75-563: Samayasāra ( The Nature of the Self ) is a famous Jain text composed by Acharya Kundakunda in 439 verses. Its ten chapters discuss the nature of Jīva (pure self/soul), its attachment to Karma and Moksha (liberation). Samayasāra expounds the Jain concepts like Karma , Asrava (influx of karmas ), Bandha (Bondage), Samvara (stoppage), Nirjara (shedding) and Moksha (complete annihilation of karmas ). A modern English translation
150-776: A book about Jainism is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Jain text Jain literature ( Sanskrit : जैन साहित्य) refers to the literature of the Jain religion . It is a vast and ancient literary tradition, which was initially transmitted orally. The oldest surviving material is contained in the canonical Jain Agamas, which are written in Ardhamagadhi , a Prakrit ( Middle-Indo Aryan ) language. Various commentaries were written on these canonical texts by later Jain monks . Later works were also written in other languages, like Sanskrit and Maharashtri Prakrit . Jain literature
225-547: A branch of Western Indo-Aryan languages . They are spoken primarily in Rajasthan and Malwa , and adjacent areas of Haryana , Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh in India. They have also reached different corners of India, especially eastern and southern parts of India, due to the migrations of people of the Marwari community who use them for internal communication. There are also speakers in
300-597: A current of water," from V.L. * stanticare (see stanch ). But others say the Port. word is the source of the Indian ones. In India, Rajasthani is written in the Devanagari script , an abugida which is written from left to right. Earlier, the Mahajani script , or Modiya, was used to write Rajasthani. The script is also called as Maru Gurjari in a few records. In Pakistan, where Rajasthani
375-556: A distinct language, and it is taught as such in Bikaner's Maharaja Ganga Singh University , Jaipur's University of Rajasthan , Jodhpur's Jai Narain Vyas University , Kota's Vardhaman Mahaveer Open University and Udaipur's Mohanlal Sukhadia University . The state Board of Secondary Education included Rajasthani in its course of studies, and it has been an optional subject since 1973. National recognition has lagged, however. In 2003,
450-416: A language; sometimes of no consequence and at other times with differences in meaning: What remains are words of foreign origin ( videśī ), as well as words of local origin that cannot be pegged as belonging to any of the three prior categories ( deśaj ). The former consists mainly of Persian , Arabic , and English, with trace elements of Portuguese and Turkish . While the phenomenon of English loanwords
525-539: A literary and liturgical language for long after. This category consists of these borrowed words of (more or less) pure Sanskrit character. They serve to enrich Gujarati and modern Indo-Aryan in its formal, technical, and religious vocabulary. They are recognisable by their Sanskrit inflections and markings; they are thus often treated as a separate grammatical category unto themselves. Many old tatsam words have changed their meanings or have had their meanings adopted for modern times. prasāraṇ means "spreading", but now it
600-415: A long famine caused a crisis in the community, who found it difficult to keep the entire Jain canon committed to memory. Bhadrabahu decided to travel south to Karnataka with his adherents and Sthulabhadra , another Jain leader remained behind. The famine decimated the Jain community, leading to the loss of many canonical texts. According to Śvētāmbara ("white-clad") tradition, the agamas were collected on
675-641: A morphological basis. It shares a 50%-65% lexical similarity with Hindi (this is based on a Swadesh 210 word list comparison). It has many cognate words with Hindi. Notable phonetic correspondences include /s/ in Hindi with /h/ in Rajasthani. For example /sona/ 'gold' (Hindi) and /hono/ 'gold' (Marwari). /h/ sometimes elides. There are also a variety of vowel changes. Most of the pronouns and interrogatives are, however, distinct from those of Hindi. The phonetic characteristics of Vedic Sanskrit, surviving in Rajasthani language,
750-524: A number of commentaries on it. Atmakhyati or Samayasara Kalasha , written by Acharya Amritchandra in 12th century CE, is a 278-verse Sanskrit commentary. Samaysar Kalash Tika or Balbodh was written by Pande Rajmall or Raymall in 16th century CE. It is a commentary of Amritchandra's Samaysar Kalasha . Nataka Samayasara is a commentary on Rajmall's version which was written by Banarasidas in Braj Bhasha in 17th century CE. This article related to
825-443: A small portion have been published and studied by scholars. Agamas are the main scriptures followed by Jains as preached by Tirthankars. Both Shwetambar and Digambar sects believe in 12 Agamas. Both also believe that the 12th Agama Drishtivaad ( Dṛṣṭivāda ) was lost over a period of time and realised the need to turn the oral tradition to written. While Digambaras believed that all the 12 Agamas were lost, Shwetambars believed that
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#1733085346197900-405: Is SOV , and there are two genders and two numbers . There are no definite or indefinite articles . A verb is expressed with its verbal root followed by suffixes marking aspect and agreement in what is called a main form, with a possible proceeding auxiliary form derived from to be , marking tense and mood , and also showing agreement. Causatives (up to double) and passives have
975-448: Is eternal(अनादि अनंत) , and the teachings of the first Tirthankara Rishabhanatha existed millions of years ago. It states that the tirthankaras taught in divine preaching halls called samavasarana , which were heard by gods, ascetics and laypersons. These divine discourses were called Śhrut Jnāna (or heard knowledge) and always comprises eleven angas and fourteen purvas . The discourses are remembered and transmitted by
1050-462: Is considered a minor language, a variant of the Sindhi script is used to write Rajasthani dialects. The letter 'ळ'(ɭ) is specially used in Rajasthani script. 'ल'(l) and 'ळ'(ɭ) have different sounds. The use of both has different meanings, like कालौ (black color) and काळौ (insane). In Rajasthani language, there are sounds of palatal 'श'(sh) and nasal 'ष'(sh), but in Rajasthani script only dental 'स'(s)
1125-659: Is considered by F. Kielhorn as the best grammar work of the Indian middle age. Hemacandra's book Kumarapalacaritra is also noteworthy. Jaina narrative literature mainly contains stories about sixty-three prominent figures known as Salakapurusa , and people who were related to them. Some of the important works are Harivamshapurana of Jinasena ( c. 8th century CE ), Vikramarjuna-Vijaya (also known as Pampa-Bharata) of Kannada poet named Adi Pampa ( c. 10th century CE ), Pandavapurana of Shubhachandra ( c. 16th century CE ). Jain literature covered multiple topics of mathematics around 150 AD including
1200-583: Is essentially of a differing grammar (or language), and that in comparison while Perso-Arabic is etymologically foreign, it has been in certain instances and to varying degrees grammatically indigenised. Owing to centuries of situation and the end of Persian education and power, (1) Perso-Arabic loans are quite unlikely to be thought of or known as loans, and (2) more importantly, these loans have often been Rajasthani-ized. dāvo – claim, fāydo – benefit, natījo – result, and hamlo – attack, all carry Gujarati's masculine gender marker, o . khānũ – compartment, has
1275-742: Is eternal, immutable, and incomparable (perfection par excellence), I will articulate this Samayaprābhrita, which has been propounded by the all-knowing Masters of Scripture. According to Samayasāra , the real self is only that soul which has achieved ratnatraya i.e. Samyak Darshan, Samyak Gyan and Samyak Charitra. These state when soul achieves purity is Arihant and Siddha . It can be achieved by victory over five senses. According to Samayasāra : The Self, by his own enterprise, protecting himself from virtuous as well as wicked activities that cause merit and demerit, and stationing himself in right faith and knowledge, detached from body and desires etc., devoid of external and internal attachments, contemplates on
1350-536: Is exclusively spoken by the Pawar Rajputs (Bhoyar Pawar) who have migrated from Rajasthan and Malwa to Satpura and Vidarbha regions. George Abraham Grierson (1908) was the first scholar who gave the designation 'Rajasthani' to the language, which was earlier known through its various dialects. India's National Academy of Literature, the Sahitya Akademi , and University Grants Commission recognize Rajasthani as
1425-664: Is generally accepted now that the Jain nun Kanti inserted a 445-verse poem into Cīvaka Cintāmaṇi in the 12th century. The Tamil Jain literature, according to Dundas, has been "lovingly studied and commented upon for centuries by Hindus as well as Jains". The themes of two of the Tamil epics, including the Silapadikkaram , have an embedded influence of Jainism. Jain scholars also contributed to Kannada literature . The Digambara Jain texts in Karnataka are unusual in having been written under
1500-767: Is no separate symbol for the sound of 'ऋ'(Ri), instead 'रि'(Ri) is written instead of it, like रितु (Ritu) (season) instead of ऋतु (Ritu). In Rajasthani, there is no use of ligatures and ref. The whole of ref 'र्' (r) becomes 'र' (ra), for example, instead of 'धर्म' (dharm), 'धरम'(dharam), instead of 'वक्त'(vakt) (time), 'वगत'(vagat) or 'वखत'(vakhat) are written. Single quotation mark (') is also used to denote continuation sound like देख'र(dekha'r) हरे'क (hare'k)(every) etc. अे (e) and अै (ai) are written instead of ए(e) and ऐ (ai) like 'अेक'(ek)(one) in place of 'एक'(ek). Old literary Rajasthani had two types of writing styles. A literary style of writing prose and poetry in Maru-Bhasa language. It
1575-689: Is not upheld in Rajasthani and corresponds to j or jh . In contrast to modern Persian, the pronunciation of these loans into Rajasthani and other Indo-Aryan languages, as well as that of Indian-recited Persian, seems to be in line with Persian spoken in Afghanistan and Central Asia , perhaps 500 years ago. Lastly, Persian, being part of the Indo-Iranian language family as Sanskrit and Rajasthani are, met up in some instances with its cognates: Zoroastrian Persian refugees known as Parsis also speak an accordingly Persianized form of Gujarati. With
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#17330853461971650-692: Is often realized as /h/ in Rajasthani – for example, the word 'gold' is /sona/ (सोना) in Hindi and /hono/ (होनो) in the Marwari dialect of Rajasthani. Furthermore, there are a number of vowel substitutions, and the Hindi /l/ sound (ल) is often realized in Rajasthani as a retroflex lateral /ɭ/ (ळ). Rajasthani has 11 vowels and 38 consonants. The Rajasthani language Bagri has developed three lexical tones: low, mid and high. Rajasthani has two numbers and two genders with three cases. Postpositions are of two categories, inflexional and derivational. Derivational postpositions are mostly omitted in actual discourse. These are
1725-470: Is presented same in written and spoken form. Kushallabh's 'Pingali Shiromani', Giridhar Charan's 'Sagat Singh Raso' dedicated to Maharana Pratap's younger brother Shakti Singh has been written in Dingal language. It was also used in composition of Suryamal Misharan and Baankidas. Dingal is literary genre of Charans and is written as couplets, songs and poems. It was used for writing poem only by Bhats and Ravs. It
1800-549: Is primarily divided between the canons of the Digambara and Śvētāmbara orders. These two main sects of Jainism do not always agree on which texts should be considered authoritative. More recent Jain literature has also been written in other languages, like Marathi , Tamil , Rajasthani , Dhundari , Marwari , Hindi , Gujarati , Kannada , Malayalam and more recently in English . The Jain tradition believes that their religion
1875-515: Is pronounced by placing the tongue on the top of the hard palate and flapping it forward. In common with most other Indo-Iranian languages , the basic sentence typology is subject–object–verb . On a lexical level , Rajasthani has perhaps a 50 to 65 percent overlap with Hindi, based on a comparison of a 210-word Swadesh list . Most pronouns and interrogative words differ from Hindi, but the language does have several regular correspondences with, and phonetic transformations from, Hindi. The /s/ in Hindi
1950-505: Is relatively new, Perso-Arabic has a longer history behind it. Both English and Perso-Arabic influences are quite nationwide phenomena, in a way paralleling tatsam as a common vocabulary set or bank. What's more is how, beyond a transposition into general Indo-Aryan, the Perso-Arabic set has also been assimilated in a manner characteristic and relevant to the specific Indo-Aryan language it is being used in, bringing to mind tadbhav . India
2025-815: Is the category of English words that already have Rajasthani counterparts which end up replaced or existed alongside. The major driving force behind this latter category has to be the continuing role of English in modern India as a language of education, prestige, and mobility. In this way, Indian speech can be sprinkled with English words and expressions, even switches to whole sentences. See Hinglish , Code-switching . In matters of sound, English alveolar consonants map as retroflexes rather than dentals . Two new characters were created in Rajasthani to represent English /æ/'s and /ɔ/'s. Levels of Rajasthani-ization in sound vary. Some words do not go far beyond this basic transpositional rule, and sound much like their English source, while others differ in ways, one of those ways being
2100-527: Is the series of "retroflex" or "cerebral" consonants, ṭ (ट), ṭh (ठ), ḍ (ड), ḍh (ढ), and ṇ (ण). These to the Indians and Rajasthani are quite different from the "dentals", t (त), th (थ), d (द), dh (ध), n (न) etc. though many Europeans find them hard to distinguish without practice as they are not common in European languages. The consonant ḷ(ळ) is frequently used in Rajasthani, which also occurs in vedic and some prakrits,
2175-513: Is to say, they were written after the closure of the Jain canons, though the different canons were closed at different historical eras, and so this category is ambiguous. Thus, Umaswati 's (c. between 2nd-century and 5th-century CE) Tattvarthasūtra ("On the Nature of Reality") is included in the Digambara canon, but not in the Śvētāmbara canons (though they do consider the work authoritative). Indeed,
2250-432: Is used for "broadcasting". In addition to this are neologisms , often being calques . An example is telephone , which is Greek for "far talk", translated as durbhāṣ . Most people, though, just use phon and thus neo-Sanskrit has varying degrees of acceptance. So, while having unique tadbhav sets, modern IA languages have a common, higher tatsam pool. Also, tatsam s and their derived tadbhav s can also co-exist in
2325-439: Is used for them. Similarly, in Rajasthani script, there is no independent sign for 'ज्ञ'(gya), instead 'ग्य'(Gya) is written in its place. In Rajasthani script, there is no sound of the conjuncts, for example, instead of the conjunct letter 'क्ष'(ksh), 'च'(Ch), 'क'(ka) or 'ख'(kha) is written, like लखण (Lakhan) of लक्षमण (Lakshan), लिछमण (Lichhman) of लक्ष्मण (Lakshman) and राकस (Rakas) of राक्षस (Rakshas). In Rajasthani script, there
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2400-592: The Ganadharas (chief disciples), and is composed of twelve angas (parts, limbs). It is symbolically represented by a tree with twelve branches. The spoken scriptural language is believed to be Ardhamagadhi by the Śvētāmbara Jains, and a form of divine sound or sonic resonance by the Digambara Jains. According to the Jain tradition, the divine Śhrut Jnāna of a tirthankara is then converted into sutta (scripture) by his disciples, and from such suttas emerge
2475-912: The Tattvarthasūtra is considered the authoritative Jain philosophy text by all traditions of Jainism. It has the same importance in Jainism as Vedanta Sūtras and Yogasūtras have in Hinduism . Other non-canonical works include various texts attributed to Bhadrabahu ( c. 300 BCE ) which are called the Niryuktis and Samhitas . According to Winternitz, after the 8th century or so, Svetambara Jain writers, who had previously worked in Prakrit, began to use Sanskrit. The Digambaras also adopted Sanskrit somewhat earlier. The earliest Jain works in Sanskrit include
2550-655: The Ṣaṭkhaṅḍāgama (Six Part Scripture), which is held to be one of the oldest Digambara texts. They are dated to between the 2nd to 3rd century CE. Around the same time, Āchārya Gunadhar wrote Kaşāyapāhuda (Treatise on the Passions). These two texts are the two main Digambara Agamas. The Digambara canon of scriptures includes these two main texts, three commentaries on the main texts, and four (later) Anuyogas (expositions), consisting of more than 20 texts. The great commentator Virasena wrote two commentary texts on
2625-690: The Apabhramsha language are Jain works. The oldest Jain literature is in Shauraseni and the Jain Prakrit (the Jain Agamas , Agama-Tulya, the Siddhanta texts, etc.). Many classical texts are in Sanskrit (Tattvartha Sutra, Puranas , Kosh, Sravakacara, mathematics, Nighantus etc.). "Abhidhana Rajendra Kosha" written by Acharya Rajendrasuri , is only one available Jain encyclopedia or Jain dictionary to understand
2700-572: The Bahawalpur and Multan sectors of the Pakistani provinces of Punjab and Tharparkar district of Sindh . It merges with Riasti and Saraiki in Bahawalpur and Multan areas, respectively. Many linguists (Shackle, 1976 and Gusain, 2000) agree that it shares many phonological (implosives), morphological (future tense marker and negation) and syntactic features with Riasti and Saraiki. A distribution of
2775-726: The Rajasthan Legislative Assembly passed a unanimous resolution to insert recognition of Rajasthani into the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution of India . In May 2015, a senior member of the pressure group Rajasthani Bhasha Manyata Samiti said at a New Delhi press conference: "Twelve years have passed, but there has absolutely been no forward movement." All 25 Members of Parliament elected from Rajasthan state, as well as former Chief Minister , Vasundhara Raje Scindia , have also voiced support for official recognition of
2850-546: The Ramayana and Mahabharata are found in Sanskrit, the Prakrits, Apabhraṃśa and Kannada. Jain Prakrit is a term loosely used for the language of the Jain Agamas (canonical texts). The books of Jainism were written in the popular vernacular dialects (as opposed to Sanskrit ), and therefore encompass a number of related dialects. Chief among these is Ardha Magadhi , which due to its extensive use has also come to be identified as
2925-579: The Ācārāṅga Sūtra , the Sūtrakṛtāṅga Sūtra , and the Uttarādhyayana Sūtra are among the oldest texts in the canon. This does not guarantee that they actually date from the time of Mahāvīra, nor even from the centuries immediately following his death, nor does it guarantee that all parts of these texts were composed simultaneously. Elsewhere, Bronkhorst states that the Sūtrakṛtāṅga "dates from
3000-819: The Ṣaṭkhaṅḍāgama , the Dhaval‑tika on the first five volumes and Maha‑dhaval‑tika on the sixth volume of the Ṣaṭkhaṅḍāgama , around 780 CE. Virasena and his disciple, Jinasena , also wrote a commentary on the Kaşāyapāhuda , known as Jaya‑dhavala‑tika . There is no agreement on the canonical Anuyogas ("Expositions"). The Anuyogas were written between the 2nd and the 11th centuries CE , either in Jaina Śaurasenī Prakrit or in Sanskrit . The expositions ( Anuyogas ) are divided into four literary categories: There are various later Jain works that are considered post-canonical, that
3075-414: The "that" in "of the nature of that" refers to Sanskrit. They tend to be non-technical, everyday, crucial words; part of the spoken vernacular. Below is a table of a few Rajasthani tadbhav words and their Old Indo-Aryan sources: tatsama , "same as that". While Sanskrit eventually stopped being spoken vernacularly, in that it changed into Middle Indo-Aryan , it was nonetheless standardised and retained as
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3150-460: The 2nd century BCE at the very earliest," based on how it references the Buddhist theory of momentariness, which is a later scholastic development. During the reign of Chandragupta Maurya ( c. 324 or 321 – c. 297 BCE), Āchārya Bhadrabahu ( c. 367 – c. 298 BCE ), said to have been the last knower of the complete Jain agamas , was the head of Jain community . At this time,
3225-583: The Agamas and recorded them as written manuscripts under the leadership of Acharya Shraman Devardhigani along with other 500 Jain scholars. The existing Śvētāmbara canons are based on the Vallabhi council texts. From the 15th century onwards, various Śvetāmbara subsects began to disagree on the composition of the canon. Mūrtipūjaks ("idol-worshippers") accept 45 texts, while the Sthānakavāsins and Terāpanthins only accept 32. The canons ( Siddhāntha ) of
3300-803: The Bengal style." Coolie — 1598, "name given by Europeans to hired laborers in India and China," from Hindi quli "hired servant," probably from koli , name of an aboriginal tribe or caste in Gujarat. Tank — c.1616, "pool or lake for irrigation or drinking water," a word originally brought by the Portuguese from India, ult. from Gujarati tankh "cistern, underground reservoir for water," Marathi tanken , or tanka "reservoir of water, tank." Perhaps from Skt. tadaga-m "pond, lake pool," and reinforced in later sense of "large artificial container for liquid" (1690) by Port. tanque "reservoir," from estancar "hold back
3375-461: The Digambara collections in Karnataka temples, have a large number of well-preserved manuscripts. These include Jain literature and Hindu and Buddhist texts. Almost all have been dated to about, or after, the 11th century CE. The largest and most valuable libraries are found in the Thar Desert , hidden in the underground vaults of Jain temples. These collections have witnessed insect damage, and only
3450-508: The Jain Prakrit, Ardha-Magadhi and other languages, words, their use and references within oldest Jain literature. Jain literature was written in Apabhraṃśa (Kahas, rasas, and grammars), Standard Hindi (Chhahadhala, Moksh Marg Prakashak , and others), Tamil ( Nālaṭiyār , Civaka Cintamani , Valayapathi , and others), and Kannada ( Vaddaradhane and various other texts). Jain versions of
3525-672: The Pakistani provinces of Punjab and Sindh . Rajasthani languages are also spoken to a lesser extent in Nepal , where they are spoken by 25,394 people according to the 2011 Census of Nepal. The term Rajasthani is also used to refer to a literary language mostly based on Marwari . Most of the Rajasthani languages are chiefly spoken in the state of Rajasthan but are also spoken in Gujarat , Western Madhya Pradesh i.e. Malwa and Nimar , Haryana and Punjab . Rajasthani languages are also spoken in
3600-459: The Self, through his own Self, and does not reflect upon the karmas and the quasi-karmic matter ( nokarma ); the Self with such distinctive qualities experiences oneness with the Self. Such a Self, contemplating on the Self, becomes of the nature of right faith and knowledge, and being immersed in the Self, attains, in a short span of time, status of the Pure Self that is free from all karmas . It has
3675-515: The basis of the collective memory of the ascetics in the first council of Pataliputra under the stewardship of Sthulibhadra in around to 463–367 BCE. During the council, eleven scriptures called Angas were compiled and the remnant of fourteen purvas were written down in a 12th Anga. Another council was later organised in 2nd-century BCE in Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves , Kalinga (now in Odisha ) during
3750-453: The carrying of dentals. See Indian English . As English loanwords are a relatively new phenomenon, they adhere to English grammar, as tatsam words adhere to Sanskrit. That is not to say that the most basic changes have been underway: many English words are pluralised with Rajasthani o over English "s". Also, with Rajasthani having three genders, genderless English words must take one. Though often inexplicable, gender assignment may follow
3825-1036: The census. Marwari , the most spoken Rajasthani language with approximately 8 million speakers situated in the historic Marwar region of western Rajasthan. The Rajasthani languages belong to the Western Indo-Aryan language family . However, they are controversially conflated with the Hindi languages of the Central-Zone in the Indian national census, among other places . The main Rajasthani subgroups are: Mahajani Telugu script In Rajasthan : Nohar-Bhadra, Anupgarh district, Hanumangarh district, Northern & Dungargarh tehsils of Bikaner district and Sri Ganganagar district; Taranagar, Sidhmukh, Rajgarh, Sardarshahar, Ratangarh, Bhanipura tehsils of Churu district, In Haryana : Sirsa district, Fatehabad district, Hisar district, Bhiwani district, Charkhi-dadri district, In Punjab : Fazilka district & Southern Muktsar district. It
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#17330853461973900-462: The composition of the Jain Agamas starting from the 6th century BCE, some western scholars, such as Ian Whicher and David Carpenter, argue that the earliest portions of Jain canonical works were composed around the 4th or 3rd century BCE. According to Johannes Bronkhorst it is extremely difficult to determine the age of the Jain Agamas, however: Mainly on linguistic grounds, it has been argued that
3975-651: The definitive form of Prakrit . Other dialects include versions of Maharashtri and Sauraseni . Parts of the Sangam literature in Tamil are attributed to Jains. The authenticity and interpolations are controversial because it presents Hindu ideas. Some scholars state that the Jain portions were added about or after the 8th century CE, and are not ancient. Tamil Jain texts such as the Cīvaka Cintāmaṇi and Nālaṭiyār are credited to Digambara Jain authors. These texts have seen interpolations and revisions. For example, it
4050-450: The doctrine that had survived in their community. As such, Digambaras have a different set of canonical scriptures. According to von Glasenapp, the Digambara texts partially agree with the enumerations and works of older Śvētāmbara texts, but in many cases there are also major differences between the texts of the two major Jain traditions. In 453 or 466 CE, the Śvētāmbara order held another council at Vallabhi . The Śvētāmbaras recompiled
4125-464: The end of Perso-Arabic inflow, English became the current foreign source of new vocabulary. English had and continues to have a considerable influence over Indian languages. Loanwords include new innovations and concepts, first introduced directly through British colonial rule , and then streaming in on the basis of continued Anglophone dominance in the Republic of India . Besides the category of new ideas
4200-748: The first 11 Agamas were not lost. They compiled them in written format in the 6th century CE in Vallabhi, Gujarat. The list is as follows. There are 45 Agamas (11 Angā Agamas and 34 Angā Bahya Agamas). The 34 Anga Bahya Agamas consist of 12 Upānga Agamas, 6 Cheda sūtras, 6 Mūla sūtras, and 10 Paiṇṇaya sutras. Upānga Agamas Cheda sūtras (texts relating to the conduct and behaviour of monks and nuns) Mūla sūtras ('Fundamental texts' which are foundational works studied by new monastics) Paiṇṇaya sutras (Sanskrit: Prakīrnaka sūtras, "Miscellaneous") Major scriptures by Acharya Umaswati (1st–2nd Century AD) Rajasthani language The Rajasthani languages are
4275-449: The following: According to the Digambara tradition, the original scriptures had been lost by about the 2nd century CE. Āchārya Bhutabali is considered the last ascetic who had some partial knowledge of the original canon. Digambara tradition holds that Āchārya Dharasena (1st century CE), guided Āchārya Pushpadanta and Āchārya Bhutabali to write what remained of the lost teachings down into palm-leaf scriptures. These two Āchāryas wrote
4350-550: The formal canons. The suttas are grouped into duvala samgagani pidaga (twelve limbed baskets), which are transmitted orally by the disciples. In every universal cycle of Jain cosmology, twenty-four tirthankaras appear and so do the Jain scriptures for that cycle. Initially, the canonical scriptures were transmitted through an oral tradition and consisted of teachings of historical Jain leaders like Mahavira codified into various collections. Gautama and other Gandhars (the chief disciples of Mahavira) are said to have compiled
4425-412: The geographical area can be found in ' Linguistic Survey of India ' by George A. Grierson . Standard Rajasthani or Standard Marwari, a version of Rajasthani, the common lingua franca of Rajasthani people and is spoken by over 25 million people (2011) in different parts of Rajasthan. It has to be taken into consideration, however, that some speakers of Standard Marwari are conflated with Hindi speakers in
4500-403: The impact of Portuguese has been greater on coastal languages and their loans tend to be closer to the Portuguese originals. The source dialect of these loans imparts an earlier pronunciation of ch as an affricate instead of the current standard of [ʃ] . Bungalow — 1676, from Gujarati bangalo , from Hindi bangla "low, thatched house," lit. "Bengalese," used elliptically for "house in
4575-584: The language. In 2019 Rajasthan Government included Rajasthani as a language subject in state's open school system. A committee was formed by the Government in March 2023 to make Rajasthani an official language of the state after huge protests by the youths of Rajasthani Yuva Samiti. Rajasthani is a head-final, or left- branching language. Adjectives precede nouns , direct objects come before verbs , and there are postpositions . The word order of Rajasthani
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#17330853461974650-558: The neuter ũ . Aside from easy slotting with the auxiliary karnũ , a few words have made a complete transition of verbification: kabūlnũ – to admit (fault), kharīdnũ – to buy, kharǎcnũ – to spend (money), gujarnũ – to pass. The last three are definite part and parcel. Below is a table displaying a number of these loans. Currently some of the etymologies are being referenced to an Urdu dictionary so that Gujarati's singular masculine o corresponds to Urdu ā , neuter ũ groups into ā as Urdu has no neuter gender, and Urdu's Persian z
4725-453: The oldest known books in Hindi and Gujarati were written by Jain scholars. The first autobiography in the ancestor of Hindi, Braj Bhasha , is called Ardhakathānaka and was written by a Jain, Banarasidasa , an ardent follower of Acarya Kundakunda who lived in Agra . Many Tamil classics are written by Jains or with Jain beliefs and values as the core subject. Practically all the known texts in
4800-600: The original sacred scriptures which were divided into twelve Angas or parts. They are referred to as the eleven Angas and the fourteen Pūrvas , since the twelfth Anga comprises fourteen Pūrvas . These scriptures are said to have contained the most comprehensive and accurate description of every branch of Jain learning. The Jain Agamas and their commentaries were composed mainly in Ardhamagadhi Prakrit as well as in Maharashtri Prakrit . While some authors date
4875-404: The patronage of kings and regional aristocrats. They describe warrior violence and martial valor as equivalent to a "fully committed Jain ascetic", setting aside Jainism's absolute non-violence. Jain manuscript libraries called bhandaras inside Jain temples are the oldest surviving in India. Jain libraries, including the Śvētāmbara collections at Patan, Gujarat and Jaiselmer, Rajasthan , and
4950-540: The reign of Kharavela . The Śvētāmbara order considers these Jain Agamas as canonical works and sees them as being based on an authentic oral tradition. They consider their collection to represent a continuous tradition, though they accept that their collection is also incomplete because of a lost Anga text and four lost Purva texts. However, these texts were rejected by the Digambara (lit. "sky-clad", i.e. naked) order, which hold that Āchārya Bhutabali (1st Century CE)
5025-480: The same basis as it is expressed in Gujarati: vowel type, and the nature of word meaning. The smaller foothold the Portuguese had in wider India had linguistic effects due to extensive trade. Rajasthani took up a number of words, while elsewhere the influence was great enough to the extent that creole languages came to be ( see Portuguese India , Portuguese-based creole languages in India and Sri Lanka ). Comparatively,
5100-640: The same kind of authority as the other works in the canon. Most of these works are in Jaina Māhārāṣṭrī Prakrit, unlike the other Śvetāmbara scriptures which tend to be in Ardhamāgadhī. They are therefore most likely later works than the Aṅgas and Upāṅgas. Mūrtipūjak Jain canons will generally accept 10 Paiṇṇayas as canonical, but there is widespread disagreement on which 10 scriptures are given canonical status. The most widely accepted list of ten scriptures are
5175-571: The theory of numbers, arithmetical operations, geometry, operations with fractions, simple equations, cubic equations, bi-quadric equations, permutations, combinations and logarithms. Jains literature exists mainly in Jain Prakrit , Sanskrit , Marathi , Tamil , Rajasthani , Dhundari , Marwari , Hindi , Gujarati , Kannada , Malayalam , Telugu and more recently in English . Jains have contributed to India's classical and popular literature . For example, almost all early Kannada literature and many Tamil works were written by Jains. Some of
5250-448: The three general categories of words in modern Indo-Aryan: tadbhav , tatsam , and loanwords. tadbhava , "of the nature of that". Rajasthani is a modern Indo-Aryan language descended from Sanskrit (old Indo-Aryan), and this category pertains exactly to that: words of Sanskritic origin that have demonstratively undergone change over the ages, ending up characteristic of modern Indo-Aryan languages specifically as well as in general. Thus
5325-637: The writings of Siddhasēna Divākara ( c. 650 CE ), who wrote the Sanmatitarka ('The Logic of the True Doctrine') is the first major Jain work on logic written in Sanskrit . Other later works and writers include: Jainendra-vyakarana of Acharya Pujyapada and Sakatayana-vyakarana of Sakatayana are both works on grammar written in c. 9th century CE . Siddha-Hem-Shabdanushasana" by Acharya Hemachandra ( c. 12th century CE )
5400-564: The Śvētāmbaras are generally composed of the following texts: To reach the number 45, Mūrtipūjak Śvētāmbara canons contain a "Miscellaneous" collection of supplementary texts, called the Paiṇṇaya suttas (Sanskrit: Prakīrnaka sūtras , "Miscellaneous"). This section varies in number depending on the individual sub-sect (from 10 texts to over 20). They also often included extra works (often of disputed authorship) named "supernumerary Prakīrṇakas". The Paiṇṇaya texts are generally not considered to have
5475-554: Was published by Vijay K. Jain in 2022. Samayasara was written by Acharya Kundakunda in Prakrit . The original Samayasara of Kundakunda consists of 415 verses and was written in Prakrit . The first verse ( aphorism ) of the Samayasāra is an invocation: O bhavyas (potential aspirants to liberation)! Making obeisance to all the Siddhas, established in the fifth state of existence that
5550-585: Was ruled for many centuries by Persian-speaking Muslims , amongst the most notable being the Delhi Sultanate , and the Mughal dynasty . As a consequence Indian languages were changed greatly, with the large scale entry of Persian and its many Arabic loans into the Gujarati lexicon. One fundamental adoption was Persian's conjunction "that", ke . Also, while tatsam or Sanskrit is etymologically continuous to Gujarati, it
5625-500: Was the last ascetic who had partial knowledge of the original canon. According to Digambaras, the Purvas and the original Agamas of Gautama were lost during the Mauryan period crisis and famine. This Digambara stance on the loss of the Agamas is one of the disagreements that led to the main schism in Jainism. Digambara masters proceeded to create new scriptures which contained the knowledge of
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