Tanga Region
115-567: (Redirected from Sambaa ) Sambaa may be: Shambaa people Shambala language Topics referred to by the same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Shambaa . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shambaa&oldid=933122589 " Category : Disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Short description
230-436: A chariot , had a function similar to tournaments and manly sports. Hunting ranked as an honourable, somewhat competitive pastime to help the aristocracy practice skills of war in times of peace. In most parts of medieval Europe, the upper class obtained the sole rights to hunt in certain areas of a feudal territory. Game in these areas was used as a source of food and furs, often provided via professional huntsmen, but it
345-497: A cull ). Recreationally hunted species are generally referred to as the game , and are usually mammals and birds . A person participating in a hunt is a hunter or (less commonly) huntsman ; a natural area used for hunting is called a game reserve ; and an experienced hunter who helps organise a hunt and/or manage the game reserve is also known as a gamekeeper . Hunting activities by humans arose in Homo erectus or earlier, in
460-484: A frugivorous diet. Indirect evidence for Oldowan era hunting, by early Homo or late Australopithecus , has been presented in a 2009 study based on an Oldowan site in southwestern Kenya. Louis Binford (1986) criticised the idea that early hominids and early humans were hunters. On the basis of the analysis of the skeletal remains of the consumed animals, he concluded that hominids and early humans were mostly scavengers , not hunters, Blumenschine (1986) proposed
575-544: A noun ("the act, the practice, or an instance of hunting") and a verb ("to pursue for food or in sport"). The noun has been dated to the early 12th century, from the verb hunt . Old English had huntung, huntoþ . The meaning of "a body of persons associated for the purpose of hunting with a pack of hounds" is first recorded in the 1570s. "The act of searching for someone or something" is from about 1600. The verb, Old English huntian "to chase game" ( transitive and intransitive ), perhaps developed from hunta "hunter,"
690-462: A caution against disrespect of prey or against impudent boasting. With the domestication of the dog, birds of prey , and the ferret , various forms of animal-aided hunting developed, including venery ( scent-hound hunting, such as fox hunting ), coursing ( sight-hound hunting), falconry , and ferreting . While these are all associated with medieval hunting , over time, various dog breeds were selected by humans for very precise tasks during
805-488: A considerable number of recent Sambaa immigrants were entering the relatively safe mountainous area. The Mbughu and Nango refugee groups were particularly significant. They both originated in roughly the same region that eventually became known as the Masai steppe. They ran east to Pare Mountains and from there to Shume , which is the western border of Usambara. The Mbughu, an immigrant Cushitic pastoralist group, threatened
920-572: A distinctive way of hunting was popularized by the US author Ernest Hemingway and President Theodore Roosevelt . A safari may consist of a several-days—or even weeks-long journey, with camping in the bush or jungle , while pursuing big game . Nowadays, it is often used to describe hunting tours through African wildlife. Hunters are usually tourists, accompanied by licensed and highly regulated professional hunters, local guides, skinners , and porters in more difficult terrains. A special safari type
1035-454: A hunt; the rituals done may vary according to the species hunted or the season the hunt is taking place. Often a hunting ground, or the hunt for one or more species, was reserved or prohibited in the context of a temple cult. In Roman religion, Diana is the goddess of the hunt. Hindu scriptures describe hunting as an occupation, as well as a sport of the kingly. Even figures considered divine are described to have engaged in hunting. One of
1150-471: A master of the hunt, who might be styled mir-shikar . Often, they recruited the normally low-ranking local tribes because of their traditional knowledge of the environment and hunting techniques. Big game, such as Bengal tigers , might be hunted from the back of an Indian elephant . Regional social norms are generally antagonistic to hunting, while a few sects , such as the Bishnoi , lay special emphasis on
1265-519: A means of population control . Hunting advocates state that regulated hunting can be a necessary component of modern wildlife management , for example to help maintain a healthy proportion of animal populations within an environment's ecological carrying capacity when natural checks such as natural predators are absent or insufficient, or to provide funding for breeding programs and maintenance of natural reserves and conservation parks . However, excessive hunting has also heavily contributed to
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#17328689217701380-515: A monarch who could settle otherwise intractable internal issues, but they received little benefit from the state. The Kilindi who were deemed too dangerous to reign in Usambara were sent to the Bondei as punishment. Being remote from the capital, the Bondei received nothing in the way of redistributed goods in exchange for the tribute demanded of them. They were considered as foreigners and not allowed to enter
1495-552: A period of cultural diversity within Usambara. The political structure of Usambara was reorganized with the arrival of Kilindi rule, but daily religious and customary practices remained unchanged. Rather than enforcing their own customs, the Kilindi actually had a tendency to adopt the ones they encountered. The fact that the Kilindi perform both the Nango and the Shambaa sacrifices to the ancestors
1610-444: A single hill, apart from those of other ancestors. The local populace offered sacrifices to the ancestors as a group. It was always possible for some individuals to relocate to a different village, and the relationship between the two villages would frequently lose significance. Despite this, it was evident that meeting and working together was important for the residents of multiple villages, even in cases where economic specialization
1725-535: A subsistence activity to a selective one, two trends emerged: The meaning of the word game in Middle English evolved to include an animal which is hunted. As the domestication of animals for meat grew, subsistence hunting remained among the lowest classes; however, the stylised pursuit of game in European societies became a luxury. Dangerous hunting, such as for lions or wild boars , often done on horseback or from
1840-498: A war to get you back if he believed he was stronger than the chief one had fled to. As a result, slaves who fled Vugha and joined the king's army tended to become even more powerful since it was the most powerful chiefdom in Usambara. Furthermore, the requirement that every resident of the Vugha region own at least one house in the town increased the king's authority. In 1857, Burton and Speke learned that Vugha had 3,000 residents. There
1955-449: A whole area were made by designated blacksmiths. The Masai people migrated to Tanzania from the north, probably in the early to late 1700s , and this contributed significantly to the development of more centralized political structures by teh Sambaa. Because of the risk of Masai raids and violence, settlement on the lower slopes became more precarious, and even in the highest areas, centralized towns were helpful for defense. Furthermore,
2070-573: A wife when he slaughtered the wild pigs that were destroying their crops. They made him their king after he killed a lion that had been attacking their cattle. The story contrasted the life of a hunter with an agriculturalist's, as well as meat with veggie sustenance, among its many levels of meaning. Megha was a fierce hunter who was outside the bounds of civilized civilization until the Shamba gave him vegetable food and introduced him to their way of life, civilizing him. The dichotomy between cultivated land and
2185-604: Is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Shambaa people ( Lushoto District ) ( Korogwe District ) The Shambaa people , also called the Sambaa , Shambala , Sambala or Sambara ( Wasambaa , in Swahili ), are a Bantu ethnic group. Their ancestral home is on the Usambara Mountains of Lushoto District , Korogwe District and Bumbuli District . They are native to
2300-428: Is illicit, and canonists generally make a distinction declaring noisy ( clamorosa ) hunting unlawful, but not quiet ( quieta ) hunting. Ferraris gives it as the general sense of canonists that hunting is allowed to clerics if it be indulged in rarely and for sufficient cause, as necessity, utility or "honest" recreation, and with that moderation which is becoming to the ecclesiastical state. Ziegler, however, thinks that
2415-402: Is more conformable to the ecclesiastical law . In practice, therefore, the synodal statutes of various localities must be consulted to discover whether they allow quiet hunting or prohibit it altogether. Small-scale hunting as a family or subsistence farming activity is recognised by Pope Francis in his encyclical letter, Laudato si' , as a legitimate and valuable aspect of employment within
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#17328689217702530-406: Is murder of his grandfather Mbogho established the true power of the Kilindi. Bughe stole the royal stool, the royal spear , and the headdress after the murder. For a fair evaluation, the founding narratives of the Usambara kingdom from both the Nango and the Kilindi must be taken into consideration. It is improbable that the kingdom was founded without violence, and there are additional tales from
2645-401: Is now silent." Kimweri, who ruled a conservative kingdom from a mountain capital far from the trade routes, was hesitant to see the value of firearms , but his border chiefs welcomed them and gained allies from outside the country. Semboja, one of Kimweri's younger sons, ruled Mazinde , which is located close above the trade route, and amassed troops and supporters. When Kimweri died in 1862,
2760-456: Is one illustration of how they handle cultural issues. When it came to performing rites of passage, the Kilindi rose to prominence, but they always adopted the Shambaa rituals. The arrival of the Kilindi revolutionized Usambara's political life, but daily rituals such as birth, marriage, and death did not change. Throughout the majority of the kingdom's pre-colonial history, Usambara was led by five or six prominent chiefs. We may assume that there
2875-407: Is permitted. The Sikh gurus , especially Guru Hargobind and Guru Gobind Singh were ardent hunters. Many old Sikh Rehatnamas like Prem Sumarag , recommend hunting wild boar and deer . However, among modern Sikhs, the practice of hunting has died down; some even saying that all meat is forbidden. From early Christian times, hunting has been forbidden to Roman Catholic Church clerics . Thus
2990-408: Is related to hentan "to seize," from Proto-Germanic huntojan (the source also of Gothic hinþan "to seize, capture," Old High German hunda "booty"), which is of uncertain origin. The general sense of "search diligently" (for anything) is first recorded c. 1200. Hunting has a long history. It predates the emergence of Homo sapiens ( anatomically modern humans ) and may even predate
3105-464: Is represented by deities such as the horned god Cernunnos and lunar goddesses of classical antiquity , the Greek Artemis or Roman Diana . Taboos are often related to hunting, and mythological association of prey species with a divinity could be reflected in hunting restrictions such as a reserve surrounding a temple. Euripides ' tale of Artemis and Actaeon , for example, may be seen as
3220-544: Is still called so. The practices of netting or trapping insects and other arthropods for trophy collection , or the foraging or gathering of plants and mushrooms , are also not regarded as hunting. Skillful tracking and acquisition of an elusive target has caused the word hunt to be used in the vernacular as a metaphor for searching and obtaining something, as in " treasure hunting ", " bargain hunting", " hunting for votes " and even " hunting down " corruption and waste . The word hunt serves as both
3335-446: Is the chasing of hares with hounds . Pairs of sighthounds (or long-dogs), such as greyhounds , may be used to pursue a hare in coursing, where the greyhounds are marked as to their skill in coursing the hare (but are not intended to actually catch it), or the hare may be pursued with scent hounds such as beagles or harriers. Other sorts of foxhounds may also be used for hunting stags (deer) or mink . Deer stalking with rifles
3450-511: Is the solo-safari, where all the license acquiring, stalking, preparation, and outfitting is done by the hunter himself. During the feudal and colonial times in British India , hunting or shikar was regarded as a regal sport in the numerous princely states , as many maharajas and nawabs , as well as British officers, maintained a whole corps of shikari s ( big-game hunters ), who were native professional hunters. They would be headed by
3565-478: Is the story as the Kilindi intended it to be told. There is conflicting evidence , which is why the Mbegha story is shrouded in doubt. According to a Nango tradition, Mbegha was a popular and giving man but lacked actual authority. During Mbegha's reign, a strongman from Shume by the name of Mbogho led the Nango. Mbegha had a child named Bughe after marrying Mbogho's daughter. The legend continues by explaining how Bughe
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3680-438: Is too young and inexperienced to exercise strong authority. Furthermore, it is prohibited for the Kilindi to enter certain towns in Nango. The king is not allowed to go inside the Nango towns of Tekwa and Wena, not even for food, save on one unique occasion. A woman by the name of Mboza Mamwinu was the oldest. Bumbuli chiefdom, who was the mother of the heir apparent. Bughe had three children of political significance. The eldest
3795-465: Is used for Sambaa lands. The Shambaa call their lands Shambalai . They are related to the Bondei and Zigua people, and the Shambala language is mutually intelligible with Bondei and Zigua , with the three groups sharing significant overlap in territory and a long history of intermarriage. The similarity between them has prompted some to refer to themselves as "Boshazi" (the first syllable from each of
3910-696: The Corpus Juris Canonici (C. ii, X, De cleric. venat.) says, "We forbid to all servants of God hunting and expeditions through the woods with hounds; and we also forbid them to keep hawks or falcons." The Fourth Council of the Lateran , held under Pope Innocent III , decreed (canon xv): "We interdict hunting or hawking to all clerics." The decree of the Council of Trent is worded more mildly: "Let clerics abstain from illicit hunting and hawking" (Sess. XXIV, De reform., c. xii), which seems to imply that not all hunting
4025-993: The Abushiri war. Due to Baumann's significant influence, Semboja was perceived by the Germans as an enemy as well as a bandit. Hunter Hunting is the human practice of seeking, pursuing, capturing, and killing wildlife or feral animals . The most common reasons for humans to hunt are to obtain the animal's body for meat and useful animal products ( fur / hide , bone / tusks , horn / antler , etc.), for recreation / taxidermy (see trophy hunting ), although it may also be done for resourceful reasons such as removing predators dangerous to humans or domestic animals (e.g. wolf hunting ), to eliminate pests and nuisance animals that damage crops / livestock / poultry or spread diseases (see varminting ), for trade/tourism (see safari ), or for ecological conservation against overpopulation and invasive species (commonly called
4140-542: The Arctic trap and hunt animals for clothing and use the skins of sea mammals to make kayaks , clothing, and footwear. On ancient reliefs , especially from Mesopotamia , kings are often depicted by sculptors as hunters of big game such as lions and are often portrayed hunting from a war chariot - early examples of royalty symbolically and militaristically engaging in hunting as "the sport of kings". The cultural and psychological importance of hunting in ancient societies
4255-623: The First World War . Unarmed fox hunting on horseback with hounds is the type of hunting most closely associated with the United Kingdom; in fact, "hunting" without qualification implies fox hunting. What in other countries is called "hunting" is called "shooting" (birds) or "stalking" (deer) in Britain. Fox hunting is a social activity for the upper classes, with roles strictly defined by wealth and status. Similar to fox hunting in many ways
4370-874: The Labrador Retriever , the Golden Retriever , the Chesapeake Bay Retriever , the Brittany Spaniel , and other similar breeds. Game birds are flushed out using flushing spaniels such as the English Springer Spaniel , the various Cocker Spaniels and similar breeds. The hunting of wild mammals in England and Wales with dogs was banned under the Hunting Act 2004 . The wild mammals include fox, hare, deer and mink. There are, however, exceptions in
4485-624: The University of Southern California , has suggested that the discovery of spear use by chimpanzees probably means that early humans used wooden spears as well, perhaps, five million years ago. The earliest dated find of surviving wooden hunting spears dates to the very end of the Lower Paleolithic , about 300,000 years ago. The Schöningen spears , found in 1976 in Germany , are associated with Homo heidelbergensis . The hunting hypothesis sees
4600-538: The control of fire , is emphasised in the so-called " hunting hypothesis " and de-emphasised in scenarios that stress omnivory and social interaction . There is no direct evidence for hunting predating Homo erectus , in either Homo habilis or in Australopithecus . The early hominid ancestors of humans were probably frugivores or omnivores , with a partially carnivorous diet from scavenging rather than hunting. Evidence for australopithecine meat consumption
4715-539: The domestication of livestock and the dawn of agriculture , beginning about 11,000 years ago in some parts of the world. In addition to the spear , hunting weapons developed during the Upper Paleolithic include the atlatl (a spear-thrower; before 30,000 years ago) and the bow (18,000 years ago). By the Mesolithic , hunting strategies had diversified with the development of these more far-reaching weapons and
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4830-553: The domestication of the dog about 15,000 years ago. Evidence puts the earliest known mammoth hunting in Asia with spears to approximately 16,200 years ago. Many species of animals have been hunted throughout history. One theory is that in North America and Eurasia , caribou and wild reindeer "may well be the species of single greatest importance in the entire anthropological literature on hunting" (see also Reindeer Age ), although
4945-551: The endangerment , extirpation and extinction of many animals. Some animal rights and anti-hunting activists regard hunting as a cruel , perverse and unnecessary blood sport . Certain hunting practices, such as canned hunts and ludicrously paid / bribed trophy tours (especially to poor countries), are considered unethical and exploitative even by some hunters. Marine mammals such as whales and pinnipeds are also targets of hunting, both recreationally and commercially, often with heated controversies regarding
5060-485: The genus Homo . The oldest undisputed evidence for hunting dates to the Early Pleistocene , consistent with the emergence and early dispersal of Homo erectus about 1.7 million years ago ( Acheulean ). While it is undisputed that Homo erectus were hunters, the importance of this for the emergence of Homo erectus from its australopithecine ancestors, including the production of stone tools and eventually
5175-453: The Act. Nevertheless, there have been numerous attempts on behalf of activists, pressure groups, etc. to revoke the act over the last two decades. Many prehistoric deities are depicted as predators or prey of humans, often in a zoomorphic form, perhaps alluding to the importance of hunting for most Palaeolithic cultures. In many pagan religions, specific rituals are conducted before or after
5290-423: The Bondei were able to capture was killed. The Bondei went from village to village in one area on the eastern border of west Usambara, asking the Shambaa where the Kilindi were hiding and executing them if they were discovered. Those Shambaa in this area who were not married to Kilindi betrayed the hiding places. Married relatives had loyalty to the Kilindi. It is of no doubt that very few people would have betrayed
5405-475: The German East African Company was encroaching on the coast, and an Arab by the name of Abushiri had declared war on them at Pangani. Semboja was sympathetic to Abushiri and opposed the end of the slave trade because of his significant trade connections with Pangani and his dedication to the alliance between coastal traders and inland rulers. Semboja seized 250 loads from Meyer and Baumann in favor of
5520-409: The Kilindi from these territories if you discover that they are attacking you, subjects." Shortly after, the mercenaries of Semboia assaulted Vugha and drove Shekulwavu away. Because "we are not their subjects but Kimweri's," the Bondei pleaded with him to allow them to drive out the Kilindi. The Bondei banished all Kilindi from Bondei once he gave his consent. When Shekulwavu died, his brothers continued
5635-510: The Kilindi if the Bondei had made it to Vugha. That is to say, the benefits of royal institutions increased with proximity to the kingdom's center for commoners. The most likely revolutionaries were the Bondei, who lived on the outskirts of the kingdom. Following the Kiva Rebellion, Bonde remained independent, the Shekulwavu survivors held east Usambara, and Semboja's followers held control of
5750-593: The Mbugu of Gare in Usambara killed a Kilindi leader. The Kiva insurrection of 1869, which had its roots in the breakdown of the Shambaa state spurred on by long-distance trade, was the fourth and most significant popular movement. The insurgents were the Bondei people, who were subdued and assimilated into the Shambaa kingdom at the beginning of the nineteenth century and lived in the plains east of Usambara. The Bondei, who were formerly stateless, benefited personally from loyalty to
5865-462: The Nango and Mbughu attempted to preserve their individual identities and arrived in sizable, well-organized groups. Up until the era of colonization, the Mbughu people lived in isolation. In the tall forests above the Shambaa farming, they took care of their cattle. The Nango migrated throughout the entire Shambaa settlement, assimilating into the language and absorbing much of the customs while upholding
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#17328689217705980-410: The Shambaa bestowed upon him wives and crowned him king of all Usambara. During the more than a century that the Kilindi ruled Usambara, anyone who suggested that the Kilindi's rule was the result of cruel conquest , cun-ning, or threats faced the risk of death. To challenge the Mbegha narrative was to challenge Kilindi authority. So, even though the story might be true, we have to keep in mind that it
6095-401: The Shambaa. According to the legend, he hunted wild pigs in the nearby region of Ungulu . Because he had cut his upper teeth first when he was a baby, his kinsmen withheld his inheritance because they believed he was mystically dangerous. As a result, he ran away and hunted till he reached Usambara. He met Shambaa there. Megha provided them with meat, and they fed him vegetables. They gave him
6210-468: The Usambara king was able to maintain authority over a vast region. The fear of a father's curse prevented his sons from disobeying their father with ease. The hardest part of a king's reign was always the beginning, when he had to try to unseat his own sons and remove the sons of his predecessor, which meant removing his brothers. He could be removed with ease if his brothers banded together to oppose him. Because he had served as chief of Bumbuli while awaiting
6325-525: The Zigua warriors, and his body lay next to that of his friend and king. The kingdom of the Shambaa comprised large parts of Pare to the west and Bonde to the east of Usambara in the nineteenth century. The reason the kingdom did not spread further south, where Kilindi power was much closer than it was at Bonde or Pare, is not easily explained. It is possible that the Zigua killed Kinyashi, the warrior king, and thus permanently gained their independence. Furthermore,
6440-473: The art of producing rain. At his official coronation, the people screamed out, "You are our King, but if you don't treat us right, we will get rid of you." However, without him, there would be no distinction between Shambaa and stranger, hill and plain, farm and forest, or civic society. Intercultural mingling produced the Shambaa's monarchy, which represented the apex of Bantu-speaking Tanganyika's civilization. Following Mbegha's demise, his son Bughe ascended to
6555-553: The beginning of his conflicts with Mshihwi, Kinyashi ruled through war. "Kinyashi, the lone wanderer" was his name in Shambaa. The Zigua war was his most recent conflict. From Vuga, Kinyashi desired to expand his dominion southward across the Pangani. In Vugha, he passed away. One heartwarming tale concerns Kivava, the king's friend, who was devastated to see the dead king and could not bear to go back to Vugha, where he would never be welcome at his heir's court. Kivava killed himself by taunting
6670-412: The chief misbehaved, his father would issue a warning or possibly remove him. They could then file a complaint in Vugha. The Shambaa king was served by a council of commoners. He alone held the power to determine life and death. He possessed the power to take both females without bridewealth and things without paying for them. He gathered tribute and distributed it to his agents. Only he had mastered
6785-421: The chiefs could punish someone was if they accepted their error. At Vugha, the only person with the authority to decide a case by force without a confession was the king. This was how many cases came to Vugha, and as a result of the fines he levied, the king acquired cattle and slaves. A sizable share of the slaves and cattle belonged to the king in case the chief indulged. Sometimes witches were brought to live with
6900-482: The clan that corroborate the idea that force was employed. It may be true, though, that many Shambaa enthusiastically contributed to the creation of the kingdom. The Kilindi put up a formidable defense because the Masai posed a serious threat. It is even possible that a large number of Shambaa thought Kilindi rule was preferable to Nango authority. Furthermore, the Shambaa may have welcomed rulers who could resolve conflicts through force rather than just negotiation during
7015-548: The conservation of particular species, such as the antelope . India's Wildlife Protection Act of 1972 bans the killing of all wild animals. However, the Chief Wildlife Warden may, if satisfied that any wild animal from a specified list has become dangerous to human life or is so disabled or diseased as to be beyond recovery, permit any person to hunt such an animal. In this case, the body of any wild animal killed or wounded becomes government property. The practice among
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#17328689217707130-471: The contrast between the mountains and the plains is stark, this categorization by adaptation to a particular habitat was typical. The Bondei , or "people of the valley," were the Shamba's lowland neighbors. Below 1,000 meters, malaria is endemic, and it is seasonal in many higher locations. Since it was frequently fatal to the young and crippling to their seniors, it was probably a significant population growth restraint and another reason why people preferred
7245-422: The development of agriculture, hunting usually remained a significant contributor to the human food-supply. The supplementary meat and materials from hunting included protein , bone for implements, sinew for cordage , fur , feathers , rawhide and leather used in clothing. Hunting is still vital in marginal climates, especially those unsuited for pastoral uses or for agriculture. For example, Inuit in
7360-441: The elders from a wider region would get together to talk about the situation. There was some economic cooperation and specialization at the same time. It was evident that an entire neighborhood benefited from shared irrigation works. The only way to obtain shell ornaments, which were required for some rituals, was through coastal trade . A few locations on the plains produced salt, which was traded throughout Usambara. Iron tools for
7475-474: The emergence of behavioral modernity in the Middle Paleolithic as directly related to hunting, including mating behaviour , the establishment of language , culture, and religion , mythology and animal sacrifice . Sociologist David Nibert of Wittenberg University argues that the emergence of the organized hunting of animals undermined the communal, egalitarian nature of early human societies, with
7590-514: The food production system. Hunting is not forbidden in Jewish law , although there is an aversion to it. The great 18th-century authority Rabbi Yechezkel Landau after a study concluded although "hunting would not be considered cruelty to animals insofar as the animal is generally killed quickly and not tortured... There is an unseemly element in it, namely cruelty." The other issue is that hunting can be dangerous and Judaism places an extreme emphasis on
7705-546: The forest, Ravana kidnapped his wife, Sita , from their hut, while Rama was asked by Sita to capture a golden deer, and his brother Lakshman went after him. According to the Mahabharat , Pandu , the father of the Pandavas , accidentally killed the sage Kindama and his wife with an arrow, mistaking them for a deer. Jainism teaches followers to have tremendous respect for all of life. Prohibitions for hunting and meat eating are
7820-496: The forests at the top of the mountains. The Shambaa were still clearing forests when European settlers arrived in the late nineteenth century. It appears that the immigrants started by chopping around the mountain's edge and continued all the way up to the higher, more central areas of Usambara. There was obviously no central political authority in those days, and people from villages a mile apart would be wary of one another. Typically, all of an ancestor's descendants would reside on
7935-455: The fundamental conditions for being a Jain . Buddhism 's first precept is the respect for all sentient life. The general approach by all Buddhists is to avoid killing any living animals. Buddha explained the issue by saying "all fear death; comparing others with oneself, one should neither kill nor cause to kill." In Sikhism , only meat obtained from hunting, or slaughtered with the Jhatka
8050-412: The governmental system. Their maternal uncles, who were commoners, held the sub-chiefs of the Kilindi in check. Cattle-keeping had been vital to both the Mbugu and Nango, and the Masai had threatened their lives and means of subsistence. The majority of the previous immigrants to Usambara were small-family groups from Zigua, Pare, and Taita , and they assimilate into Sambaa culture quite easily. However,
8165-406: The highlands. The highlanders of Shambaa were aware of the link between malaria and mosquitoes and were afraid to stay even one night in the nyika . When a Shambaa left the mountains, he frequently lost his identity as a Shambaa. Civilization was the result of a people's environmental adaption. Mbegha , the hero credited with founding the Shambaa empire, was the subject of a fantastic legend among
8280-462: The hilltop capital at Vuga in the Usambaras. The kingdom reached its greatest extent under Kimweri ye Nyumbai . After he died in 1862 a civil war broke out over the succession, fueled by competition for the new wealth that the caravan trade in the Pangani valley had brought to the region. The Kilindi originally arrived in the Usambara, which was in disarray due to the start of recent Masai raids and
8395-562: The hunt, reflected in such names as "pointer" and " setter ". Even as agriculture and animal husbandry became more prevalent, hunting often remained as a part of human culture where the environment and social conditions allowed. Hunter-gatherer societies persisted, even when increasingly confined to marginal areas. And within agricultural systems, hunting served to kill animals that prey upon domestic and wild animals or to attempt to extirpate animals seen by humans as competition for resources such as water or forage. When hunting moved from
8510-485: The idea of confrontational scavenging , which involves challenging and scaring off other predators after they have made a kill, which he suggests could have been the leading method of obtaining protein -rich meat by early humans. Stone spearheads dated as early as 500,000 years ago were found in South Africa. Wood does not preserve well, however, and Craig Stanford, a primatologist and professor of anthropology at
8625-487: The inflow of a sizable number of immigrants from a foreign culture. The Kilindi, a group of royal people, arrived in this environment. Mbegha was the name of the first Usambara king. All throughout Usambara, his story is told and repeated. Mbegha was a hunter in Ngulu, where it all began. After being driven from Ngulu by his relatives, he embarked on an extended journey of hunting and wandering. Mbegha came to Usambara to hunt near
8740-499: The interpretation of the canonists is not in accordance with the letter or spirit of the laws of the church. Nevertheless, although a distinction between lawful and unlawful hunting is undoubtedly permissible, it is certain that a bishop can absolutely prohibit all hunting to the clerics of his diocese, as was done by synods at Milan , Avignon , Liège , Cologne , and elsewhere. Benedict XIV declared that such synodal decrees are not too severe, as an absolute prohibition of hunting
8855-459: The king in Vugha, and other times they ran away to find safety there. At Vugha, there resided witches, thieves, and slaves who served as the king's standing army. The decree allowing anyone to seek sanctuary at Vugha led to an expansion of the standing army. Seeking shelter in a town meant that the chief of that town was more powerful than the one the person was running from, according to traditional Shambaa politics. The chief one escaped could start
8970-433: The king's ceremonial capabilities. It was impossible to win. As soon as the king himself died, the Bondei refused to ally themselves with Shekulwavu's faction, maintaining their independence but reverting to statelessness . Kiva had been traditionalist in motivation and destructive in action, far from having any revolutionary elements. It exemplified the constraints on long-distance trade-related political change. One of
9085-458: The kingdom was divided. Shekulwavu, his grandson and successor, had little authority over the sub-chiefs who served as his uncles. He had an argument with his older uncle in 1868, who afterwards supported Semboja as a potential heir. Shekulwavu's response was to ask Bondei for assistance. He is believed to have said to them, "My uncles the Kilindi of Shambalai and here in Bonde dislike me. You can drive
9200-446: The legitimist cause and concocted a new scheme with the Bondei, who were worried about Kilindi retaliation. The Kilindi were welcomed back to Bondei and promised protection, only to be slaughtered. Then the Bondei invaded Usambara, liberating slaves, killing the Kilindi, and exhorting the common people of Shambaa to rise. However, as they drew closer to Vugha, resistance grew stronger until Semboja's men eventually drove them out. Semboja
9315-403: The majority of the ancient clans of southern Usambara assert that they made their way up into the fertile hills. They benefited from greater rainfall and hardy banana trees after relocating to the highlands. They built extensive irrigation systems. Some made their home at the edge of the plains near the base of the mountains, while others moved higher up the hillsides and cut their way through
9430-501: The morality, ethics and legality of such practices. The pursuit, harvesting or catch and release of fish and aquatic cephalopods and crustaceans is called fishing , which however is widely accepted and not commonly categorised as a form of hunting. It is also not considered hunting to pursue animals without intent to kill them, as in wildlife photography , birdwatching , or scientific-research activities which involve tranquilizing or tagging of animals, although green hunting
9545-733: The most spectacular moments in Shambaa history was the Kiva Rebellion. Because Kiva was a violent popular uprising amid a world of dynastic intrigue, it was unique. Chanyeghea succeeded Shekulwavu following his death. Chanyeghea allied with the Bondei and contributed to the Kilindi's death in eastern Usambara. No doubt the Bondei had long harbored grudges against the Kilindi, the alien rulers. For Kimweri ye Nyumbai, Bonde had been far too foreign and remote to prevent his sons from misusing their position of authority. While Kilindi rule had strong indigenous roots throughout western Usambara, it seemed, as in Pare, to be an alien conquest state in Bonde. Every Kilindi that
9660-441: The mountains' southernmost point. When the Shambaa spotted him, he descended to find out who the stranger was. He gave the Shambaa meat in an incredibly kind gesture. The discovery of a hunter capable of eliminating the wild pigs that were despoiling all the crops thrilled the Shambaa. Mbegha proceeded on a victorious tour throughout Usambara, executing pigs, mediating conflicts, and giving away free meat. In appreciation and thanks,
9775-524: The multiple, or possibly main, environmental factors leading to the Holocene extinction of megafauna and their replacement by smaller herbivores . In some locations, such as Australia, humans are thought to have played a very significant role in the extinction of the Australian megafauna that was widespread prior to human occupation. Hunting was a crucial component of hunter-gatherer societies before
9890-523: The names of the god Shiva is Mrigavyadha (deer-slayer). The word Mriga , in many Indian languages including Malayalam, not only stands for deer, but for all animals and animal instincts (Mriga Thrishna). Shiva, as Mrigavyadha, is the one who destroys the animal instincts in human beings. In the epic Ramayana , Dasharatha , the father of Rama , is said to have the ability to hunt in the dark. During one of his hunting expeditions, he accidentally killed Shravana , mistaking him for game. During Rama's exile in
10005-452: The nineteenth-century towns along the Pangani had easy access to the new gun trade, making the conquest of Zigua even more challenging. The new gun trade was the preferred methods of attacking slave traders or greedy chiefs. These took place in the northeast between 1870s and 1880s, when the Pare of Mbaga assaulted a colony of slave traffickers at Kisiwani in the modern-day Same District and
10120-416: The numerous isolated mountain blocks of the Usambaras in the northeast, a "green island in a brown sea." According to their historian, "The Shambaa" are inhabitants of a distinct botanical habitat that was unique to that region. Its native name, Shambaai , literally translates to "where bananas thrive," and the locals used it to distinguish it from the nearby nyika , or dry plains. In eastern Tanganyika, where
10235-500: The order of millions of years ago. Hunting has become deeply embedded in various human cultures and was once an important part of rural economies—classified by economists as part of primary production alongside forestry , agriculture , and fishery . Modern regulations (see game law ) distinguish lawful hunting activities from illegal poaching , which involves the unauthorised and unregulated killing , trapping , or capture of animals. Apart from food provision, hunting can be
10350-633: The recent past include some indigenous peoples of the Amazonas ( Aché ), some Central and Southern African ( San people ), some peoples of New Guinea ( Fayu ), the Mlabri of Thailand and Laos , the Vedda people of Sri Lanka , and a handful of uncontacted peoples . In Africa, one of the last remaining hunter-gatherer tribes are the Hadza of Tanzania. Even as animal domestication became relatively widespread and after
10465-511: The religious customs they had carried with them. Large numbers of Nango had to periodically return to Shume to perform certain rituals. The head of all the Nango was a man of some influence who resided in Shume. The WaSambaa were ruled by the Kilindi dynasty from the mid-18th century to the end of the 19th century. The founder of the dynasty was Mbegha , who was from Ngulu and his son Bughe established
10580-442: The royal capital, was created as a sizable Shambaa town and was thought to have 3,000 residents in 1857. The Shambaa state was founded on kinship . The monarchy aimed to undermine the strength and morality of the clans, but lineages arbitrated internal conflicts and assumed collective responsibility for their members. The Kilindi , a group of people with royal ancestry who were Mbegha's offspring according to Shambaa wives, represented
10695-421: The set of seven mechanical arts . Although various other animals have been used to aid the hunter, such as ferrets , the dog has assumed many very important uses to the hunter. The domestication of the dog has led to a symbiotic relationship in which the dog's independence from humans is deferred. Though dogs can survive independently of humans, and in many cases do ferally, when raised or adopted by humans
10810-417: The small clan-chiefdoms that Shambaa had initially established since their tribal structures were incompatible with the local cultivators' organization. Tradition holds that Mbegha, the roving hunter from Ungulu, was the old culture's savior. He subdued the Shambaa by using force, guile, diplomacy, and marriage into Shambaa noble households. His empire was a living example of the previous way of life. Vugha ,
10925-502: The soldiers in British India during the 1770s of going out to hunt snipes , a shorebird considered extremely challenging for hunters due to its alertness, camouflaging colour and erratic flight behavior, is believed to be the origin of the modern word for sniper , as snipe-hunters needed to be stealthy in addition to having tracking skills and marksmanship . The term was used in the nineteenth century, and had become common usage by
11040-417: The species tends to defer to its control in exchange for habitation, food and support. Dogs today are used to find, chase, retrieve, and sometimes kill game. Dogs allow humans to pursue and kill prey that would otherwise be very difficult or dangerous to hunt. Different breeds of specifically bred hunting dog are used for different types of hunting. Waterfowl are commonly hunted using retrieving dogs such as
11155-550: The status of women and less powerful males declining as the status of men quickly became associated with their success at hunting, which also increased human violence within these societies. However, 9000-year-old remains of a female hunter along with a toolkit of projectile points and animal processing implements were discovered at the Andean site of Wilamaya Patjxa, Puno District in Peru . Evidence exists that hunting may have been one of
11270-588: The three groups). Sambaa belongs to the North East Coastal Bantu languages . This is a group which includes Swahili ; however, Swahili is not mutually intelligible with Sambaa. Some members of the Sambaa community assert that they have lived in the Usambara mountains for all of recorded history. Other groups claim to have arrived much earlier than the Kilindi . During famines in Zigualand, usually in Ngulu,
11385-413: The throne and ended the Nango chief's authority in Shume. However, Bughe also married a Nango, who happened to be the mother of the heir apparent. Probably around this time, the Nango and the government worked out a general accommodation. Within the chiefdom of Bumbuli, the local headmen are comparatively autonomous because the chief is typically a young man aspiring to be king. Typically, the heir at Bumbuli
11500-477: The throne, the new king's duties were made easier. This implies that he would have an ally as soon as he ascended to the throne if he decided to place a son in Bumbuli. Actually, the chiefdoms of Bumbuli and Vugha made up a sizable area of densely populated territory that was challenging to conquer. After the king was established in Vugha, his authority was augmented by his unique standing in Shambaa law. The only way
11615-410: The town when they visited Vugha. Kimweri ya Nyumbai , who reigned the Shambaa kingdom from approximately 1815 to 1862, brought it to its pinnacle, yet it was already under jeopardy. The lowland Zigua people obtained weapons in the 1830s, took over the Pangani valley, and posed a threat to the mountain empire. Burton stated in 1857 that "the watch-fire never leaves the mountain" and that "the war-horn
11730-506: The unreachable Mshihwi with him. Mshihwi was repeatedly attacked by Kinyashi's forces, but it remained unassailable. From this point on, Maghembe and his ancestors controlled a fully autonomous Kilindi kingdom in Mshihwi. Consequently, Usambara saw the rise of a second monarch, one who had the authority to execute his subjects. When the Germans arrived, the kingdom of Mshihwi was still intact. From
11845-471: The valleys and eastern Usambara Mountains of Korogwe District , Korogwe Urban District and western Muheza District of northern Tanga Region of Tanzania . The word Shamba means "farm", and these people live in one of the most fertile Tanzanian region. Shambaai in Kisambaa means "where the banana's thrive". In 2001, the Shambaa population was estimated to number 664,000. The Shambaa lived on one of
11960-526: The value of human life. Islamic Sharia Law permits hunting of lawful animals and birds if they cannot be easily caught and slaughtered. However, this is only for the purpose of food and not for trophy hunting. A safari, from a Swahili word meaning "journey, expedition," especially in Africa, is defined as a journey to see or kill animals in their natural environment, most commonly in East Africa. Safari as
12075-516: The varying importance of different species depended on the geographic location. Mesolithic hunter-gathering lifestyles remained prevalent in some parts of the Americas , Sub-Saharan Africa , and Siberia , as well as all of Australia, until the European Age of Discovery . They still persist in some tribal societies , albeit in rapid decline. Peoples that preserved Paleolithic hunting-gathering until
12190-713: The west, including Vugha. In an effort to find allies, both sides turned to foreign politics. Shekulwaru's brother Kibanga attempted to enlist the aid of the British consul as well as missionaries to Central Africa. As a rebel against the Sultan of Zanzibar , Mbaruk of Mombasa assisted in the invasion of Semboja's lands. In response, the Sultan supported Semboja. Slaves were sold, and both sides made money. In 1888, two notable German explorers, Baumann and Meyer , arrived on this site of sporadic fighting. Upon reaching Mazinde, Semboja learned that
12305-475: The western plateau. The interdependence of kings and subjects had been shattered by trade and firearms. Chiefs now relied on gunmen who bought weapons with slaves rather than tribute and spearmen. While Bumbuli, the customary chiefdom of the heir apparent, was raided by its own ruler, a Yao slave, Semboja used Maasai to raid Vugha. For twenty years, the conflict between the kin of Semboja and Shekulwavu dragged on without resolution. Both sides had weapons and some of
12420-486: The wilderness of the nyika and the mountain rainforest that they had been clearing for generations was important to Shambaa views of civilization. The Shambaa people speak the Shambala language, also known as Kisambaa, Kishambaa, Kishambala, Sambaa, Sambala, Sambara, Schambala, Shambaa. Kishambaa is the Sambaa word for the Shambala language , Wasambaa are the people ( Msambaa for a person), and Usambaa or Usambara
12535-483: Was a tendency toward independence from the Simba Mwene , the lion-king, since some chiefdoms were fairly remote from Vugha. Every significant chiefdom possessed a unique rain magic. Local disputes were resolved by each chief. The armed might of the Usambara state was composed of individual men, each armed with a bow and arrows, and the king's orders traveled only as fast as a man on foot. By appointing his sons as chiefs,
12650-591: Was a woman named Mboza Mamwinu. Maghembe , the Mulungui chief, was the next, and her full brother. The next was the heir apparent, Kinyashi of Bumbuli, who was the great wife of Nango. Following Bughe is demise, Mboza Mamwinu arrived in Vugha and demanded that Maghembe take the throne. She was supported by the Vugha people, who feared this strong woman. But Kinyashi was crowned king because the Nango of Bumbuli exerted too much pressure. Upon discovering that, Mboza Mamwinu became enraged, left Vugha, located Maghembe, and fled to
12765-582: Was also expected to provide a form of recreation for the aristocracy. The importance of this proprietary view of game can be seen in the Robin Hood legends, in which one of the primary charges against the outlaws is that they "hunt the King's deer". In contrast, settlers in Anglophone colonies gloried democratically in hunting for all. In medieval Europe, hunting was considered by Johannes Scotus Eriugena to be part of
12880-489: Was denied the throne in Usambara because his brothers wisely chose his little son because they wanted a weak ruler. Royal authority waned. Vugha was downsized to a single tiny settlement. Each chiefdom virtually became independent after a period of anarchy known locally as pato , or "rapacity." The fight involved coastal traders and Taita , Masai , and Zigua mercenaries, just as it did in the Southern Highlands and on
12995-430: Was never a chief whose council members were Kilindi. Since commoners occupied every position of power within the chiefdom, a lot of emphasis is placed on the democratic aspect of the monarchy. However, the chief had the power to remove and replace officials at will, while the officials were powerless to remove the chief. In the event that the local chief was the king's son, the people in a minor chiefdom could turn to him. If
13110-464: Was not the source of cooperation. The person conducting the ritual in rites of passage and ancestor sacrifices had to be unfamiliar with the host village. Marriage served as a bridge between two communities. Although the men of a single village were remarkably self-sufficient in their daily activities, the early Shambaa's religion mandated frequent meetings and communal drinking, feasting, and dancing. When there were disagreements between two villages,
13225-807: Was presented in the 1990s. It has nevertheless often been assumed that at least occasional hunting behaviour may have been present well before the emergence of Homo .This can be argued on the basis of comparison with chimpanzees , the closest extant relatives of humans, who also engage in hunting, indicating that the behavioural trait may have been present in the Chimpanzee–human last common ancestor as early as 5 million years ago. The common chimpanzee ( Pan troglodytes ) regularly engages in troop predation behaviour, where bands of beta males are led by an alpha male . Bonobos ( Pan paniscus ) have also been observed to occasionally engage in group hunting, although more rarely than Pan troglodytes , mainly subsisting on
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