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53-439: Primary and junior level secondary education are available in town. The majority 80% of the population of the commune are farmers. The most important crop is cloves , while other important products are coffee , rice and vanilla . Services provide employment for 20% of the population. 16°20′S 49°37′E  /  16.333°S 49.617°E  / -16.333; 49.617 This Analanjirofo location article

106-652: A boron -based wood preservative. Cloves can be used to make a fragrant pomander when combined with an orange. When given as a gift in Victorian England, such a pomander indicated warmth of feeling. The use of clove for any medicinal purpose has not been approved by the US Food and Drug Administration , and its use may cause adverse effects if taken orally by people with liver disease , blood clotting and immune system disorders, or food allergies . Cloves are used in traditional medicine as an essential oil , which

159-579: A common element in spice blends (as part of the Malay rempah empat beradik –"four sibling spices"– besides cinnamon, cardamom and star anise for example ), including pumpkin pie spice and speculaas spices. In Mexican cuisine , cloves are best known as clavos de olor , and often accompany cumin and cinnamon . They are also used in Peruvian cuisine, in a wide variety of dishes such as carapulcra and arroz con leche . A major component of clove's taste

212-598: A long calyx that terminates in four spreading sepals , and four unopened petals that form a small central ball. Clove stalks are slender stems of the inflorescence axis that show opposite decussate branching. Externally, they are brownish, rough, and irregularly wrinkled longitudinally with short fracture and dry, woody texture. Mother cloves (anthophylli) are the ripe fruits of cloves that are ovoid, brown berries, unilocular and one-seeded. Blown cloves are expanded flowers from which both corollae and stamens have been detached. Exhausted cloves have most or all

265-409: A sowing density of 12–15 kilograms per hectare (11–13 lb/acre) is recommended. Fertile, sandy, loamy soils with good aeration, proper drainage, and high oxygen availability are preferred. The pH optimum of the soil ranges from 6.8 to 8.3. Cumin seedlings are sensitive to salinity and emergence from heavy soils is rather difficult. Therefore, a proper seedbed preparation (smooth bed) is crucial for

318-410: Is 1–2 cm and the recommended sowing density is around 120 plants per m . The water requirements of cumin are lower than those of many other species. Despite this, cumin is often irrigated after sowing to be sure that enough moisture is available for seedling development. The amount and frequency of irrigation depends on the climate conditions. The relative humidity in the center of origin of cumin

371-483: Is 20–30 cm (8–12 in) tall and has a diameter of 3–5 cm ( 1 + 1 ⁄ 4 –2 in). Each branch has two to three sub-branches. All the branches attain the same height, so the plant has a uniform canopy. The stem is colored grey or dark green. The leaves are 5–10 cm (2–4 in) long, pinnate or bipinnate , with thread-like leaflets. The flowers are small, white or pink, and borne in umbels . Each umbel has five to seven umbellets. The fruit

424-513: Is a flowering plant in the family Apiaceae , native to the Irano-Turanian Region . Its seeds – each one contained within a fruit, which is dried – are used in the cuisines of many cultures in both whole and ground form. Although cumin is used in traditional medicine , there is no high-quality evidence that it is safe or effective as a therapeutic agent . The term comes via Middle English comyn , from Old English cymen (which

477-596: Is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Clove Cloves are the aromatic flower buds of a tree in the family Myrtaceae , Syzygium aromaticum ( / s ɪ ˈ z ɪ dʒ iː ə m ˌ ær ə ˈ m æ t ɪ k ə m / ). They are native to the Maluku Islands , or Moluccas, in Indonesia , and are commonly used as a spice , flavoring , or fragrance in consumer products , such as toothpaste , soaps, or cosmetics . Cloves are available throughout

530-409: Is a lateral fusiform or ovoid achene 4–5 mm ( 1 ⁄ 6 – 1 ⁄ 5  in) long, containing two mericarps with a single seed . Cumin seeds have eight ridges with oil canals. They resemble caraway seeds, being oblong in shape, longitudinally ridged, and yellow-brown in color, like other members of the family Apiaceae ( Umbelliferae ) such as caraway, parsley, and dill . Cumin

583-684: Is cognate with Old High German kumin ) and Old French cummin, both from the Latin term cuminum . This in turn comes from the Ancient Greek κύμινον ( kúminon ), a Semitic borrowing related to Hebrew כמון ‎ ( kammōn ) and Arabic كمون ‎ ( kammūn ). All of these ultimately derive from Akkadian 𒂵𒈬𒉡 ( kamūnu ). The English word is traditionally pronounced / ˈ k ʌ m ɪ n / ( KUM -in ), like "coming" with an ⟨n⟩ instead of ⟨ng⟩ (/ŋ/). American lexicographer Grant Barrett notes that this pronunciation now

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636-458: Is cultivated in three separate ways, a monoculture , agricultural parklands, and agroforestry systems. Archaeologist Giorgio Buccellati found cloves in Terqa , Syria, in a burned-down house which was dated to 1720 BC during the kingdom of Khana . This was the first evidence of cloves being used in the west before Roman times. The discovery was first reported in 1978. They reached Rome by

689-482: Is imparted by the chemical eugenol , and the quantity of the spice required is typically small. It pairs well with cinnamon, allspice , vanilla , red wine , basil , onion , citrus peel , star anise , and peppercorns . It is often added to betel quids to enhance aroma while chewing. The spice is used in a type of cigarette called kretek in Indonesia. Clove cigarettes were smoked throughout Europe, Asia, and

742-492: Is more severe on young inflorescences. The open canopy of cumin is another problem. Only a low proportion of the incoming light is absorbed. The leaf area index of cumin is low (about 1.5). This might be a problem because weeds can compete with cumin for essential resources such as water and light and thereby lower yield. The slow growth and the short stature of cumin favors weed competition additionally. Two hoeing and weeding sessions (30 and 60 days after sowing) are needed for

795-457: Is no scientific evidence for any use as a drug or medicine. Cuminaldehyde , cymene , and terpenoids are the major volatile components of cumin oil, which is used for a variety of flavors , perfumes , and essential oil . Cumin oil may be used as an ingredient in some cosmetics . Cumin's flavor and warm aroma are due to its essential oil content, primarily the aroma compound cuminaldehyde . Other aroma compounds of toasted cumin are

848-708: Is often combined with coriander seeds in a powdered mixture called dhana jeera . Cumin can be used ground or as whole seeds. It imparts an earthy, warming and aromatic character to food, making it a staple in certain stews and soups, as well as spiced gravies such as curry and chili. It is also used as an ingredient in some pickles and pastries. In India, the seeds are powdered and used in different forms such as kashaya (decoction), arishta (fermented decoction), and vati (tablet/pills), and processed with ghee (a semifluid clarified butter). In traditional medicine practices of several countries, dried cumin seeds are believed to have medicinal purposes, although there

901-407: Is often present in a root canal treatment failure. Studies to determine its effectiveness for fever reduction, as a mosquito repellent, and to prevent premature ejaculation have been inconclusive. It remains unproven whether blood sugar levels are reduced by cloves or clove oil. The essential oil may be used in aromatherapy . Until the colonial era , cloves only grew on a few islands in

954-450: Is often used as part of bird food and exported to many countries, the plant can occur as an introduced species in many territories. India is the world's largest producer of cumin, accounting for about 70%. The other major cumin-producing countries are Syria (13%), Turkey (5%), UAE (3%), and Iran . India produced 856,000 tons of cumin seed in the 2020–2021 fiscal year. Cumin is a drought-tolerant tropical or subtropical crop. It

1007-435: Is rarely used, replaced in the late 20th century by hyperforeignized / ˈ k juː m ɪ n / ( KYOO -min ) and / ˈ k uː m ɪ n / ( KOO -min ). Cumin is the dried seed of the herb Cuminum cyminum , a member of the parsley family . The cumin plant grows to 30–50 cm (12–20 in) tall and is harvested by hand. It is an annual herbaceous plant , with a slender, glabrous , branched stem that

1060-524: Is rather low. High relative humidity (i.e. wet years) favors fungal diseases. Cumin is especially sensitive to Alternaria blight and Fusarium wilt. Early-sown crops exhibit stronger disease effects than late-sown crops. The most important disease is Fusarium wilt, resulting in yield losses up to 80%. Fusarium is seed- or soil-borne and it requires distinct soil temperatures for the development of epidemics. Inadequate fertilization might favor Fusarium epidemics. Cumin blight ( Alternaria ) appears in

1113-485: Is scarce. Cumin seed is used as a spice for its distinctive flavor and aroma. Cumin can be found in some cheeses, such as Leyden cheese , and in some traditional breads from France. Cumin can be an ingredient in chili powder (often Tex-Mex or Mexican-style) and is found in achiote blends, adobos , sofrito , garam masala , curry powder , and bahaarat , and is used to flavor numerous commercial food products. In Indian and other South Asian cuisine, it

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1166-407: Is sometimes confused with caraway ( Carum carvi ), another spice in the parsley family ( Apiaceae ). Many European and Asian languages do not distinguish clearly between the two; for example, in Indonesia both are called jinten . Many Slavic and Uralic languages refer to cumin as " Roman caraway" or "spice caraway". The distantly related Bunium persicum and Bunium bulbocastanum and

1219-580: Is sown from October until the beginning of December, and harvesting starts in February. In Syria and Iran, cumin is sown from mid-November until mid-December (extensions up to mid-January are possible) and harvested in June/July. The three noteworthy sorts of cumin seeds in the market vary in seed shading, amount of oil, and flavor. Cumin is grown from seeds. The seeds need 2 to 5 °C (36 to 41 °F) for emergence, an optimum of 20–30 °C (68–86 °F)

1272-459: Is suggested. Cumin is vulnerable to frost damage, especially at flowering and early seed formation stages. Methods to reduce frost damage are spraying with sulfuric acid (0.1%), irrigating the crop prior to frost incidence, setting up windbreaks , or creating an early-morning smoke cover. The seedlings of cumin are rather small and their vigor is low. Soaking the seeds for 8 hours before sowing enhances germination. For an optimal plant population,

1325-411: Is used as an anodyne ( analgesic ) mainly for dental emergencies and other disorders. There is evidence that clove oil containing eugenol is effective for toothache pain and other types of pain, and one review reported the efficacy of eugenol combined with zinc oxide as an analgesic for alveolar osteitis . Clove essential oil may prevent the growth of Enterococcus faecalis bacteria which

1378-448: Is vulnerable to frost and has a growth season of 120 frost-free days. The optimum growth temperature ranges are between 25 and 30 °C (77 and 86 °F). The Mediterranean climate is most suitable for its growth. Cultivation of cumin requires a long, hot summer of three to four months. At low temperatures, the leaf color changes from green to purple. High temperatures might reduce growth period and induce early ripening. In India, cumin

1431-700: The Moluccas (historically called the Spice Islands ), including Bacan , Makian , Moti , Ternate , and Tidore . Cloves were first traded by the Austronesian peoples in the Austronesian maritime trade network (which began around 1500 BC, later becoming the Maritime Silk Road and part of the Spice Trade ). The first notable example of modern clove farming developed on the east coast of Madagascar , and

1484-882: The Yuan dynasty (1271 to 1368 AD) Chinese merchants began sending ships directly to the Moluccas to trade for cloves, and other spices. In the Western Classical literature cloves are mentioned by Pliny the Elders' Natural History . Dioscorides mentions cloves in his book De materia medica . The Liber Pontifcalis records an endowment made by Passinopolis under Pope Sylvester I . This endowment included an Egyptian estate, its annual revenues, 150 libra (around 50 kg or 108 lb) of cloves, and other amounts of spices and papyrus. Cosmas Indicopleustis in his book Topographia Christiana outlined his travels to Sri Lanka, and recounted that

1537-546: The flavonoids eugenin , kaempferol , rhamnetin , and eugenitin , tri terpenoids such as oleanolic acid , stigmasterol , and campesterol and several sesquiterpenes . Although eugenol has not been classified for its potential toxicity , it was shown to be toxic to test organisms in concentrations of 50, 75, and 100 mg per liter. Cumin Cumin ( / ˈ k ʌ m ɪ n / , / ˈ k juː m ɪ n / ; US also / ˈ k uː m ɪ n / ; Cuminum cyminum )

1590-489: The Greek karyophyllon "clove", literally "nut leaf". The clove tree is an evergreen that grows up to 8–12 metres (26–39 ft) tall, with large leaves and crimson flowers grouped in terminal clusters. The flower buds initially have a pale hue, gradually turn green, then transition to a bright red when ready for harvest. Cloves are harvested at 1.5–2 centimetres ( 5 ⁄ 8 – 3 ⁄ 4  in) long, and consist of

1643-869: The Indians said that cloves, among other products, came in from unspecified places along sea trade routes. Cloves were also present in records in China , Sri Lanka , Southern India , Persia , and Oman by around the third century to second century BC. These mentions of "cloves" reported in China, South Asia, and the Middle East come from before the establishment of Southeast Asian maritime trade. But all of these are misidentifications that referred to other plants (like cassia buds, cinnamon , or nutmeg ); or are imports from Maritime Southeast Asia mistakenly identified as being natively produced in these regions. Archaeologists recovered

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1696-457: The Moluccas, and the trade in cloves was beyond the limited policing powers of the corporation". One clove tree named Afo that experts believe is the oldest in the world on Ternate may be 350–400 years old. Tourists are told that seedlings from this very tree were stolen by a Frenchman named Pierre Poivre in 1770, transferred to the Isle de France ( Mauritius ), and then later to Zanzibar , which

1749-658: The Officialdom of the Han Dynasty, dating to around 200 BC). The book states a rule that ministers should suck cloves to sweeten their breath before speaking to the emperor. From Chinese records during the Song Dynasty (960 to 1279 AD) cloves were primarily imported by private ventures, called Merchant Shipping Offices, who bought goods from middlemen in the Austronesian polities of Java , Srivijaya , Champa , and Butuan . During

1802-552: The United States. Clove cigarettes are currently classified in the United States as cigars , the result of a ban on flavored cigarettes in September 2009. Clove essential oil may be used to inhibit mold growth on various types of foods. In addition to these non-culinary uses of clove, it can be used to protect wood in a system for cultural heritage conservation, and showed the efficacy of clove essential oil to be higher than

1855-661: The ancient Egyptian civilization, cumin was used as a spice and as a preservative in mummification. Cumin was a significant spice for the Minoans in ancient Crete . Ideograms for cumin appear in Linear A archive tablets documenting Minoan palace stores during the Late Minoan period. The ancient Greeks kept cumin at the dining table in its own container (much as pepper is frequently kept today), and this practice continues in Morocco . Cumin

1908-619: The burial practices of Europeans from the late middle ages into the early modern period. During renovations on the Grote Kerk of Breda a tomb was rediscovered that was used between 1475 and 1526 AD by eight members of the house of Nassau . These burials had to be moved, but before being re-interred these burials were studied for botanical remains. The burial of Cimberga van Baden contained pollen from cloves. The Dutch Physician Pieter Van Foreest wrote down multiple recipes for embalming some of which included cloves. One of these recipes he wrote down

1961-559: The control of weeds. During the first weeding session (30 days after sowing), thinning should be done, as well, to remove excess plants. The use of preplant or pre-emergence herbicides is very effective in India, but this kind of herbicide application requires soil moisture for a successful weed control. Cumin is a diploid species with 14 chromosomes (i.e. 2n = 14). The chromosomes of the different varieties have morphological similarities with no distinct variation in length and volume. Most of

2014-538: The earliest known example of macro-botanical cloves in northwest Europe from the wreck of the Danish-Norwegian flagship, Gribshunden . The ship sank near Ronneby , Sweden in June 1495 while King Hans was sailing to political summit at Kalmar, Sweden. Exotic luxuries including cloves, ginger, peppercorns, and saffron would have impressed the noblemen and high church officials at the summit. Cloves have been documented in

2067-557: The first century AD. Other archeological finds of cloves include: At the Batujaya site a single clove was found in a waterlogged layer dating to between the 100s BC to 200s BC corresponding to the Buni culture phase of this site. A study at the site of Óc Eo in the Mekong Delta of Vietnam found starch grains of cloves on stone implements used in food processing. This site was occupied from

2120-640: The first to eighth century BC, and was a trading center for the kingdom of Funnan . Two cloves were found during archaeological excavations at the Sri Lankan city of Mantai dated to around 900–1100 AD. Cloves are mentioned in the Ramayana . Cloves are also mentioned in the Charaka Samhita . One of the earliest examples of literary evidence of cloves in China is from the book the Han Guan Yi (Etiquettes of

2173-410: The flowering stage. They suck the sap of the plant from tender parts and flowers. The plant becomes yellow, the seed formation is reduced (yield reduction), and the quality of the harvested product decreases. Heavily infested plant parts should be removed. Other important pests are the mites ( Petrobia latens ) which frequently attack the crop. Since the mites mostly feed on young leaves, the infestation

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2226-487: The form of dark brown spots on leaves and stems. When the weather is cloudy after flowering, the incidence of the disease is increased. Another, but less important, disease is powdery mildew . Incidence of powdery mildew in early development can cause drastic yield losses because no seeds are formed. Later in development, powdery mildew causes discolored, small seeds. Pathogens can lead to high reductions in crop yield. Cumin can be attacked by aphids ( Myzus persicae ) at

2279-594: The island of Sulawesi produced over 40% collectively. Eugenol comprises 72–90% of the essential oil extracted from cloves, and is the compound most responsible for clove aroma. Complete extraction occurs at 80 minutes in pressurized water at 125 °C (257 °F). Ultrasound-assisted and microwave-assisted extraction methods provide more rapid extraction rates with lower energy costs. Other phytochemicals of clove oil include acetyl eugenol, beta- caryophyllene , vanillin , crategolic acid , tannins , such as bicornin , gallotannic acid , methyl salicylate ,

2332-518: The oil removed by distillation. They yield no oil and are darker in color. Cloves are used in the cuisine of Asian , African , Mediterranean , and the Near and Middle East countries, lending flavor to meats (such as baked ham ), curries , and marinades , as well as fruit (such as apples, pears, and rhubarb ). Cloves may be used to give aromatic and flavor qualities to hot beverages, often combined with other ingredients such as lemon and sugar. They are

2385-568: The optimal establishment of cumin. Two sowing methods are used for cumin, broadcasting and line sowing. For broadcast sowing, the field is divided into beds and the seeds are uniformly broadcast in this bed. Afterwards, they are covered with soil using a rake. For line sowing, shallow furrows are prepared with hooks at a distance of 20 to 25 cm (8 to 10 in). The seeds are then placed in these furrows and covered with soil. Line sowing offers advantages for intercultural operations such as weeding, hoeing, or spraying. The recommended sowing depth

2438-427: The production of genetically identical plants. The main sources for the explants used in vitro regenerations are embryos, hypocotyl , shoot internodes, leaves, and cotyledons . One goal of cumin breeding is to improve its resistance to biotic (fungal diseases) and abiotic (cold, drought, salinity) stresses. The potential genetic variability for conventional breeding of cumin is limited and research about cumin genetics

2491-699: The unrelated Nigella sativa are both sometimes called black cumin ( q.v. ). Likely originating in Central Asia , Southwestern Asia , or the Eastern Mediterranean , cumin has been in use as a spice for thousands of years. Seeds of wild cumin were excavated in the now-submerged settlement of Atlit-Yam , dated to the early 6th millennium BC. Seeds excavated in Syria were dated to the second millennium BC. They have also been reported from several New Kingdom levels of ancient Egyptian archaeological sites. In

2544-401: The varieties available today are selections. The variabilities of yield and yield components are high. Varieties are developed by sib mating in enclosed chambers or by biotechnology. Cumin is a cross-pollinator, i.e. the breeds are already hybrids. Therefore, methods used for breeding are in vitro regenerations, DNA technologies, and gene transfers. The in vitro cultivation of cumin allows

2597-497: The year owing to different harvest seasons across various countries. The word clove , first used in English in the 15th century , derives via Middle English clow of gilofer , Anglo-French clowes de gilofre and Old French clou de girofle , from the Latin word clavus "nail". The related English word gillyflower , originally meaning "clove", derives via said Old French girofle and Latin caryophyllon , from

2650-595: Was also used heavily in ancient Roman cuisine. In India, it has been used for millennia as a traditional ingredient in innumerable recipes, and forms the basis of many other spice blends. Cumin was introduced to the Americas by Spanish and Portuguese colonists. Black and green cumin are used in Persian cuisine . Today, the plant is mostly grown in the Indian subcontinent , Northern Africa , Mexico , Chile , and China . Since cumin

2703-480: Was buried in 1737 AD contained whole cloves. During the colonial era, cloves were traded like oil, with an enforced limit on exportation. As the Dutch East India Company consolidated its control of the spice trade in the 17th century, they sought to gain a monopoly in cloves as they had in nutmeg. However, "unlike nutmeg and mace , which were limited to the minute Bandas , clove trees grew all over

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2756-492: Was once the world's largest producer of cloves. Current leaders in clove production are Indonesia , Madagascar , Tanzania , Sri Lanka , and Comoros . Indonesia is the largest clove producer, but only about 10-15% of its cloves production is exported, and domestic shortfalls must sometimes be filled with imports from Madagascar. The modern province of Maluku remains the largest source of cloves in Indonesia with around 15% of national production, although provinces comprising

2809-489: Was that used by his fellow physicians Spierinck and Goethals. An embalming jar associated with Vittoria della Rovere also contained clove pollen. This probably came from her ingestion of clove oil as a medicine in her final days. When burials needed to be moved from the church of Saint Germain in Flers , France they were also studied for botanical remains. The body and coffin of Philippe René de la Motte Ango, count of Flers who

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