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55-596: The most violent ground movement was within 50 miles of the epicenter , though the earthquake was felt as far away as Los Angeles. With a moment magnitude of 6.6, it was the most destructive earthquake to hit the United States since the Northridge quake of 1994 . The area around the epicenter being sparsely populated, the most severe damage was in Paso Robles , 24 miles (39 km) east-southeast. Two women were killed when

110-482: A 'guess and correction' algorithm. As well, a very good model of the local crustal velocity structure is required: seismic velocities vary with the local geology. For P waves, the relation between velocity and bulk density of the medium has been quantified in Gardner's relation . Before the instrumental period of earthquake observation, the epicenter was thought to be the location where the greatest damage occurred, but

165-482: A macroseismic epicenter can be given. The word is derived from the Neo-Latin noun epicentrum , the latinisation of the ancient Greek adjective ἐπίκεντρος ( epikentros ), "occupying a cardinal point, situated on a centre", from ἐπί ( epi ) "on, upon, at" and κέντρον ( kentron ) " centre ". The term was coined by Irish seismologist Robert Mallet . It is also used to mean "center of activity", as in "Travel

220-501: A mantle of silicates, surrounding a core of iron. In 1906 Richard Dixon Oldham identified the separate arrival of P waves , S waves and surface waves on seismograms and found the first clear evidence that the Earth has a central core. In 1909, Andrija Mohorovičić , one of the founders of modern seismology, discovered and defined the Mohorovičić discontinuity . Usually referred to as

275-399: A month after the event. The first observations of normal modes were made in the 1960s as the advent of higher fidelity instruments coincided with two of the largest earthquakes of the 20th century the 1960 Valdivia earthquake and the 1964 Alaska earthquake . Since then, the normal modes of the Earth have given us some of the strongest constraints on the deep structure of the Earth. One of

330-412: A near-surface explosion, and are much weaker for deep earthquake sources. Both body and surface waves are traveling waves; however, large earthquakes can also make the entire Earth "ring" like a resonant bell. This ringing is a mixture of normal modes with discrete frequencies and periods of approximately an hour or shorter. Normal mode motion caused by a very large earthquake can be observed for up to

385-449: A particular location within a particular time-span, and they are routinely used in earthquake engineering . Public controversy over earthquake prediction erupted after Italian authorities indicted six seismologists and one government official for manslaughter in connection with a magnitude 6.3 earthquake in L'Aquila, Italy on April 5, 2009 . A report in Nature stated that the indictment

440-405: A sense of the direction of the first motions from an earthquake. The Chinese frog seismograph would have dropped its ball in the general compass direction of the earthquake, assuming a strong positive pulse. We now know that first motions can be in almost any direction depending on the type of initiating rupture ( focal mechanism ). The first refinement that allowed a more precise determination of

495-518: A special meeting in L'Aquila the week before the earthquake occurred, scientists and officials were more interested in pacifying the population than providing adequate information about earthquake risk and preparedness. In locations where a historical record exists it may be used to estimate the timing, location and magnitude of future seismic events. There are several interpretative factors to consider. The epicentres or foci and magnitudes of historical earthquakes are subject to interpretation meaning it

550-445: A third seismograph would there be a precise location. Modern earthquake location still requires a minimum of three seismometers. Most likely, there are many, forming a seismic array. The emphasis is on precision since much can be learned about the fault mechanics and seismic hazard , if the locations can be determined to be within a kilometer or two, for small earthquakes. For this, computer programs use an iterative process, involving

605-569: A very short time frame in a seismic cycle . Engineering seismology is the study and application of seismology for engineering purposes. It generally applied to the branch of seismology that deals with the assessment of the seismic hazard of a site or region for the purposes of earthquake engineering. It is, therefore, a link between earth science and civil engineering . There are two principal components of engineering seismology. Firstly, studying earthquake history (e.g. historical and instrumental catalogs of seismicity) and tectonics to assess

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660-574: Is paleoseismology . A recording of Earth motion as a function of time, created by a seismograph is called a seismogram . A seismologist is a scientist works in basic or applied seismology. Scholarly interest in earthquakes can be traced back to antiquity. Early speculations on the natural causes of earthquakes were included in the writings of Thales of Miletus ( c.  585 BCE ), Anaximenes of Miletus ( c.  550 BCE ), Aristotle ( c.  340 BCE ), and Zhang Heng (132 CE). In 132 CE, Zhang Heng of China's Han dynasty designed

715-538: Is called a seismograph . Networks of seismographs continuously record ground motions around the world to facilitate the monitoring and analysis of global earthquakes and other sources of seismic activity. Rapid location of earthquakes makes tsunami warnings possible because seismic waves travel considerably faster than tsunami waves. Seismometers also record signals from non-earthquake sources ranging from explosions (nuclear and chemical), to local noise from wind or anthropogenic activities, to incessant signals generated at

770-413: Is possible that 5–6 Mw earthquakes described in the historical record could be larger events occurring elsewhere that were felt moderately in the populated areas that produced written records. Documentation in the historic period may be sparse or incomplete, and not give a full picture of the geographic scope of an earthquake, or the historical record may only have earthquake records spanning a few centuries,

825-508: Is restricted in the Chinese province thought to be the epicentre of the SARS outbreak." Garner's Modern American Usage gives several examples of use in which "epicenter" is used to mean "center". Garner also refers to a William Safire article in which Safire quotes a geophysicist as attributing the use of the term to "spurious erudition on the part of writers combined with scientific illiteracy on

880-469: Is the point on the Earth 's surface directly above a hypocenter or focus , the point where an earthquake or an underground explosion originates. The primary purpose of a seismometer is to locate the initiating points of earthquake epicenters. The secondary purpose, of determining the 'size' or magnitude must be calculated after the precise location is known. The earliest seismographs were designed to give

935-451: The VAN method . Most seismologists do not believe that a system to provide timely warnings for individual earthquakes has yet been developed, and many believe that such a system would be unlikely to give useful warning of impending seismic events. However, more general forecasts routinely predict seismic hazard . Such forecasts estimate the probability of an earthquake of a particular size affecting

990-514: The "Moho discontinuity" or the " Moho ," it is the boundary between the Earth 's crust and the mantle . It is defined by the distinct change in velocity of seismological waves as they pass through changing densities of rock. In 1910, after studying the April 1906 San Francisco earthquake , Harry Fielding Reid put forward the " elastic rebound theory " which remains the foundation for modern tectonic studies. The development of this theory depended on

1045-511: The Acorn Building, an unreinforced masonry structure built in 1892, collapsed. Other unreinforced masonry buildings, some more than a century old, were extensively damaged. No structure that had even partial retrofitting collapsed. Two sulfur hot springs in Paso Robles erupted after the earthquake. One was underneath the parking lot of the recently opened city hall/library building. There

1100-595: The behaviour and causation of earthquakes. The earliest responses include work by John Bevis (1757) and John Michell (1761). Michell determined that earthquakes originate within the Earth and were waves of movement caused by "shifting masses of rock miles below the surface". In response to a series of earthquakes near Comrie in Scotland in 1839, a committee was formed in the United Kingdom in order to produce better detection methods for earthquakes. The outcome of this

1155-696: The care and maintenance of the Acorn Building, due to not retrofitting the building, in violation of city ordinances. The jury awarded nearly $ 2 million to the plaintiffs. Outside of Paso Robles the damage was less severe, with unreinforced masonry buildings taking minor to moderate damage. Buildings even 40 miles from the epicenter in San Luis Obispo suffered minor damage such as ceiling tiles falling. Brick veneers were also disproportionately affected. In addition, water tanks in Paso Robles, Templeton and Los Osos were damaged. Residential buildings, predominantly one- to two-story wood-frame structures, weathered

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1210-532: The considerable progress of earlier independent streams of work on the behavior of elastic materials and in mathematics. An early scientific study of aftershocks from a destructive earthquake came after the January 1920 Xalapa earthquake . An 80 kg (180 lb) Wiechert seismograph was brought to the Mexican city of Xalapa by rail after the earthquake. The instrument was deployed to record its aftershocks. Data from

1265-512: The earth to a resolution of several hundred kilometers. This has enabled scientists to identify convection cells and other large-scale features such as the large low-shear-velocity provinces near the core–mantle boundary . Forecasting a probable timing, location, magnitude and other important features of a forthcoming seismic event is called earthquake prediction . Various attempts have been made by seismologists and others to create effective systems for precise earthquake predictions, including

1320-456: The first attempts at the scientific study of earthquakes followed the 1755 Lisbon earthquake. Other notable earthquakes that spurred major advancements in the science of seismology include the 1857 Basilicata earthquake , the 1906 San Francisco earthquake, the 1964 Alaska earthquake , the 2004 Sumatra-Andaman earthquake , and the 2011 Great East Japan earthquake . Seismic waves produced by explosions or vibrating controlled sources are one of

1375-578: The first known seismoscope . In the 17th century, Athanasius Kircher argued that earthquakes were caused by the movement of fire within a system of channels inside the Earth. Martin Lister (1638–1712) and Nicolas Lemery (1645–1715) proposed that earthquakes were caused by chemical explosions within the Earth. The Lisbon earthquake of 1755 , coinciding with the general flowering of science in Europe , set in motion intensified scientific attempts to understand

1430-415: The first waves to appear on a seismogram as they are the fastest moving waves through solids. S waves are transverse waves that move perpendicular to the direction of propagation. S waves are slower than P waves. Therefore, they appear later than P waves on a seismogram. Fluids cannot support transverse elastic waves because of their low shear strength, so S waves only travel in solids. Surface waves are

1485-416: The focus and then expands along the fault surface. The rupture stops where the stresses become insufficient to continue breaking the fault (because the rocks are stronger) or where the rupture enters ductile material. The magnitude of an earthquake is related to the total area of its fault rupture. Most earthquakes are small, with rupture dimensions less than the depth of the focus so the rupture doesn't break

1540-473: The foundation of modern instrumental seismology and carried out seismological experiments using explosives. He is also responsible for coining the word "seismology." In 1889 Ernst von Rebeur-Paschwitz recorded the first teleseismic earthquake signal (an earthquake in Japan recorded at Pottsdam Germany). In 1897, Emil Wiechert 's theoretical calculations led him to conclude that the Earth's interior consists of

1595-452: The generation and propagation of elastic waves through the Earth or other planetary bodies . It also includes studies of earthquake environmental effects such as tsunamis as well as diverse seismic sources such as volcanic, tectonic, glacial, fluvial , oceanic microseism , atmospheric, and artificial processes such as explosions and human activities . A related field that uses geology to infer information regarding past earthquakes

1650-432: The global seismographic monitoring has been for the detection and study of nuclear testing . Because seismic waves commonly propagate efficiently as they interact with the internal structure of the Earth, they provide high-resolution noninvasive methods for studying the planet's interior. One of the earliest important discoveries (suggested by Richard Dixon Oldham in 1906 and definitively shown by Harold Jeffreys in 1926)

1705-453: The hypocenter. Seismic shadowing occurs on the opposite side of the Earth from the earthquake epicenter because the planet's liquid outer core refracts the longitudinal or compressional ( P waves ) while it absorbs the transverse or shear waves ( S waves ). Outside the seismic shadow zone, both types of wave can be detected, but because of their different velocities and paths through the Earth, they arrive at different times. By measuring

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1760-406: The interior of the materials; surface waves that travel along surfaces or interfaces between materials; and normal modes , a form of standing wave. There are two types of body waves, pressure waves or primary waves (P waves) and shear or secondary waves ( S waves ). P waves are longitudinal waves that involve compression and expansion in the direction that the wave is moving and are always

1815-413: The location was the use of a time scale. Instead of merely noting, or recording, the absolute motions of a pendulum , the displacements were plotted on a moving graph, driven by a clock mechanism. This was the first seismogram , which allowed precise timing of the first ground motion , and an accurate plot of subsequent motions. From the first seismograms, as seen in the figure, it was noticed that

1870-481: The ocean floor and coasts induced by ocean waves (the global microseism ), to cryospheric events associated with large icebergs and glaciers. Above-ocean meteor strikes with energies as high as 4.2 × 10 J (equivalent to that released by an explosion of ten kilotons of TNT) have been recorded by seismographs, as have a number of industrial accidents and terrorist bombs and events (a field of study referred to as forensic seismology ). A major long-term motivation for

1925-436: The ocean processes responsible for the global background seismic microseism . By the 1960s, Earth science had developed to the point where a comprehensive theory of the causation of seismic events and geodetic motions had come together in the now well-established theory of plate tectonics . Seismic waves are elastic waves that propagate in solid or fluid materials. They can be divided into body waves that travel through

1980-446: The part of copy editors". Garner has speculated that these misuses may just be "metaphorical descriptions of focal points of unstable and potentially destructive environments." Seismology Seismology ( / s aɪ z ˈ m ɒ l ə dʒ i , s aɪ s -/ ; from Ancient Greek σεισμός ( seismós ) meaning " earthquake " and -λογία ( -logía ) meaning "study of") is the scientific study of earthquakes (or generally, quakes ) and

2035-587: The potential earthquake hazard. The law was called Jenna's Bill , after Jennifer Myrick, who died in the quake. The area where the quake struck displays a complex faulting geometry, between the active Oceanic Fault and the older Nacimiento Fault , along with possible interaction from the Hosgri and San Simeon segments of the mainly offshore San Gregorio -San Simeon-Hosgri fault zone. Sources Epicenter The epicenter ( / ˈ ɛ p ɪ ˌ s ɛ n t ər / ), epicentre , or epicentrum in seismology

2090-473: The primary methods of underground exploration in geophysics (in addition to many different electromagnetic methods such as induced polarization and magnetotellurics ). Controlled-source seismology has been used to map salt domes , anticlines and other geologic traps in petroleum -bearing rocks , faults , rock types, and long-buried giant meteor craters . For example, the Chicxulub Crater , which

2145-531: The quake with little or no damage. The building that housed Atascadero's City Hall was damaged and vacated shortly after the quake. After extensive repairs, it reopened in August 2013. Some wineries , especially those near the epicenter along State Route 46 , reported damage such as barrels toppling and bursting. The Mission San Miguel Arcángel had $ 15 million worth of damage. The earthquake also caused extensive damage to George H. Flamson Middle School. The main building

2200-425: The range of 2,000−10,000 km. Once distances from the epicenter have been calculated from at least three seismographic measuring stations, the point can be located, using trilateration . Epicentral distance is also used in calculating seismic magnitudes as developed by Richter and Gutenberg . The point at which fault slipping begins is referred to as the focus of the earthquake. The fault rupture begins at

2255-515: The requirement for a full Environmental Impact Study, and the inability to do any work on the project, other than the initial emergency work. Another hot spring flowed out of the embankment at the Paso Robles Street exit on U.S. Route 101 . There was a wrongful death lawsuit filed by the relatives of the 2 women killed in the earthquake against Mary Mastagni, and several trusts which owned the Acorn Building. The jury found Mastagni negligent in

2003 San Simeon earthquake - Misplaced Pages Continue

2310-399: The result of P and S waves interacting with the surface of the Earth. These waves are dispersive , meaning that different frequencies have different velocities. The two main surface wave types are Rayleigh waves , which have both compressional and shear motions, and Love waves , which are purely shear. Rayleigh waves result from the interaction of P waves and vertically polarized S waves with

2365-416: The seismograph would eventually determine that the mainshock was produced along a shallow crustal fault. In 1926, Harold Jeffreys was the first to claim, based on his study of earthquake waves, that below the mantle, the core of the Earth is liquid. In 1937, Inge Lehmann determined that within Earth's liquid outer core there is a solid inner core . In 1950, Michael S. Longuet-Higgins elucidated

2420-726: The subsurface fault rupture may be long and spread surface damage across the entire rupture zone. As an example, in the magnitude 7.9 Denali earthquake of 2002 in Alaska , the epicenter was at the western end of the rupture, but the greatest damage was about 330 km (210 mi) away at the eastern end. Focal depths of earthquakes occurring in continental crust mostly range from 2 to 20 kilometers (1.2 to 12.4 mi). Continental earthquakes below 20 km (12 mi) are rare whereas in subduction zone earthquakes can originate at depths deeper than 600 km (370 mi). During an earthquake, seismic waves propagates in all directions from

2475-476: The surface and can exist in any solid medium. Love waves are formed by horizontally polarized S waves interacting with the surface, and can only exist if there is a change in the elastic properties with depth in a solid medium, which is always the case in seismological applications. Surface waves travel more slowly than P waves and S waves because they are the result of these waves traveling along indirect paths to interact with Earth's surface. Because they travel along

2530-399: The surface of the Earth, their energy decays less rapidly than body waves (1/distance vs. 1/distance ), and thus the shaking caused by surface waves is generally stronger than that of body waves, and the primary surface waves are often thus the largest signals on earthquake seismograms . Surface waves are strongly excited when their source is close to the surface, as in a shallow earthquake or

2585-704: The surface, but in high magnitude, destructive earthquakes, surface breaks are common. Fault ruptures in large earthquakes can extend for more than 100 km (62 mi). When a fault ruptures unilaterally (with the epicenter at or near the end of the fault break) the waves are stronger in one direction along the fault. The macroseismic epicenter is the best estimate of the location of the epicenter derived without instrumental data. This may be estimated using intensity data, information about foreshocks and aftershocks, knowledge of local fault systems or extrapolations from data regarding similar earthquakes. For historical earthquakes that have not been instrumentally recorded, only

2640-406: The time difference on any seismograph and the distance on a travel-time graph on which the P wave and S wave have the same separation, geologists can calculate the distance to the quake's epicenter. This distance is called the epicentral distance , commonly measured in ° (degrees) and denoted as Δ (delta) in seismology. The Láska's empirical rule provides an approximation of epicentral distance in

2695-467: The trace was divided into two major portions. The first seismic wave to arrive was the P wave , followed closely by the S wave . Knowing the relative 'velocities of propagation', it was a simple matter to calculate the distance of the earthquake. One seismograph would give the distance, but that could be plotted as a circle, with an infinite number of possibilities. Two seismographs would give two intersecting circles, with two possible locations. Only with

2750-591: Was caused by an impact that has been implicated in the extinction of the dinosaurs , was localized to Central America by analyzing ejecta in the Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary , and then physically proven to exist using seismic maps from oil exploration . Seismometers are sensors that detect and record the motion of the Earth arising from elastic waves. Seismometers may be deployed at the Earth's surface, in shallow vaults, in boreholes, or underwater . A complete instrument package that records seismic signals

2805-561: Was damaged and had to be demolished in 2004. A new building reflecting the original 1924 building was opened for use in August 2010. In Templeton, Bethel Lutheran Church (ELCA), sustained major damage to its 110+ year old building and the apse had to be rebuilt. Following the event, California enacted A.B. 2533, amending the California Business and Professions Code § 8875.8, requiring that certain unreinforced masonry buildings that have not been seismically retrofitted have posted notice of

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2860-400: Was formerly a bath house at the location, and the spring was capped after it closed down. Hot water and sediment were released at a rate of about 1,300 gallons per minute (4,900 liters per minute), forming a large sinkhole and endangering the building. Emergency efforts saved the building. However, it took until 2010 to fully repair the damage and fill in the hole. This was mainly caused by

2915-409: Was that the outer core of the earth is liquid. Since S waves do not pass through liquids, the liquid core causes a "shadow" on the side of the planet opposite the earthquake where no direct S waves are observed. In addition, P waves travel much slower through the outer core than the mantle. Processing readings from many seismometers using seismic tomography , seismologists have mapped the mantle of

2970-415: Was the production of one of the first modern seismometers by James David Forbes , first presented in a report by David Milne-Home in 1842. This seismometer was an inverted pendulum, which recorded the measurements of seismic activity through the use of a pencil placed on paper above the pendulum. The designs provided did not prove effective, according to Milne's reports. From 1857, Robert Mallet laid

3025-711: Was widely seen in Italy and abroad as being for failing to predict the earthquake and drew condemnation from the American Association for the Advancement of Science and the American Geophysical Union . However, the magazine also indicated that the population of Aquila do not consider the failure to predict the earthquake to be the reason for the indictment, but rather the alleged failure of the scientists to evaluate and communicate risk. The indictment claims that, at

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