universe that can be manipulated through ritual actions. Practitioners venerate the oricha at altars, either in the home or in the ilé (house-temple), which is run by a santero (priest) or santera (priestess). Membership of the ilé requires initiation . Offerings to the oricha include fruit, liquor, flowers and sacrificed animals . A central ritual
29736-453: The use of Entheogens ) and European folklore . Various "doctoring" spiritual traditions also exist such as Obeah and Hoodoo which focus on spiritual health. African religious traditions in the Americas can vary. They can have non-prominent African roots or can be almost wholly African in nature, such as religions like Trinidad Orisha . The nature and composition of the African diaspora have undergone significant changes over time: from
29913-418: The view that menstrual blood can weaken the drum's añá , or that the drum's desire for blood would drain the woman, causing her harm, or in some cases infertility. Praise songs are sung for the oricha , with specific songs associated with particular deities. These may be sung a cappella or with instrumental accompaniment. The lead singer at such ceremonies is known as an akpwón . During the opening verse of
30090-521: The western Niger Delta around the Formosa (Benin) and Escravos river estuaries. This span of land, inhabited by geographically contiguous and culturally related subgroups, were divided into separate national and subnational units under the control of different European powers as a result of the Berlin Conference in 19th century Europe and the resultant administration. The Yoruba also notably developed
30267-521: The wish of men to the gods. He understands every language spoken by humankind, and is also the guardian of the crossroads, Oríta méta in Yoruba) and Orunmila (a god of the Oracle). Eshu has two forms, which are manifestations of his dual nature – positive and negative energies; Eshu Laroye, a teacher instructor and leader, and Eshu Ebita, a jester, deceitful, suggestive and cunning. Orunmila, for his part, reveals
30444-415: The world." Gerontocratic leadership councils that guarded against the monopolization of power by a monarch were a trait of the Ẹgba, according to the eminent Ọyọ historian Reverend Samuel Johnson . Such councils were also well-developed among the northern Okun groups, the eastern Ekiti , and other groups falling under the Yoruba ethnic umbrella. In Ọyọ, the most centralized of the precolonial kingdoms,
30621-546: Was Solagberu), Ibadan, Abẹokuta , Ijebu Ode , Ikirun , and Ede . All of these cities already had sizable Muslim communities before the 19th century Sokoto jihad. Medieval Yoruba settlements were surrounded with massive mud walls. Yoruba buildings had similar plans to the Ashanti shrines, but with verandahs around the court. The wall materials comprised puddled mud and palm oil while roofing materials ranged from thatches to corrugated iron sheets. A famous Yoruba fortification,
30798-467: Was initiated by Venn, the CMS Secretary. Nevertheless, the impact of Christianity in Yorubaland was not felt until the fourth decade of the 19th century, when a Yoruba slave boy, Samuel Ajayi Crowther, became a Christian convert, linguist and minister whose knowledge in languages would become a major tool and instrument to propagate Christianity in Yorubaland and beyond. Islam came into Yorubaland around
30975-466: Was more limited. In more recent decades, Lagos has risen to be the most prominent city of the Yoruba people and Yoruba cultural and economic influence. Noteworthy among the developments of Lagos were uniquely styled architecture introduced by returning Yoruba communities from Brazil and Cuba known as Amaros/Agudas . Yoruba settlements are often described as primarily one or more of the main social groupings called "generations": The Yoruba culture
31152-413: Was open to the election of any free-born male citizen. In Ilesa , Ondo , Akure and other Yoruba communities, there were several, but comparatively rare, traditions of female Ọbas . The kings were traditionally almost always polygamous and often married royal family members from other domains, thereby creating useful alliances with other rulers. Ibadan, a city-state and proto-empire that was founded in
31329-497: Was originally an oral tradition , and the majority of Yoruba people are native speakers of the Yoruba language . The number of speakers was estimated to be about 30 million as of 2010. Yoruba is classified within the Edekiri languages , and together with the isolate Igala , form the Yoruboid group of languages within what we now have as West Africa. Igala and Yoruba have important historical and cultural relationships. The languages of
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