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65-578: Sankyū's main goal was to build a portion of a railway to Ujiyamada (now Ise ) which is home to Ise Grand Shrine , the holiest Shinto shrine in Japan and a common pilgrimage destination. The word "Sangū" is a kanji abbreviation of a phrase in Japanese that roughly translates to "a pilgrimage to Ise Grand Shrine". Sankyū's line connected with a line originating in Osaka owned by its parent company, Daiki, and together

130-542: A mayor-council form of government with a directly elected mayor and a unicameral city council of 28 members. Ise contributes four members to the Mie Prefectural Assembly. In terms of national politics, the city is part of Mie 4th district of the lower house of the Diet of Japan . Ise has 23 public elementary schools and ten public middle schools operated by the city government and six public high schools operated by

195-400: A State Shinto position without the direct control of the state. The extent to which Emperor worship was supported by the population is unclear, though scholars such as Ashizu Uzuhiko, Sakamoto Koremaru, and Nitta Hitoshi argue that the government's funding and control of shrines was never adequate enough to justify a claim to the existence of a State Shinto. The extent of popular support for

260-489: A foreign threat. The state was challenged to establish a suprareligious interpretation of Shinto that incorporated, and promoted, the Emperor's divine lineage. By establishing Shinto as a unique form of "suprareligious" cultural practice, it would be exempted from Meiji laws protecting freedom of religion. The "State Shinto" ideology presented Shinto as something beyond religion, "a unity of government and teaching ... not

325-617: A long-standing title – Shinto (神都) – that roughly means "the Holy City", and literally means "the Capital of the Kami ". As of 31 July 2021 , the city had an estimated population of 123,533 in 55,911 households and a population density of 590 people per km². The total area of the city is 208.53 square kilometres (80.51 sq mi). Ise is located on the northern half of Shima Peninsula in far eastern Mie Prefecture. The northern part of

390-420: A major re-routing on part of the line to connect it with its own tracks at Ise-Nakagawa Station . Small local line acquired from Iseden Ise, Mie Ise ( Japanese : 伊勢市 , Hepburn : Ise-shi ) , formerly called Ujiyamada (宇治山田), is a city in central Mie Prefecture , on the island of Honshū , Japan . Ise is home to Ise Grand Shrine , the most sacred Shintō shrine in Japan. The city has

455-565: A major tutelary shrine in Tokyo. Nonetheless, this concept of Shinto as a "National Learning" failed to take hold in most popular conceptions of Shinto. The Bureau of Shinto Affairs attempted to standardize the training of priests in 1875. This created a division between state actors and local priests, who disagreed over the content of that standardized training. This debate concerned which kami, or spirits, to include in rituals— particularly, whether state kami should be included. This debate marked

520-434: A network of shrines dedicated to soldiers killed in battle. These assignments had no connection to the history of these local shrines, which led to resentment. In contemporary times, the shrine has become a controversial symbol for Japanese nationalists . While many citizens of various political persuasions visit the site to honor relatives killed in battle, whose kami (spirits) are said to be enshrined there, so too are

585-401: A non-religious national cult." The "State Shinto" term was thus used to categorize and abolish Imperial Japanese practices that relied on Shinto to support nationalistic ideology. By declining to ban Shinto practices outright, Japan's post-war constitution was able to preserve full freedom of religion. The definition of State Shinto requires distinction from the term "Shinto," which

650-399: A patriotic moral tradition. From the early Meiji era, the divine origin of the Emperor was the official position of the state, and taught in classrooms not as myth, but as historical fact. Shinto priests were hired to teach in public schools, and cultivated this teaching, alongside reverence for the Emperor and compulsory class trips to shrines. State Shinto practitioners also emphasized

715-502: A religion." Rather than a religious practice, Shinto was understood as a form of education, which "consists of the traditions of the imperial house , beginning in the age of gods and continuing through history." Scholars, such as Sakamoto Koremaru, argue that the "State Shinto" system existed only between 1900 and 1945, corresponding to the state's creation of the Bureau of Shrines . That bureau distinguished Shinto from religions managed by

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780-481: A rising patriotic fervor, is believed by some to have seeded an environment in which grassroots Emperor worship was possible, even without financial support for local shrines. In 1913, official rules for Shrine priests — Kankokuheisha ika jinja shinshoku hömu kisoku ( 官国幣社以下神社神 職奉務規則 ) — specifically called upon "a duty to observe festivals conforming to the rituals of the state." Some shrines did adopt State Shinto practice independent of financial support from

845-532: A standardized national practice, which they argued would unify Japan in support of the Emperor. The state responded by passing the Kami and Buddhas Separation Order ( 神仏判然令 , Shinbutsu Hanzenrei ) in 1868 and pursuing a policy of Haibutsu kishaku to remove Buddhist influence and re-establishing direct imperial control of the Department of Divinity ("jingikan") in 1869. This government bureaucracy encouraged

910-505: Is 15.6 °C (60.1 °F). The average annual rainfall is 1,870.8 mm (73.65 in), with September as the wettest month. The temperatures are highest on average in August, at around 27.2 °C (81.0 °F), and lowest in January, at around 4.8 °C (40.6 °F). Per Japanese census data, the population of Ise has remained relatively steady over the past 50 years. Ise's history

975-647: Is directly linked to that of Ise Grand Shrine. Ise Grand Shrine is separated into two main parts: The Inner Shrine and the Outer Shrine. Despite the names, these are actually two physically separate shrines approximately six kilometers apart. Ise began with small settlements that had sprung up around the two shrines. During the Edo period , Ise was a major destination for pilgrimages which were called "o-Ise-mairi" (literally, "Coming to Ise") and thus, these settlements grew larger and developed into small villages. The village around

1040-561: Is in front of the JR exit of Iseshi Station. Sanco used to manage a tram service around Ise, in particular a line called the "Shinto Line" that ran from Iseshi Station to the Inner Shrine. It was closed in 1961 and was replaced by buses. Ise has a direct ferry link to Central Japan International Airport . [REDACTED] Media related to Ise, Mie at Wikimedia Commons State Shinto State Shintō ( 国家神道 or 國家神道 , Kokka Shintō )

1105-491: Is teaching the codes of national government to the people without error. Japan is called the divine land because it is ruled by the heavenly deities' descendants, who consolidate the work of the deities. The Way of such consolidation and rule by divine descendants is called Shinto. Signatories of the statement included Shinto leaders, practitioners and scholars such as Tanaka Yoritsune, chief priest of Ise shrine ; Motoori Toyokai, head of Kanda shrine ; and Hirayama Seisai, head of

1170-612: Is well-known, there is debate over how much control the government had over local shrines and for how long. Shrine finances were not purely state-supported. Shinto priests, even when state-supported, had tended to avoid preaching on ideological matters until the establishment of the Institute of Divinities in 1940. In 1906, the government issued a policy to limit its financial support to one shrine per village. This state supported shrines that followed its specific guidelines for funding, and encouraged unfunded shrines to become partners with

1235-418: The Bureau of Shrines and Temples , which became the Bureau of Religions . Separated through this state bureaucracy, Shinto was distinguished from Buddhist temples and Christian churches, which were formulated as religious. This marked the start of the state's official designation of Shinto shrines as " suprareligious " or "non-religious". State Shinto was thus not recognized as a "state religion" during

1300-515: The Institute of Divinities , had previously sought public office, which some scholars, such as Sakamoto, suggest is evidence of the state's use of Shinto to its own ends, rather than the Shinto priest's attempt to achieve political power. Scholar Katsurajima Nobuhiro suggests the "suprareligious" frame on State Shinto practices drew upon the state's previous failures to consolidate religious Shinto for state purposes. Kokugaku ("National Learning")

1365-567: The Meiji Constitution . Imperial scholars believed Shinto reflected the historical fact of the Emperor's divine origins rather than a religious belief, and argued that it should enjoy a privileged relationship with the Japanese state. The government argued that Shinto was a non-religious moral tradition and patriotic practice, to give the impression that they supported religious freedom . Though early Meiji-era attempts to unite Shinto and

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1430-657: The Meiji era (1868–1912), though the Chronicles of Japan ( 日本書紀 , Nihon Shoki ) first referenced the term in the eighth century. Shinto has no fixed doctrines or founder, but draws instead from creation myths described in books such as the Kojiki . The December 15, 1945 " Shinto Directive " of the United States General Headquarters introduced the "State Shinto" distinction when it began governing Japan after

1495-493: The national ideology during the Meiji period starting in 1868. It is often described as any state-supported, Shinto-inspired ideology or practice intended to inspire national integration, unity, and loyalty. State Shinto is also understood to refer to the state rituals and ideology of Emperor-worship , which was not a traditional emphasis of Shinto — of the 124 Japanese emperors , only 20 have dedicated shrines. "State Shinto"

1560-579: The 1877 Satsuma Rebellion , the Emperor had 6,959 souls of war dead enshrined at Tōkyō Shōkonsha. In 1879, the shrine was renamed Yasukuni Jinja. The name Yasukuni , quoted from the phrase「 吾以靖國也 in the classical-era Chinese text Zuo Zhuan (Scroll 6, 23rd Year of Duke Xi), literally means "Pacifying the Nation" and was chosen by the Meiji Emperor . Around this time, the state began to assign shrines with meanings rooted in patriotic nationalism; including

1625-498: The 2600th anniversary of the foundation of the Japanese empire. The significance of the Ise Grand Shrine to State Shinto made Ujiyamada a target for six air raids during World War II , the largest of which was on July 28, 1945 when 93 Twentieth Air Force Boeing B-29 Superfortress bombers dropped incendiaries, burning 39% of the city. On January 1, 1955 Ujiyamada absorbed the villages of Toyohama, Kitahama, Shigō and Kida and

1690-543: The 68 approved places of worship, 38 were constructed between 1937 and 1943. Schools and organizations were ordered to worship there. In Manchuria , The Japanese conducted scholarly research on the local folk religion and built 366 Shrines, although without trying to impose Shinto on the native populations as it was the case in Korea and Taiwan, as the Manchurian State was conceived as a spiritually autonomous nation. while in

1755-661: The Emperor and rites involving the Emperor's portrait. In 1926, the government organized the Shūkyō Seido Chōsakai ( 宗教制度調査会 , Religious System Investigative Committee) and then the Jinja Seido Chōsakai ( 神社制度調査会 , Shrine System Investigative Committee) , which further established the suprareligious "Shintogaku" ideology. To protect this non-religious distinction, practices which did not align with state functions were increasingly prohibited. This included preaching at shrines and conducting funerals. The use of

1820-841: The Hokoku Shrine in Java and the Yorioka Shrine in Sarawak . The Japanese built almost 400 shrines in occupied Korea , and worship was mandatory for Koreans. A statement from the head of the Home Office in Korea wrote about the shrines in a directive: "…they have an existence totally distinct from religion, and worship at the shrines is an act of patriotism and loyalty, the basic moral virtues of our nation." By 1937, more than 500,000 Jingu Taima shrines had been set up across households in Taiwan . Out of

1885-504: The Inner Shrine was named Uji, and the village around the Outer Shrine was named Yamada . Because of the religious importance of Ise Grand Shrine, the Tokugawa shogunate during the Edo period viewed the area as politically significant and installed a magistrate in Yamada. During the Meiji period , these two villages were merged with the establishment of the modern municipal system to form

1950-493: The Meiji era. Instead, State Shinto is considered an appropriation of traditional Shinto through state financial support for ideologically aligned shrines . State Shinto combined political activism and religious thought to take actions thought by its adherents to bring the country together during and after the nadir of Japanese feudalism . The Empire of Japan endeavored, through education initiatives and specific financial support for new shrines, to frame Shinto practice as

2015-522: The Meiji restoration. " Religion " was understood to encompass a series of beliefs about faith and the afterlife, but also closely associated with Western power. The Meiji restoration had re-established the Emperor , a "religious" figure, as the head of the Japanese state. Religious freedom was initially a response to demands of Western governments. Japan had allowed Christian missionaries under pressure from Western governments, but viewed Christianity as

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2080-651: The Mie Prefectural Department of Education. The city also has one private middle school and four private high schools. The Shinto -affiliated Kogakkan University is located in Ise. Ise is easily accessible by rail due to the popularity of Ise Grand Shrine as a tourist attraction. Kintetsu offers direct service to Ise from Kyoto , Osaka and Nagoya in the form of regular express trains (once or twice an hour) and limited express trains (usually twice an hour). The ride from Osaka takes about 135 minutes (105 minutes on

2145-526: The Ministry stopped financial support for most shrines, aside from select Imperial shrines tied to state functions. In 1869 Yasukuni Shrine was first built under the name Tōkyō Shōkonsha ( 東京招魂社 , "shrine to summon the souls" ) . It was originally not used often. For example in the 1874 Japanese invasion of Taiwan in which only 12 people were enshrined in Yasukuni Shrine . However following

2210-701: The Second World War, Shinto shrines were built across Southeast Asia as Japan expanded southwards. Countries such as the Philippines, Singapore, Malaya , and Indonesia witnessed the presence of Shinto shrines due to the imposition of State Shinto. In Indonesia alone, 11 shrines were constructed. Infamously was Chinnan Shrine in Malang , Java , which stood as the southernmost Shinto shrine in Asia and Hirohara Shrine in Medan, being

2275-415: The Second World War. The Shinto Directive (officially the "Abolition of Governmental Sponsorship, Support, Perpetuation, Control and Dissemination of State Shinto") defined State Shinto as "that branch of Shinto ( Kokka Shinto or Jinja Shinto ) which, by official acts of the Japanese government, has been differentiated from the religion of Sect Shinto ( Shuha Shinto or Kyoha Shinto ) and has been classified

2340-474: The actions categorized as "State Shinto" is the subject of debate. Some contemporary Shinto authorities reject the concept of State Shinto, and seek to restore elements of the practice, such as naming time periods after the Emperor. This view often sees "State Shinto" purely as an invention of the United States' "Shinto Directive." "Religious" practice, in its Western sense, was unknown in Japan prior to

2405-479: The city is flat land and faces Ise Bay on the Pacific Ocean. In the south, the land rises to form hills and mountains with an elevation of 100 to 500 meters. Most of the city is within the geographic limits of Ise-Shima National Park . Mie Prefecture Ise has a Humid subtropical climate (Köppen Cfa ) characterized by warm summers and cool winters with light to no snowfall. The average annual temperature in Ise

2470-556: The divinity of the Emperor Hirohito or shrine priests could face persecution. Some intellectuals at the time, such as Yanagita Kunio, were critics of Imperial Japan's argument at the time that Shinto was not religious. In 1936, the Catholic Church's Propaganda Fide agreed with the state definition, and announced that visits to shrines had "only a purely civil value". Though the government's ideological interest in Shinto

2535-625: The easternmost shrine in the Japanese Empire. There were seven shrines built in the Mariana Islands , while other shrines were built on the more remote islands of Kosrae , Truk , Ponape , Yap and Lamotrek . The largest shrine in the mandate territories was the Nan'yō Shrine in Palau , with its significant Japanese population . It was located on the outskirts of Koror and dedicated in 1940. During

2600-878: The government. Several Shrine Associations advocated for support of "State Shinto" directives independently, including the Shrine Administration Organization, the Shrine Priest Collaboration Organization, and the Shrine Priest Training Organization. In 1940, the state created the Institute of Divinities , which expanded control over state shrines and expanded the state's role. Up to that point, individual priests had been limited in their political roles, delegated to certain rituals and shrine upkeep, and rarely encouraged Emperor worship, or other aspects of state ideology, independently. No shrine priest, or member of

2665-441: The idea. Author Fukuzawa Yukichi dismissed the campaign at the time as an "insignificant movement." Despite its failure, Atsutane's nativist interpretation of Shinto would encourage a later scholar, Ōkuni Takamasa  [ ja ] . Takamasa advocated control and standardization of Shinto practice through the " Department of Divinity ." These activists urged leaders to consolidate diverse, localized Shinto practices into

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2730-504: The influence of Buddhism and distill a nativist form of Shinto. From 1868 to 1884, the disciples of Atsutane, along with other priests and scholars, lead a "Great Promulgation Campaign" advocating a fusion of nationalism and Shinto through worship of the Emperor. There had been no tradition of absolute obedience to the Emperor in Shinto since the early state-formation period, prior to the introduction of Buddhism. This initiative failed to attract public support, and intellectuals dismissed

2795-445: The kami of several class-A war criminals . These criminals were enshrined in a secret ceremony in 1978, which has raised the ire of Japanese pacifists and the international community. No Emperor has visited the shrine since, and visits by prime ministers and government officials to the shrine have been the subject of lawsuits and media controversy. As the Japanese extended their territorial holdings, shrines were constructed with

2860-582: The larger shrines. As a result of this initiative to consolidate Shinto beliefs into state-approved practices, Japan's 200,000 shrines had been reduced to 120,000 by 1914, consolidating control to shrines favorable to the state interpretation of Shinto. In 1910, graduates of state-run Shinto schools, such as Kokugakuin University and Kougakkan University , were implicitly allowed to become public school teachers. A greater number of better-trained priests with educations at state-supported schools, combined with

2925-506: The limited express), the ride from Nagoya takes about 100 minutes (85 minutes on the limited express). JR Central , offers direct service to Ise from Nagoya once an hour on the Mie Rapid , which takes about 90 minutes. [REDACTED] Kintetsu Railway - Yamada Line [REDACTED] Kintetsu Railway - Toba Line [REDACTED] JR Tōkai - Sangū Line Sanco operates a number of buses to and through Ise. The main bus hub in town

2990-461: The main JR station in town, Yamada Station, to Iseshi Station . Some things were never renamed, such as Ujiyamada Station , Ise's largest train station, and Ujiyamada High School, Ise's first high school. On September 26, 1959: The Ise-wan Typhoon , Japan's strongest-recorded typhoon, hit Ise and surrounding areas. On November 1, 2005: Ise absorbed the towns of Futami and Obata and the village of Misono (all from Watarai District ). Ise has

3055-899: The purpose of hosting Japanese kami in occupied lands. This practice began with Naminoue Shrine in Okinawa in 1890. Major shrines built across Asia included Karafuto Shrine in Sakhalin in 1910 and Chosen Shrine , Korea , in 1919; these shrines were designated just under Ise Shrine in national importance. Other shrines included Shonan Shrine in Singapore , San'a Shrine in Hainan Island ( China ), Nankai Shrine in Hong Kong , Japanese Shrine in Kolonia , Federated States of Micronesia , Akatsuki Shrine in Saigon ,

3120-571: The rest of the Chinese territory occupied by the Japanese, it is estimated that there are at least 51 shrines. At least fifteen State Shinto shrines were established in the South Seas Mandate in the late 1920s and early 1930s. Shinto was primarily practised by Japanese settlers, but also by indigenous populations. The shrine at Jabor on Jaluit Atoll in the Marshall Islands was reportedly

3185-467: The return of the Department of Divinities in 1874, a group of Shinto priests issued a collective statement calling Shinto a "National Teaching." That statement advocated for understanding Shinto as distinct from religions. Shinto, they argued, was a preservation of the traditions of the Imperial house and therefore represented the purest form of Japanese state rites. These scholars wrote, National Teaching

3250-457: The rise of the Ise sect, which was open to a stronger state presence in Shinto, and the Izumo sect, which was not. The Izumo sect advocated for recognition of the god Ōkuninushi as an equal to Amaterasu, which had theological consequences for emperor-worship. This debate, the "enshrinement debate", posed a serious ideological threat to the Meiji era government. A result of the enshrinement debate

3315-557: The ritual aspect as a traditional civic practice that did not explicitly call on faith to participate. By balancing a "suprareligious" understanding of Shinto as the source of divinity for both Japan and the Emperor, the state was able to compel participation in rituals from Japanese subjects while claiming to respect their freedom of religion. The state was thus able to enshrine its place in civic society in ways religions could not. This included teaching its ideological strand of Shinto in public schools, including ceremonial recitations to

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3380-669: The segregation of Kami spirits from Buddhist ones, and emphasized the divine lineage of the Emperor from the Sun Goddess, Amaterasu . This action sought to reverse what had been a blending of Buddhist and Shinto practices in Japan. That department was unsuccessful, and demoted to the Ministry of Divinities . In 1872, policy for shrines and other religions was taken over by the Ministry of Religion . The Ministry intended to standardize rituals across shrines, and saw some small success, but fell short of its original intent. In calling for

3445-438: The state failed, this non-religious concept of ideological Shinto was incorporated into state bureaucracy. Shrines were defined as patriotic, not religious, institutions, which served state purposes such as honoring the war dead; this is known as Secular Shrine Theory . The state also integrated local shrines into political functions, occasionally spurring local opposition and resentment. With fewer shrines financed by

3510-416: The state, nearly 80,000 closed or merged with neighbors. Many shrines and shrine organizations began to independently embrace these state directives, regardless of funding. By 1940, Shinto priests risked persecution for performing traditionally "religious" Shinto ceremonies. Imperial Japan did not draw a distinction between ideological Shinto and traditional Shinto. US military leaders introduced

3575-441: The symbolic torii gate was restricted to government-supported shrines. As religious rituals without state functions were restricted, practitioners were driven underground and frequently arrested. Alternative Shinto movements, such as Omotokyo , were hampered by the imprisonment of its priests in 1921. The status of separation of so-called "State Shinto" shrines changed in 1931; from that point, shrines were pressured to focus on

3640-511: The term "State Shinto" to differentiate the state's ideology from traditional Shinto practices in the 1945 Shinto Directive . That decree established Shinto as a religion, and banned further ideological uses of Shinto by the state. Controversy continues to surround the use of Shinto symbols in state functions. Shinto is a blend of indigenous Japanese folk practices, beliefs, court manners, and spirit-worship which dates back to at least 600 CE. These beliefs were unified as "Shinto" during

3705-469: The town of Ujiyamada. The town was upgraded to city status on September 1, 1906. In 1909, the forerunner to the JNR connected Ujiyamada by train, followed by the forerunner of Kintetsu Railway in 1930. These lines were responsible for a large increase in pilgrims and tourists visiting Ise Grand Shrine, peaking with an estimated eight million visitors in the year 1940, per government-sponsored ceremonies celebrating

3770-409: The two offered direct rail service from Osaka to Ujiyamada on a line that was much more direct than that of its main rival, Kokutetsu . When Sankyū acquired Iseden, it then set its eyes on a direct connection between Osaka and Nagoya . Sankyū only built one train line which served as the second half of a railway linking Osaka and Ise Grand Shrine. Sankyū acquired this line from Iseden and performed

3835-406: Was Imperial Japan 's ideological use of the Japanese folk religion and traditions of Shinto . The state exercised control of shrine finances and training regimes for priests to strongly encourage Shinto practices that emphasized the Emperor as a divine being . The State Shinto ideology emerged at the start of the Meiji era , after government officials defined freedom of religion within

3900-605: Was a matter of personal faith and subject to freedom of religion. This debate marked an early failure in crafting of a unified national Shinto practice, and led to a sharp decline in both state grants to Shinto shrines and to the appointment of Shinto priests to government positions. This was the beginning of Secular Shrine Theory which explained the obligations unrelated to belief, and segregation Sect Shinto or groups based on beliefs. . The Ministry of Home Affairs took responsibility for shrines in 1877, and began to separate Shinto religious practices from indoctrination. In 1887,

3965-414: Was an early attempt to develop ideological interpretations of Shinto, many of which would later form the basis of "State Shinto" ideology. Kokugaku was an Edo-period educational philosophy which sought a "pure" form of Japanese Shinto, stripped of foreign influences — particularly Buddhism. In the Meiji era, scholar Hirata Atsutane advocated for a return to " National Learning " as a way to eliminate

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4030-541: Was not an official designation for any practice or belief in Imperial Japan during this period. Instead, it was developed at the end of the war to describe the mixture of state support for non-religious shrine activities and immersive ideological support for the Kokutai ("National Body/Structure") policy in education, including the training of all shrine priests. This permitted a form of traditional religious Shinto to reflect

4095-697: Was one aspect of a set of nationalist symbols integrated into the State Shinto ideology. Though some scholars, such as Woodard and Holtom, and the Shinto Directive itself, use the terms "Shrine Shinto" and "State Shinto" interchangeably, most contemporary scholars use the term "Shrine Shinto" to refer to the majority of Shinto shrines which were outside of State Shinto influence, leaving "State Shinto" to refer to shrines and practices deliberately intended to reflect state ideology. Most generally, State Shinto refers to any use of Shinto practices incorporated into

4160-536: Was renamed Ise City. The reason for this change is to avoid naming confusion with the later-formed cities of Uji in Kyōto Prefecture and the city of Yamada (now the city of Kama ) in Fukuoka Prefecture . The name "Ise" was chosen because it was already recognized throughout Japan due to Ise Grand Shrine. However, the renaming phase took some time around the city. For example, it took four years to rename

4225-457: Was that the Ministry of the Interior concentrated on distinctions of "religion" and "doctrine", stating that "Shinto rituals ( shinsai ) are performed by the state whereas religious doctrines ( kyōhō ) are to be followed by individuals and families." Through this logic, Shinto rituals were a civic responsibility which all Japanese subjects were expected to participate in, whereas "religious" Shinto

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