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126-510: It is the home to the most densely populated Monguor settlement in China, who refer to the area as "Sanchuan" ( 三川 ). The official Chinese name for the area is Guanting ( Chinese : 官亭 ). Local legends accounted that the name came from the famous general, Guan Yu , who stopped by in the area on his way to look for his sworn brother, Liu Bei , the founder of the Shu Han Kingdom (221-263) in

252-561: A trance medium during the Nadun celebration and sometimes illness management. Local accounts indicated that there have been multiple Catholic churches constructed in the Monguor areas in the past. They were destroyed in the early 1950s after the Communists took control and have not been rebuilt. Distinctive cultural events take place throughout the year. Whereas the common festival held during

378-465: A critical set of techniques for dealing with everyday life. Tibetans came to see these techniques as vital for their survival and prosperity in this life." This includes dealing with the local gods and spirits ( sadak and shipdak), which became a specialty of some Tibetan Buddhist lamas and ngagpas ( mantrikas , mantra specialists). The late 10th and 11th centuries saw a revival of Buddhism in Tibet with

504-512: A debate ensued between Moheyan and the Indian master Kamalaśīla , without consensus on the victor, and some scholars consider the event to be fictitious. A reversal in Buddhist influence began under King Langdarma (r. 836–842), and his death was followed by the so-called Era of Fragmentation , a period of disunity during the 9th and 10th centuries. During this era, the political centralization of

630-558: A form of Mahāyāna Buddhism stemming from the latest stages of Buddhism (which included many Vajrayāna elements). It thus preserves many Indian Buddhist tantric practices of the post-Gupta early medieval period (500–1200 CE), along with numerous native Tibetan developments. In the pre-modern era, Tibetan Buddhism spread outside of Tibet primarily due to the influence of the Mongol Yuan dynasty (1271–1368), founded by Kublai Khan , who ruled China, Mongolia, and parts of Siberia. In

756-643: A sizable number of adherents in the areas surrounding the Himalayas , including the Indian regions of Ladakh , Darjeeling , Sikkim , and Zangnan ( Arunachal Pradesh) , as well as in Nepal . Smaller groups of practitioners can be found in Central Asia , some regions of China such as Northeast China , Xinjiang , Inner Mongolia and some regions of Russia, such as Tuva , Buryatia , and Kalmykia . Tibetan Buddhism evolved as

882-437: A wide range of academic, medical, and business fields. Traditional Monguor culture and language have become endangered. Traditional events like weddings, Nadun, funerals, and New Year rituals are increasingly abbreviated and traditional songs, riddles, folktales, and proverbs are vanishing. In most villages, a Buddhist temple and a Taoist shrine coexist. Almost all the temples and shrines seen today have been rebuilt in

1008-505: Is "The Dharma of the insiders" ( nang chos ) or "The Buddha Dharma of the insiders" ( nang pa sangs rgyas pa'i chos ). "Insider" means someone who seeks the truth not outside but within the nature of mind. This is contrasted with other forms of organized religion, which are termed chos lugs (dharma system) . For example, Christianity is termed Yi shu'i chos lugs (Jesus dharma system) . Westerners unfamiliar with Tibetan Buddhism initially turned to China for understanding. In Chinese,

1134-574: Is a variant pronunciation of "Mongol" in the Monguor language, characterized by the final "-r" in place of "-l" in the Mongolian language. Despite that "Monguor" was made into an international name for the "Tu," it is not representative: the reference is only used by the Monguor in Huzhu and Datong counties in Qinghai , and when used, it should be combined with "Chaghan" (or "White") in order to be distinguished from

1260-521: Is considered by the Tibetans as Guru Rinpoche ("Precious Master"), is also credited with building the first monastery building named "Samye" around the late 8th century. According to some legend, it is noted that he pacified the Bon demons and made them the core protectors of Dharma. Modern historians also argue that Trisong Detsen and his followers adopted Buddhism as an act of international diplomacy, especially with

1386-525: Is occasionally misused for Tibetan Buddhism. More accurately, Vajrayāna signifies a certain subset of practices and traditions that are not only part of Tibetan Buddhism but also prominent in other Buddhist traditions such as Chinese Esoteric Buddhism and Shingon in Japan . In the west, the term "Indo-Tibetan Buddhism" has become current in acknowledgement of its derivation from the latest stages of Buddhist development in northern India. " Northern Buddhism "

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1512-626: Is rendered " Tuyuhun " in China and the West should be "Tuyühu." It came from the Chinese phonetic transcription of his original name "Teihu", which is still a common name seen among the Monguor today. Since the Chinese language cannot represent "Tei," two characters of "Tu" and "yü" were used. The ethnonym "Tu" in Chinese came from the abbreviation of "the Tuyühu people" or "the people of the Tuyühu Empire." Between

1638-577: Is sometimes used to refer to Indo-Tibetan Buddhism, for example, in the Brill Dictionary of Religion. Another term, "Himalayan" (or "Trans-Himalayan") Buddhism is sometimes used to indicate how this form of Buddhism is practiced not just in Tibet but throughout the Himalayan Regions . The Provisional Government of Russia, by a decree of 7 July 1917, prohibited the appellation of Buryat and Kalmyk Buddhists as "Lamaists" in official papers. After

1764-499: The "Qiang" people who formed the majority of the population. The "Qiang" were the native peoples who were subjugated by the Xianbei in the northwest. They initially rebelled but later their fate became intimately associated with the Xianbei, as they actively defended the empire when the enemies attacked. In addition to the Tibetans and authentic Han people, the "Qiang" comprised a portion of

1890-610: The An Lushan Rebellion shook up the Tang court and caused its emperor to flee, Tibet overtook the entire territory of Tuyühu until internal turmoil developed within the Tibetan government and massive revolts brought an end to its rule. Through this period, the Xianbei underwent massive diasporas over a vast territory that stretched from the northwest into central and eastern parts of China, with

2016-794: The Battle of Chamdo , Tibet was annexed by China in 1950. In 1959 the 14th Dalai Lama and a great number of clergy and citizenry fled the country, to settle in India and other neighbouring countries. The events of the Cultural Revolution (1966–76) saw religion as one of the main political targets of the Chinese Communist Party, and most of the several thousand temples and monasteries in Tibet were destroyed, with many monks and lamas imprisoned. During this time, private religious expression, as well as Tibetan cultural traditions, were suppressed. Much of

2142-553: The Cao Wei (220–265) in northern China. Legends accounted the separation to be due to a fight between his horses and those of his younger brother, Murong Wei . The actual cause was intense struggle over the Khanate position and disagreement over their future directions. The fraction that supported Murong Wei into the Khanate position aimed at ruling over China, whereas Tuyühu intended to preserve

2268-618: The Chinese Government . The village is home to a unique dialect of the Monguor language. Monguor people The Monguor ( Monguor language : Mongghul), the Tu people ( Chinese : 土族 ), the White Mongol or the Tsagaan Mongol , are Mongolic people and one of the 56 officially recognized ethnic groups in China . The "Tu" ethnic category was created in the 1950s. According to

2394-706: The Church of the East . The Mongols invaded Tibet in 1240 and 1244. They eventually annexed Amdo and Kham and appointed the great scholar and abbot Sakya Pandita (1182–1251) as Viceroy of Central Tibet in 1249. In this way, Tibet was incorporated into the Mongol Empire , with the Sakya hierarchy retaining nominal power over religious and regional political affairs, while the Mongols retained structural and administrative rule over

2520-462: The Donghu are reflected in their account of the unique wedding ceremony attributed to Madam Lushi, who organized an ambush through an elaborate banquet combined with liquor and singing in order to subdue a bully named "Wang Mang". In historical terms, the "Wang Mang" people were recorded more than four thousand years ago as physically robust and active on the west of the present Liaoning, whose culture

2646-554: The Former Yan (281–370), Western Yan (384–394), Later Yan (383–407), and Southern Yan (398–410). Their territories encompassed, at their height, the present Liaoning , Inner Mongolia , Shandong , Shanxi , Hebei , and Henan , and their capitals included Beijing and other cities. Through these establishments, they were immersed among the Chinese , whereas the Xianbei who followed Tuyühu Khan preserved their language and culture. In

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2772-618: The Güshi Khan of the Khoshut Mongols . The Ganden Phodrang and the successive Gelug tulku lineages of the Dalai Lamas and Panchen Lamas maintained regional control of Tibet from the mid-17th to mid-20th centuries. The Qing dynasty (1644–1912) established a Chinese rule over Tibet after a Qing expeditionary force defeated the Dzungars (who controlled Tibet) in 1720, and lasted until

2898-683: The Jin dynasty (1115–1234) in northern China by pushing the Liao Empire of the Khitans westward into Xinjiang . After the Jin Empire was destroyed by the Mongols in 1234, they withdrew back to Manchuria and returned later with the rejoined forces from the Mongols to establish the last dynasty of the Qing (1644–1912) in China under the new ethnonym of Manchu , or "Man Zu" in Chinese. The full national title of Western Xia

3024-566: The Kadampa school of Tibetan Buddhism, one of the first Sarma schools. The Sakya ( Grey Earth ) school, was founded by Khön Könchok Gyelpo (1034–1102), a disciple of the great scholar , Drogmi Shākya. It is headed by the Sakya Trizin , and traces its lineage to the mahasiddha Virūpa . Other influential Indian teachers include Tilopa (988–1069) and his student Nāropā (probably died ca. 1040). Their teachings, via their student Marpa , are

3150-582: The Kingdom of Zhangzhung . While some stories depict Buddhism in Tibet before this period, the religion was formally introduced during the Tibetan Empire (7th–9th century CE). Sanskrit Buddhist scriptures from India were first translated into Tibetan under the reign of the Tibetan king Songtsän Gampo (618–649 CE). This period also saw the development of the Tibetan writing system and classical Tibetan . In

3276-575: The Miao / Hmong who were relocated to the northwest from central China after their Three Miao Kingdom was destroyed by the legendary Chinese Emperor Yü the Great about four thousand years ago. The "Qiang" referred to Western Xia as their "Gao (or ‘Mighty’) Mi Yao" Kingdom. When "Mi Yao" is pronounced together, it is similar to "Miao." Since the autonyms of the Miao/Hmong include "Guoxiong", "Gaoxiong," and "Gouxiong,"

3402-504: The Mongols emerged as a mighty power in the thirteenth century, a reverse occurred in the ethnonyms of the Xianbei and Mongols. This was represented in the reference of the Xianbei descendants as "Chaghan Monguor" (or "White Mongols"), which gave rise to the ethnonym of "Monguor" known in the Western publications. The term "White Mongols," or "Bai Menggu," first occurred when Genghis Khan united

3528-610: The Phagmodrupa dynasty , and the strong localism of the various fiefs and political-religious factions, led to a long series of internal conflicts. The minister family Rinpungpa , based in Tsang (West Central Tibet), dominated politics after 1435. In 1565, the Rinpungpa family was overthrown by the Tsangpa Dynasty of Shigatse , which expanded its power in different directions of Tibet in

3654-697: The Puning Temple and Putuo Zongcheng Temple (modeled after the potala palace). This period also saw the rise of the Rimé movement , a 19th-century nonsectarian movement involving the Sakya , Kagyu and Nyingma schools of Tibetan Buddhism, along with some Bon scholars. Having seen how the Gelug institutions pushed the other traditions into the corners of Tibet's cultural life, scholars such as Jamyang Khyentse Wangpo (1820–1892) and Jamgön Kongtrül (1813–1899) compiled together

3780-617: The Rimé movement (19th century), meaning "no sides", is a more recent non-sectarian movement that attempts to preserve and understand all the different traditions. The predominant spiritual tradition in Tibet before the introduction of Buddhism was Bon , which has been strongly influenced by Tibetan Buddhism (particularly the Nyingma school). While each of the four major schools is independent and has its own monastic institutions and leaders, they are closely related and intersect with common contact and dialogue. The native Tibetan term for Buddhism

3906-456: The Six Dharmas of Naropa , as well as methods that are seen as transcending tantra, like Dzogchen . Its main goal is Buddhahood . The primary language of scriptural study in this tradition is classical Tibetan . Tibetan Buddhism has four major schools, namely Nyingma (8th century), Kagyu (11th century), Sakya (1073), and Gelug (1409). The Jonang is a smaller school that exists, and

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4032-511: The Spring Festival is "Yangguo," the most characteristic tradition is represented by Nadun that takes place in the end of the summer. Nadun resembles Nadam of the Mongols in name but are different in format and content. Both "Nadun" and "Nadam" are special nouns designated to an annual festival and reflect their shared origins from the Xianbei who were recorded to have "one major gathering every spring for leisure and fun by river". Whereas

4158-789: The Tangut and reached into southern Gansu . The Tang government was shocked and sent (five ???) troops to fight. Although Tibet withdrew in response, the Tuyühu Empire lost much of its territory in southern Gansu. Meanwhile, the Tuyühu government was split between the pro-Tang and pro-Tibet factions, with the latter becoming increasingly stronger and corroborating with Tibet to bring about an invasion. The Tang sent its famous general, Xue Rengui , to lead 100,000 troops to fight Tibet in Dafeichuan (present Gonghe County in Qinghai). They were annihilated in an ambush by 200,000 troops of Dayan and Tibet, which became

4284-536: The Tibetan Autonomous Region . During the Republic of China (1912–1949) , the "Chinese Tantric Buddhist Revival Movement" ( Chinese : 密教復興運動 ) took place, and important figures such as Nenghai ( 能海喇嘛 , 1886–1967) and Master Fazun ( 法尊 , 1902–1980) promoted Tibetan Buddhism and translated Tibetan works into Chinese. This movement was severely damaged during the Cultural Revolution , however. After

4410-526: The Tuoba Xianbei and Northern Xianbei joined them through political and marriage alliances. After settling down in the northwest, they established the powerful Tuyühu Empire named to his honor as the first Khan who led them there, by subjugating the native peoples who were summarily referred to as the " Qiang " and included more than 100 different and loosely coordinated tribes that did not submit to each other or any authorities. After Tuyühu Khan departed from

4536-670: The Tuoba Xianbei who founded the Southern Liang (397–414). The Tuoba established the Northern Wei (386–535) and objected to the Tuoba of Southern Liang using the Chinese characters for "Tufa." They shared Tuoba descent. After the Southern Liang were annexed by the Western Qin , and then annexed by the Tuyühu Empire, the majority of Tufa Xianbei joined the Tuyühu Empire. Some submitted under

4662-670: The Tuoba Xianbei, who established the Northern Wei (386–535), which was the first of the Northern dynasties (386–581) founded by the Xianbei. In 534, the Northern Wei split into an Eastern Wei (534–550) and a Western Wei (535–556). The former evolved into the Northern Qi (550–577), and the latter into the Northern Zhou (557–581), while the Southern dynasties were pushed to the south of

4788-554: The Xia dynasty (2070 BC – 1600 BC), the first ever recorded dynasty in the ancient Chinese history. Guanting is divided into 1 residential community and 13 administrative villages . The area is the homeland of the most densely populated Monguor settlement. About three hundred of their villages are densely distributed on the north bank of the Yellow River , which have been administered into about one hundred executive political villages by

4914-614: The Yangtze . In 581, the prime minister of Northern Zhou, Yang Jian, usurped the throne and founded the Sui dynasty (581–618) as Emperor Wen of Sui . His son, Emperor Yang of Sui , annihilated the Chen dynasty (557–589) and unified northern and southern China, thereby bringing an end to the Northern and Southern dynasties era. Over the course of this period, the Xianbei who entered into China were immersed among

5040-437: The "Khara" (or "Black") Mongols. In Minhe County , which holds the most densely populated "Monguor" settlement and where everyone speaks their native "Monguor" language, it is never used as an autonym . Sequences in the DNA of the Tu people indicate that Greeks mixed with an East Asian population around 1200 AD, contributing about 7,7% to the Tu genepool. The source of this European DNA might have been merchants travelling

5166-491: The "Mongol Xianbei" (or "Mengwu Shiwei ") emerged from the northern Manchuria and northeastern Mongolia, the Khitans , or "Qidan" in Chinese, derived their ancestral origins from the Yuwen Xianbei in southern Mongolia, who had earlier founded the Western Wei (535–556) and Northern Zhou (557–581) of the Northern dynasties . When the Khitans established the Liao dynasty (916–1125) in China proper , they were referred to as "Qara (or Black) Khitāy". Their rule gave rise to

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5292-413: The "Monguor"/"Tu". As early as the Tuyühu period, Confucianism served as the core ideology to govern the country, and the Chinese Buddhism and Shamanism functioned as the principle religions. In Western Xia, Confucianism was further strengthened, and Taoism was made into the national religion along with Buddhism. As the Yellow Sect of Buddhism, also known as the Tibetan Buddhism , became prevalent in

5418-460: The "Tu" in Western Xia. That the Mongols referred to Western Xia as "Tangut" to represent the founding ethnic group, the Tuyühu Xianbei, is consistent with the theories of the Mongol origins postulated by the Outer Mongolian scholars, who have held that the Mongols had descended from the Xiongnu , more specifically the eastern Xiongnu who spoke proto-Mongolic language , as opposed to the western Xiongnu who spoke proto- Turkish language . In contrast,

5544-452: The 2000 census, the total population was 241,198, who mostly lived in the Qinghai and the Gansu provinces. The 2010 census gave their number as 289,565. The Monguor people speak the Monguor language , which belongs to the family of Mongolic languages but has been heavily influenced by both the local Chinese and Tibetan dialects. Today, nearly all Tu people also speak Chinese. Most are farmers and some keep livestock. Their culture and

5670-426: The 8th century, King Trisong Detsen (755–797 CE) established it as the official religion of the state and commanded his army to wear robes and study Buddhism. Trisong Detsen invited Indian Buddhist scholars to his court, including Padmasambhāva (8th century CE) and Śāntarakṣita (725–788), who are considered the founders of Nyingma ( The Ancient Ones) , the oldest tradition of Tibetan Buddhism. Padmasambhava, who

5796-510: The Cao Wei assassinated the last Khan of the Xianbei, Kebineng , and caused disintegration in the Xianbei Kingdom. Thereafter, the Xianbei pushed their way inside the Great Wall of China and established extensive presence in China. During the Sixteen Kingdoms (304–439) period, the Xianbei founded six kingdoms: the Former Yan (281–370), Western Yan (384–394), Later Yan (383–407), Southern Yan (398–410), Western Qin (385–430) and Southern Liang (397–414). Most of them were unified by

5922-407: The Central Court. After the Yuan fell, the Xia who followed the Mongols into the northern grassland were immersed among and later classified into the "Mongols." The English reference of " Tangut - Xixia " was derived from the combination of the Mongolian reference of "Tangut" and the Chinese reference as "Xixia" or " Western Xia ." The Chinese reference was derived from the location of the empire on

6048-404: The Chinese and later classified into " Han ". Yet, not all branches of the Xianbei shared this fate. In the 3rd and 4th centuries, Tuyühu, a branch of the Murong Xianbei , undertook a westward migration that allowed them and those who followed them to develop in a different path. The separation of Tuyühu from the Murong Xianbei occurred during the Western Jin dynasty (265–316), which succeeded

6174-437: The Chinese scholars have characterized that the Mongols had descended from the Xianbei. The Mongols were recorded as "Mengwu Shiwei " in the Northern dynasties : "Mengwu" was a variant Chinese transcription of "Menggu" designated to the Mongols, and "Shiwei" was a variant transcription of the Xianbei, as "Xianbei" was also recorded as "Sian-pie," "Serbi," "Sirbi" and "Sirvi". This equated the Mongols to be "Mongol Xianbei," which

6300-442: The Donghu by surprise and caused disintegration in the federation. The Wuhuan moved to Mt. Wuhuan and engaged in continuous warfare with the Xiongnu on the west and China on the south. The Donghu spoke Mongolic language and was formed by the federation of the Donghu, Wuhuan, and Xianbei. As the Wuhuan and Xiongnu came to be worn out from the lengthy battles, the Xianbei preserved their strengths by moving northward to Mt. Xianbei. In

6426-464: The Drikung Kagyu, the Drukpa Kagyu and the Karma Kagyu, are branches of the Dagpo Kagyu. The Karma Kagyu school is the largest of the Kagyu sub-schools and is headed by the Karmapa . Tibetan Buddhism exerted a strong influence from the 11th century CE among the peoples of Inner Asia , especially the Mongols , and Tibetan and Mongolian Buddhism influenced each other. This was done with the help of Kublai Khan and Mongolian theologians influenced by

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6552-511: The Huzhu Monguor, the characteristic traditional dance is "Anzhao." Its name and styles bear resemblance to the "Andai" dance of the Mongols who live in Ordos , an area that has historically served as the transitional point for the Xianbei to move about in China. The traditional weddings of the Monguor differ markedly. In Minhe County, elaborate rules of courtesy and appropriateness were at work. Many songs "daola" were sung for days and nights with great variations in melody and contents. Wherever

6678-421: The Islamic religion were classified into " Dongxiang ", " Bonan " and " Yugur ", the last of which represented the intermixture of the Xianbei and Sari Uyghurs. Most Monguor in rapidly changing rural settlements today practice sedentary agriculture, supplemented by minimum animal husbandry, and seasonal work in towns and cities. Those who have succeeded in the Chinese educational system take up government jobs in

6804-427: The La and Bao Family Villages were accounted to have descended from "Tiebie", indicating that they have derived their origins from the Tufa (Tuoba) Xianbei of the Southern Liang. The Tibetans refer to the Monguor as "Huo’er," which came from the final word of the name of Tuyühu Khan . The Monguor refer to Tuyühu Khan as "Huozhou didi;" in which "Huozhou" was applied to Linxia , Gansu where Tuyühu Khan died, and "didi"

6930-489: The Modern era, Tibetan Buddhism has spread outside of Asia because of the efforts of the Tibetan diaspora (1959 onwards). As the Dalai Lama escaped to India, the Indian subcontinent is also known for its renaissance of Tibetan Buddhism monasteries, including the rebuilding of the three major monasteries of the Gelug tradition. Apart from classical Mahāyāna Buddhist practices like the ten perfections , Tibetan Buddhism also includes tantric practices, such as deity yoga and

7056-407: The Mongol army in their subsequent military conquests in central and southern China. Due to the fierce resistance of the Xia against the Mongol attacks, especially in causing the death of Genghis, they were initially suppressed in the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368). Toward the middle and later stages of the Yuan, the Xia received equivalent treatment to the ruling Mongols and attained the highest offices in

7182-453: The Mongolian Nadam preserved the nomadic features of horse race, wrestling, and archery, the Monguor Nadun has encoded their history through masked dance performances and presents as an annual military drill combined with joyful celebrations of harvest. Held by villages in turn along the Yellow River and circles through the entire Sanchuan / Guanting region in Minhe , the Nadun festival is inherently tied to agricultural work. It functions as

7308-403: The Mongolian term "Tangut" represented "the Donghu people," the Xianbei and their descendants who had founded the Tuyühu and Western Xia empires, would validate the theories of the Outer Mongolian scholars that the Mongols had descended from the Xiongnu. The fact that there were Wuhuan groups, who were part of the Donghu federation and followed Tuyühu Khan in the westward migration, would make

7434-454: The Mongols to rise up in Mongolia in 1206. The Xianbei descendants who resided near Mt. Yin self-proclaimed to be "White Mongols" and joined them. They received the same treatment as the Mongols and partook in their westward conquests in Central Asia and Europe . As waves and waves of the Xianbei went south and westward to establish different empires, those who remained in the northeast emerged as major powers later to rule over China. While

7560-413: The Monguor form of " Thanksgiving " in the Western culture and expresses gratitude for an abundance of harvest blessed by Heaven referred to as "Tiangere." The event lasts over two months, starting from the twelfth of the seventh month to the fifteenth of the ninth month by the Chinese lunar calendar , and spans for a total of 63 days, giving rise to its eponym as "the world’s longest festival". Among

7686-439: The Monguor go, they take their songs with them, which can be heard in parties, banquets, and at gatherings in cities where they work. Tibetan Buddhism Samding Dorje Phagmo New branches: Tantric techniques : Fourfold division: Twofold division: Thought forms and visualisation: Yoga : Tibetan Buddhism is a form of Buddhism practiced in Tibet , Bhutan and Mongolia . It also has

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7812-479: The Monguor have maintained to speak their language, primarily in Qinghai and Gansu . During the Chinese classificatory campaigns carried out in the 1950s, those who could no longer speak their language were classified into " Han ", those who could not speak their language but adopted the Islamic religion were classified into " Hui ", those who followed the Mongols into the northern grassland were classified into "Mongols", and those who spoke their language and adopted

7938-442: The Northern Wei in China, while a small fraction went into Tibet and gave rise to the name "Tiebie". In the ancient Chinese records, the reference of Tibet included "Tubo" and "Tufan," which reflected the Chinese transcriptions of "Tuoba" and "Tufa." It is likely that "Tuoba" recorded in the Chinese language may have been pronounced as "Tiebie" originally in the Xianbei language. Among the Monguor settlement in Minhe , Qinghai today,

8064-406: The October revolution the term "Buddho-Lamaism" was used for some time by the Bolsheviks with reference to Tibetan Buddhism, before they finally reverted, in the early 1920s, to a more familiar term "Lamaism", which remains in official and scholarly usage in Russia to this day. During the 3rd century CE, Buddhism began to spread into the Tibetan region, and its teachings affected the Bon religion in

8190-488: The Silk Road. This admixture may come from an earlier period as many of their carnival-like festivals and masked fertility rituals have similarities in the Hellenistic times with Dionysian representations, not in Byzantine Christian-era Greek celebrations. Distribution of Y-chromosome haplogroups in Monguor: O =38.85( O2 =31.42, O1a =4.13, O1b =3.3) D =14.87 R1 =14.05( R1a =13.22, R1b =0.83) N =11.57 C =9.09 J =5.79 others=5.78 Their earliest origins from

8316-462: The Tibetan textual heritage and institutions were destroyed, and monks and nuns were forced to disrobe. Outside of Tibet, however, there has been a renewed interest in Tibetan Buddhism in places such as Nepal and Bhutan. Meanwhile, the spread of Tibetan Buddhism in the Western world was accomplished by many of the refugee Tibetan Lamas who escaped Tibet, such as Akong Rinpoche and Chögyam Trungpa who in 1967 were founders of Kagyu Samye Ling

8442-407: The Tuyühu Empire and not have called them as "the Donghu people" in reference of Western Xia. While the intimate associations between the two groups were manifested in the cross references of the Mongols as "Mengwu Shiwei " (or "Mongol Xianbei") from the first century and the Monguor as "Chaghan (or White) Monguor" in the thirteenth century, ethnically and culturally they remained different. As much as

8568-431: The Upper, Middle, and Lower plains according to the geographic features marked by two seasonable rivers that flow from the north to the south into the Yellow River and divides the area. The Upper Plain, or Shangchuan, refers to the Zhaomuchuan Village of Guanting Township. The Middle Plain, or Zhongchuan, encloses Zhongchuan Township, which is separated from the Upper Plain by the Zhaomuchuan River. The Lower Plain refers to

8694-450: The Xiakou Township on the exit of the Yellow River that flows out of Qinghai into Gansu . The town is home to the archeological site of Lajia , located in Lajia Village, which belong to the Qijia Culture , as well as the Majiayao Culture and the Xindian Culture . The site's artefacts date back to approximately 2000 BCE, and contain pottery, stone tools, bone tools, jade, a moat, human houses, and human skeletons. Up until recently,

8820-502: The Xianbei culture and lifestyles. The disagreement resulted in Tuyühu to proclaim as the Khan, or Kehan , and undertook the long westward journey under the title of the Prince of Jin, or Jin Wang, followed by other Xianbei and Wuhuan groups. While passing through western Liaoning and Mt. Bai, more Xianbei groups joined them from the Duan , Yuwen , and Bai sections. At the Hetao Plains near Ordos in Inner Mongolia , Tuyühu Khan led them to reside by Mt. Yin for over thirty years, as

8946-449: The Xianbei vacated from the northeast, the Jurchens , known as " Nüzhen " in Chinese, moved southward into Manchuria from their original habitation in the Tungus Plains in eastern Russia located on the north of Manchuria. They occupied the former areas of the Xianbei and renamed the Xianbei Mountains (鮮卑山) to " Daxinganling ," which remains in use today and literally meant "White Mountains" in their Tungus language. They first established

9072-408: The area has very much existed as an independent kingdom, where everyone spoke their native Monguor language and which enabled the preservation of their culture, characterized by Nadun , elaborate wedding and funeral ceremonies, and rich religious lives. Archaeological discoveries and historical research hypothesized that the area is the homeland of the legendary Emperor Yü the Great, who established

9198-779: The back of camels), and amphibious troops for combats on the land and water, the Xia army maintained a powerful stance in opposition to the Song , Liao (916–1125), and Jin (1115–1234) empires to its east, the last of which was founded by the Jurchens , who were the predecessors of the Manchus who would found the Qing dynasty (1644–1912). The Xia territory encompassed the present Ningxia , Gansu , eastern Qinghai , northern Shaanxi , northeastern Xinjiang , southwest Inner Mongolia , and southernmost Outer Mongolia , spanning about 800,000 square kilometers. In

9324-635: The beginning of the thirteenth century, Genghis Khan unified the northern grasslands of Mongolia and led the Mongol troops to carry out six rounds of attacks against Western Xia over a period of twenty-two years. As Western Xia resisted vehemently, more and more of its people crossed the Qilian Mountains to join the earlier establishments in Qinghai and Gansu in order to avoid the Mongol assaults, which gave rise to

9450-468: The biggest debacle in the Tang history, and formally brought the Tuyühu Empire to an end. After its fall in 670, the Tuyühu Empire split into an Eastern and Western Kingdom. The Eastern Kingdom existed on the eastern side of the Qilian Mountains and increasingly migrated eastward into central China, whereas the Western Kingdom existed under the leadership of the former exile Khan , Dayan, in Tibet. As

9576-500: The borders of India and Afghanistan , and established a vast empire that encompassed Qinghai , Gansu, Ningxia , northern Sichuan , eastern Shaanxi , southern Xinjiang, and most of Tibet , stretching 1,500 kilometers from the east to the west and 1,000 kilometers from the north to the south. They unified northwest China for the first time in history, developed the southern route of the Silk Road , and promoted cultural exchanges between

9702-703: The central leadership and removed any possibility for the Xianbei to restore the Tuyühu Empire. The Western Xia Empire inherited the political and social structures of the Tang and further developed an outstanding civilization characterized as "shining and sparkling". It became the new kingdom for the descendants of the Tuyühu Xianbei who had lost their country. The Western Xia made significant achievements in literature, art, music, architecture, and chemistry. Through effective military organizations that integrated cavalry, chariots, archery, shields, artillery (cannons carried on

9828-458: The character "Gao" (or "Mighty") in the Xia national title could have derived as a variant abbreviation. "Bai Gao" in the national title was in turn used it to refer to the Yellow River , which had traditionally been referred to as the "Mother River" of China, known as "Mu Qin He," that has nurtured their homeland. The Flemish Catholic missionary, Schram, who wrote about the Monguor based on residence in

9954-582: The concurrent meaning of the Chinese character "Tu" for "soil." The ethnonym "Tu" is increasingly a self-reference. The reference of "Monguor" in the Western publications came from their self-reference as "Chaghan Monguor" (or "White Mongols "). It was derived from their origins from the Murong Xianbei , from whom Tuyühu Khan separated and who had been historically referred to as "the White Section" or "Bai Bu," due to their lighter skin. The term "Monguor"

10080-640: The current Qinghai - Gansu area during the time of the Mongol conquests, to the Shatuo and/or to the Han Chinese . Some references argue that the Chinese term "Tu" was derived from the name of Tuyühu Khan , who was the older son of the King of Murong Xianbei who migrated westward from the northeast in 284. The last character of Tuyühu, pronounced as "hun" today, may have been pronounced "hu" in some dialect of ancient Chinese language. The contemporary reference of this name

10206-475: The current Qinghai Province in the early twentieth century, cited Comte de Lesdain, who characterized the Monguor as "the most authentic reminder of the primitive race from which the Chinese sprung." This characterization reflected that the Monguor culture under their observation has embodied "a high civilization fortified by its own history and distinctive social structure" developed by the Xianbei forefathers from their extensive rulings over China and preserved by

10332-539: The current settlements of the Monguor. During the last round of attacks, Genghis Khan died in Western Xia. The official Mongol historical account attributed his death to an illness, whereas legends told that he died from a wound inflicted in the battles. After the Xia capital was overrun in 1227, the Mongols destroyed much of hu its architecture and written records, killing the last emperor and massacring tens of thousands of civilians. The Xia troops were later incorporated into

10458-416: The earlier Tibetan Empire collapsed and civil wars ensued. In spite of this loss of state power and patronage however, Buddhism survived and thrived in Tibet. According to Geoffrey Samuel this was because "Tantric (Vajrayana) Buddhism came to provide the principal set of techniques by which Tibetans dealt with the dangerous powers of the spirit world [...] Buddhism, in the form of Vajrayana ritual, provided

10584-618: The east and the west, the Empire became the immediate target of invasion by the Tang. Meanwhile, the Tibetan Empire developed rapidly under the leadership of Songtsen Gampo , who united the Tibetans and expanded northward, directly threatening the Tuyühu Empire. The exile Tuyühu Khan , Dayan, submitted under Tibet, which resorted to an excuse that Tuyühu objected its marriage with the Tang and sent 200,000 troops to attack. The Tuyühu troops retreated to Qinghai , whereas Tibet went eastward to attack

10710-425: The eastern and western territories, dominating the northwest for more than three and half centuries until the empire was destroyed by the Tibetans who rose up in 670. The Xianbei asserted cultural imprint in the region. The English reference for " Tibet " may have come from the Xianbei language for Tibetans "Tiebie," in contrast to the self-reference of the Tibetans as "Bo". The name "Tiebie" may have come from

10836-615: The empire, by annihilating the Western Qin (385–430), which had annexed Southern Liang (396–414) earlier, and Haolian Xia (407–431) kingdoms, from which the Qinghai Xianbei, Tufa Xianbei, Qifu Xianbei and Haolian Xianbei joined them. These Xianbei groups formed the core of the Tuyuhun Empire and numbered about 3.3 million at their peak. They carried out extensive military expeditions westward, reaching as far as Hetian in Xinjiang and

10962-408: The extensive migrations that the Xianbei undertook in the northeast, northern, and northwest China, the name of Mt. Xianbei was found along their trajectories. The earliest recorded Mt. Xianbei was in the southern portions of Daxinganling , located in northeast Inner Mongolia, which represented the originating place of the Xianbei. Two Mt. Xianbei were recorded subsequently in western Liaoning : one in

11088-602: The fall of the Qing dynasty in 1912. The Manchu rulers of the Qing dynasty supported Tibetan Buddhism, especially the Gelug sect, during most of their rule. The reign of the Qianlong Emperor (respected as the Emperor Manjushri ) was the high mark for this promotion of Tibetan Buddhism in China, with the visit of the 6th Panchen Lama to Beijing, and the building of temples in the Tibetan style, such as Xumi Fushou Temple ,

11214-513: The first Tibetan Buddhist Centre to be established in the West. After the liberalization policies in China during the 1980s, the religion began to recover with some temples and monasteries being reconstructed. Tibetan Buddhism is now an influential religion among Chinese people, and also in Taiwan. However, the Chinese government retains strict control over Tibetan Buddhist Institutions in the PRC . Quotas on

11340-607: The first century, the Xianbei defeated the Wuhuan and northern Xiongnu, and developed into a powerful state under the leadership of their elected Khan , Tanshihuai. In the third century, the Eastern Han dynasty (25–220 BC) disintegrated into three kingdoms, including the Cao Wei (220–265) in the north, the Eastern Wu (222–280) in the south, and the Shu Han (221–263) in the southwest. In 235,

11466-463: The first copies of these texts were kept at Narthang monastery . Tibetan Buddhism in China was also syncretized with Chinese Buddhism and Chinese folk religion . With the decline and end of the Mongol Yuan dynasty, Tibet regained independence and was ruled by successive local families from the 14th to the 17th century. Jangchub Gyaltsän (1302–1364) became the strongest political family in

11592-568: The following decades and favoured the Karma Kagyu sect. They would play a pivotal role in the events which led to the rise of power of the Dalai Lama's in the 1640s. In China, Tibetan Buddhism continued to be patronized by the elites of the Ming Dynasty. According to David M. Robinson , during this era, Tibetan Buddhist monks "conducted court rituals, enjoyed privileged status and gained access to

11718-539: The foundations of the Kagyu ( Oral lineage ) tradition , which focuses on the practices of Mahāmudrā and the Six Dharmas of Nāropā . One of the most famous Kagyu figures was the hermit Milarepa , an 11th-century mystic. The Dagpo Kagyu was founded by the monk Gampopa who merged Marpa's lineage teachings with the monastic Kadam tradition. All the sub-schools of the Kagyu tradition of Tibetan Buddhism surviving today, including

11844-505: The founding of "New Translation" ( Sarma ) lineages as well as the appearance of " hidden treasures " ( terma ) literature which reshaped the Nyingma tradition. In 1042 the Bengali saint, Atiśa (982–1054) arrived in Tibet at the invitation of a west Tibetan king and further aided dissemination of Buddhist values in Tibetan culture and in consequential affairs of state. His erudition supported

11970-558: The greatest concentrations found by Mt. Yin near Ordos. In 946, the Shatuo Turk, Liu Zhiyuan , conspired to murder the highest Xianbei leader, Bai Chengfu, who was reportedly so wealthy that "his horses had silver mangers". With that stolen wealth, which included an abundance of property and thousands of fine horses, Liu established the Later Han (947–950), the shortest dynasty in Chinese history, lasting only four years. The incident took away

12096-502: The interpretation that "Tangut" represented "the Donghu people" stronger, not only from reflecting that the Wuhuan joined the Xianbei in the Tuyühu and Western Xia empires, but also contrasting that the Mongols had descended from the Xiongnu. If the Mongols had descended from the Xianbei, as the Chinese scholars characterized, the Mongols would have shared the same ethnic origins with the Xianbei of

12222-578: The jealously guarded, private world of the emperors". The Ming Yongle Emperor (r. 1402–1424) promoted the carving of printing blocks for the Kangyur , now known as "the Yongle Kanjur", and seen as an important edition of the collection. The Ming Dynasty also supported the propagation of Tibetan Buddhism in Mongolia during this period. Tibetan Buddhist missionaries also helped spread the religion in Mongolia. It

12348-401: The last three decades, since they were invariably destroyed during the Cultural Revolution (1966–1976). While Buddhist monks are common in most villages, Taoist priests and shamans have become very few and serve the whole area. The Taoist priests take charge of diverse functions that include weddings, funerals, and looking after the shrines, whereas the shaman's primary function is to serve as

12474-652: The major power of those times such as China, India, and states in Central Asia that had strong Buddhist influence in their culture. Yeshe Tsogyal , the most important female in the Nyingma Vajrayana lineage, was a member of Trisong Detsen's court and became Padmasambhava's student before gaining enlightenment. Trisong Detsen also invited the Chan master Moheyan to transmit the Dharma at Samye Monastery . Some sources state that

12600-675: The major religion of the Mongols under Qing rule (1635–1912), as well as the state religion of the Kalmyk Khanate (1630–1771), the Dzungar Khanate (1634–1758) and the Khoshut Khanate (1642–1717). In 1912, following the fall of the Qing Dynasty, Tibet became de facto independent under the 13th Dalai Lama government based in Lhasa , maintaining the current territory of what is now called

12726-552: The mid 14th century. During this period the reformist scholar Je Tsongkhapa (1357–1419) founded the Gelug school which would have a decisive influence on Tibet's history. The Ganden Tripa is the nominal head of the Gelug school, though its most influential figure is the Dalai Lama. The Ganden Tripa is an appointed office and not a reincarnation lineage. The position can be held by an individual for seven years and this has led to more Ganden Tripas than Dalai Lamas Internal strife within

12852-535: The national army to participate in wars that took place as far as in eastern Liaoning , Shaanxi , Shanxi , Yunnan , Mongolia , and Dunhuang , which progressively weakened their military power. Their political power came to the ultimate decline when the Tusi system was abolished in 1931, which exacerbated more Monguor to lose their language. By the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949, only about fifty thousand of

12978-468: The national defense, and political and religious affairs of China. Starting in the middle of the Ming dynasty, the ranches of the Monguor were taken into the state possession, and their horses became the subject of being drafted into the national army and looted by the Mongols from the north, resulting in the eventual shift of their lifestyles toward sedentary agriculture, supplemented by minimum animal husbandry, as

13104-454: The northeast, Murong Wei composed an "Older Brother’s Song," or "the Song of A Gan:" "A Gan" is Chinese transcription of "a ga" for "older brother" in the Xianbei language. The song lamented his sadness and longing for Tuyühu . Legends accounted that Murong Wei often sang it until he died and the song got spread into central and northwest China. The Murong Xianbei whom he had led successively founded

13230-528: The northwest, their religious lives shifted from the Chinese toward Tibetan Buddhism. After Western Xia fell, its territory centered in Ningxia was fragmented by the successive establishments of Shaanxi , Gansu , and Qinghai provinces, which increasingly weakened the political and military powers of the Monguor. Through the Ming (1368–1644) and Qing (1644–1912) dynasties, the Monguor continued to play important roles in

13356-454: The original Monguor groups became settled into the form of different villages . In the last two centuries, the areas formerly occupied by the Monguor were encroached upon by increasing inland Chinese migrations. Throughout this period, the Monguor maintained a high degree of political autonomy and self governance under the local chiefdom system of Tusi . The Monguor troops led by their Tusi defended not only their own homeland but also joined

13482-432: The prefix "Mengwu" (or "Mongol") in front of "Shiwei" (or "Xianbei") marked the difference between the Mongols and the Xianbei, the prefix "Chaghan" in front of "Monguor" indicated that the Monguor and their Xianbei predecessors were not the same as the Mongols. Culturally, the Mongols have retained a nomadic lifestyle, whereas the social organizations and religious lives of the Monguor are of far greater complexities. When

13608-606: The present Jinzhou City and one near Yi County. Another Mt. Xianbei was recorded in the northern portions of Daxinganling, located near Alihe Town of Oroqin Autonomous Banner in Hulunbeiermeng in the northeastern portion of Inner Mongolia that borders eastern Russia . The Gaxian Cave, currently Khabarovsk and Amur regions in the Russian Far East , which had stone inscriptions of the Northern Wei emperor dated 443,

13734-500: The reference of China known as "Hătāi" and " Cathay " in the Persian and European countries. The reference of "Qara" (or "Black") as a prefix in the name of the Khitans and "Khara" (or "Black") in that of the Mongols may indicate that both groups had substantial input from the Xiongnu , who by self proclaiming to be "Xianbei" earlier made it hard in distinguish in the Chinese records. After

13860-546: The region, reinforced by the rare military intervention. Tibetan Buddhism was adopted as the de facto state religion by the Mongol Yuan dynasty (1271–1368) of Kublai Khan . It was also during this period that the Tibetan Buddhist canon was compiled, primarily led by the efforts of the scholar Butön Rinchen Drup (1290–1364). A part of this project included the carving of the canon into wood blocks for printing , and

13986-431: The self-reference of the Monguor as "Chaghan Monguor" (or "White Mongols"), and "Hour" was a variant record to the Tibetan reference of the Monguor as "Huo’er" used by the Tibetans today. In the beginning of the Tang dynasty , the Tuyühu Empire came to a gradual decline and was increasingly caught in the conflict between the Tang and the Tibetan Empire . Because the Tuyühu Empire controlled the crucial trade routes between

14112-456: The social organizations have been influenced by Tibetan Buddhism , Confucianism , Taoism and local beliefs. A few Tu in Huzhu and Minhe are Christian, the result of on-going American and Korean missionary work in the area. The ethnic history of the Monguor is contested. It has been variously suggested that their origins are related to the Tuyuhun Xianbei , to Mongol troops who came to

14238-643: The southwest, after having left Cao Cao of the Cao Wei Kingdom (220-265) in China proper . The Chinese name "Guan" in Guanting came from the last name of Guan Yu, whereas "Ting" came from the Chinese character for "stop" ( Chinese : 停 ) or "pavilion" ( Chinese : 亭 ). The informal reference by the local residents of the Monguor is " Sanchuan " ( Chinese : 三川 ), which literally means "Three Plains" and applies to

14364-581: The teachings of the Sakya , Kagyu and Nyingma , including many near-extinct teachings. Without Khyentse and Kongtrul's collecting and printing of rare works, the suppression of Buddhism by the Communists would have been much more final. The Rimé movement is responsible for a number of scriptural compilations, such as the Rinchen Terdzod and the Sheja Dzö . During the Qing, Tibetan Buddhism also remained

14490-407: The term used is Lamaism (literally, "doctrine of the lamas": 喇嘛教 lama jiao ) to distinguish it from a then-traditional Chinese Buddhism ( 佛教 fo jiao ). The term was taken up by western scholars, including Hegel , as early as 1822. Insofar as it implies a discontinuity between Indian and Tibetan Buddhism, the term has been discredited. Another term, " Vajrayāna " (Tibetan: dorje tegpa )

14616-551: The translation of major Buddhist texts, which evolved into the canons of Bka'-'gyur (Translation of the Buddha Word) and Bstan-'gyur (Translation of Teachings). The Bka'-'gyur has six main categories: (1) Tantra , (2) Prajñāpāramitā , (3) Ratnakūṭa Sūtra , (4) Avataṃsaka Sūtra , (5) Other sutras, and (6) Vinaya . The Bstan-'gyur comprises 3,626 texts and 224 volumes on such things as hymns, commentaries and suppplementary tantric material. Atiśa's chief disciple, Dromtön founded

14742-460: The western side of the Yellow River , in contrast to the Liao (916–1125) and Jin on its east. The Mongolian usage of "Tangut" most likely referred to the " Donghu people ;" "-t" in Mongolian language means "people". Whereas "Donghu" was a Chinese transcription, its Mongolian reference was "Tünghu". By the time that the Mongols emerged in the thirteenth century, the only "Donghu people" who existed were

14868-420: The years 908 and 1042, the reference became simplified into "Tuhu" and "Tüihu" people. As the other ethnic groups of the Tuyühu Empire came to be ascribed with different ethnonyms through subsequent history, the Xianbei who founded the empire remained to bear with the identity of "Tu." The name "Tu" was most likely associated with a derogatory meaning and "indigenous people". Its derogatory undertone came from

14994-567: Was "the Great Xia Kingdom of the White and Mighty," or "Bai Gao Da Xia Guo" (白高大夏国). The term "White" (or "Bai") was designated to the founding ethnic group, the Xianbei descendants of the Tuyühu Empire, which is consistent with their reference of "Chaghan" (or "White"), derived from their origins from the Murong Xianbei known as the "White Section." The term "Mighty" (or "Gao") was designated to

15120-484: Was a federation formed from the Donghu, Wuhuan , and Xianbei . Among the northern ethnic groups, the Donghu was the earliest to evolve into a state of civilization and first developed bronze technology. Through the usage of bronze weaponry and armored cavalry in warfare, they maintained extensive dominance over the Xiongnu on their west. In the end of the third century B.C., the Xiongnu Maodun attacked to destroy

15246-615: Was associated with the Hongshan Culture. In archaeological terms, the Hongshan Culture gradually gave rise to the Lower Xiajiadian Culture and represented the transition toward the bronze technology. It eventually evolved into the Upper Xiajidian Culture, which was associated with the Donghu and characterized by the practice of agriculture and animal husbandry supplemented by handicrafts and bronze art. The Donghu

15372-521: Was during this era that Altan Khan the leader of the Tümed Mongols, converted to Buddhism, and allied with the Gelug school, conferring the title of Dalai Lama to Sonam Gyatso in 1578. During a Tibetan civil war in the 17th century, Sonam Choephel (1595–1657 CE), the chief regent of the 5th Dalai Lama , conquered and unified Tibet to establish the Ganden Phodrang government with the help of

15498-543: Was first used by the European Catholic missionaries, Smedt and Mosaert, who studied the Monguor language and compiled a Monguor- French dictionary in the beginning of the twentieth century. Subsequently, the Flemish Catholic missionary, Louis Schram, made it into an international name through three volumes of extensive reports based on his experiences from having lived among them from 1911 to 1922. The term

15624-422: Was likely associated with the submission of the Xiongnu under Xianbei. In 87 A.D., the Xianbei defeated the northern Xiongnu and killed their king, Chanyu Youliu, causing its thorough disintegration. Thereafter, the Xiongnu submitted under and self-proclaimed to be Xianbei. This resulted in a mix of the Xiongnu into Xianbei and made it difficult to differentiate the two groups in subsequent historical records. That

15750-682: Was recognized to be the sacred ancestral shrine of the Xianbei. In the northwest, the Qilian Mountains that run along Gansu and Qinghai provinces were referred to as the Greater Mt. Xianbei. In Sanchuan / Guanting of Minhe County in Qinghai , which holds the most densely populated Monguor settlement, Mt. Xianbei stands in the west, upon which sits the ancestral shrine of the Xianbei Khans. After Tuyühu Khan died in Linxia , also known as Huozhou, Gansu in 317, his sixty sons inherited to further develop

15876-461: Was traditionally a reverence term for a deceased ancestor with deity status. The earliest record of the Monguor in the Western publications was made by the French missionaries, Huc and Gabet, who traveled through northwest China in 1844–46. They used "Dschiahour" to represent the Monguor, based on Tibetan reference, in which "Dschia" was likely abbreviated from the first part of "Chaghan" (or "White") from

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