The Saudi Water Authority (SWA) is a Saudi Arabian government authority responsible for regulating and monitoring water sector business and services to enhance water sustainability across the Kingdom.
67-883: The Saudi Water Authority (SWA) was formerly the Saline Water Conversion Corporation (SWCC) until March 2024, when a session of the Council of Ministers of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, headed by the Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques, King Salman bin Abdulaziz Al Saud, agreed to change the name to the Saudi Water Authority (SWA), officially approving its objectives and roles as the Kingdom’s regulatory authority for
134-520: A 10%+ compound rate, doubling in abundance every seven years. There are now about 21,000 desalination plants in operation around the globe. The biggest ones are in the United Arab Emirates , Saudi Arabia , and Israel. The world's largest desalination plant is located in Saudi Arabia ( Ras Al-Khair Power and Desalination Plant ) with a capacity of 1,401,000 cubic meters per day. Desalination
201-490: A April 2024, researchers from the Australian National University published experimental results of a novel technique for desalination. This technique, thermodiffusive desalination, passes saline water through a channel with a temperature gradient. Species migrate under this temperature gradient in a process known a thermodiffusion. Researchers then separated the water into fractions. After multiple passes through
268-479: A buffer tank on a hill with seawater. The reverse osmosis process receives its pressurized seawater feed in non-sunlight hours by gravity, resulting in sustainable drinking water production without the need for fossil fuels, an electricity grid or batteries. Nano-tubes are also used for the same function (i.e., Reverse Osmosis). Forward osmosis uses a semi-permeable membrane to effect separation of water from dissolved solutes. The driving force for this separation
335-589: A daily freshwater output of 11.5 million cubic meters. In 2024, The Saudi Water Authority (formerly SWCC) held 9 Guinness World Records: Largest water desalination company, Largest network of water pipelines, Largest drinking water storage tank, Largest production capacity of a water desalination network, Lowest energy consumption for a water desalination plant, Largest water desalination plant (capacity), Largest drinking water storage tank network, Largest multi-effect distillation water desalination plant (capacity), and Largest drinking water storage facility. 60% of
402-681: A decade of regional drought. By the late 1960s and the early 1970s, RO started to show promising results to replace traditional thermal desalination units. Research took place at state universities in California, at the Dow Chemical Company and DuPont . Many studies focus on ways to optimize desalination systems. The first commercial RO plant, the Coalinga desalination plant, was inaugurated in California in 1965 for brackish water . Dr. Sidney Loeb , in conjunction with staff at UCLA , designed
469-864: A heavily subsidised price. The local agriculture sector is the country’s highest water consumer, and it contributes to the depletion of fossil aquifers. This level of investment in water per capita is among the highest in the world due to the high cost of desalination. The Crown Prince’s Vision 2030 outlined the Kingdom’s aim to increase the role of private operators in the desalination industry. The Kingdom aims to raise US$ 200 billion in investment (not including Saudi Aramco’s IPO) through private-public partnerships and privatisation. SWA’s projects are worth $ 120 billion and are buoyed by its strong government support. The portfolio includes over 80 projects, including developing production systems, upgrading and replacing ageing infrastructure, and creating new transmission systems and water tanks. While desalination ensures that over 97% of
536-627: A large pilot plant to gather data on RO, but was successful enough to provide freshwater to the residents of Coalinga. This was a milestone in desalination technology, as it proved the feasibility of RO and its advantages compared to existing technologies (efficiency, no phase change required, ambient temperature operation, scalability, and ease of standardization). A few years later, in 1975, the first sea water reverse osmosis desalination plant came into operation. As of 2000, more than 2000 plants were operated. The largest are in Saudi Arabia, Israel, and
603-434: A lower temperature, when the ambient atmospheric pressure is less than usual atmospheric pressure. Thus, because of the reduced pressure, low-temperature "waste" heat from electrical power generation or industrial processes can be employed. Water is evaporated and separated from sea water through multi-stage flash distillation , which is a series of flash evaporations . Each subsequent flash process uses energy released from
670-479: A multidisciplinary desalination methodology in the IBTS Greenhouse . The IBTS is an industrial desalination (power)plant on one side and a greenhouse operating with the natural water cycle (scaled down 1:10) on the other side. The various processes of evaporation and condensation are hosted in low-tech utilities, partly underground and the architectural shape of the building itself. This integrated biotectural system
737-537: A semi-permeable membrane to separate salt and other impurities from seawater. RO is less energy-intensive than MSF and MED and does not suffer from the same scaling and corrosion issues. It allowed SWA to increase its production capacity while reducing energy consumption and operational costs. RO is the primary technology used by SWA in its desalination plants. Water is provided at a low price to Saudi residential users. The government purchases water from private operators at high prices and then provides it to its citizenry at
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#1732901418587804-418: A significant effect on efficiency and durability. A study found that a membrane created via co-axial electrospinning of PVDF - HFP and silica aerogel was able to filter 99.99% of salt after continuous 30-day usage. The leading process for desalination in terms of installed capacity and yearly growth is reverse osmosis (RO). The RO membrane processes use semipermeable membranes and applied pressure (on
871-492: A vacuum. Under vacuum conditions the ice, desalinated, is melted and diverted for collection and the salt is collected. Electrodialysis uses electric potential to move the salts through pairs of charged membranes, which trap salt in alternating channels. Several variances of electrodialysis exist such as conventional electrodialysis , electrodialysis reversal . Electrodialysis can simultaneously remove salt and carbonic acid from seawater. Preliminary estimates suggest that
938-482: A vertical tube seawater distilling unit that, thanks to its simplicity of design and ease of construction, gained popularity for shipboard use. Land-based units did not significantly appear until the latter half of the nineteenth century. In the 1860s, the US Army purchased three Normandy evaporators, each rated at 7000 gallons/day and installed them on the islands of Key West and Dry Tortugas . Another land-based plant
1005-512: Is CETO , a wave power technology that desalinates seawater using submerged buoys. Wave-powered desalination plants began operating on Garden Island in Western Australia in 2013 and in Perth in 2015. Membrane distillation uses a temperature difference across a membrane to evaporate vapor from a brine solution and condense pure water on the colder side. The design of the membrane can have
1072-403: Is distillation (i.e., boiling and re- condensation of seawater to leave salt and impurities behind). There are currently two technologies with a large majority of the world's desalination capacity: multi-stage flash distillation and reverse osmosis . Solar distillation mimics the natural water cycle, in which the sun heats sea water enough for evaporation to occur. After evaporation,
1139-451: Is an artificial process by which saline water (generally sea water ) is converted to fresh water. The most common desalination processes are distillation and reverse osmosis . There are several methods. Each has advantages and disadvantages but all are useful. The methods can be divided into membrane-based (e.g., reverse osmosis ) and thermal-based (e.g., multistage flash distillation ) methods. The traditional process of desalination
1206-548: Is an osmotic pressure gradient, such as a "draw" solution of high concentration. Freeze–thaw desalination (or freezing desalination) uses freezing to remove fresh water from salt water. Salt water is sprayed during freezing conditions into a pad where an ice-pile builds up. When seasonal conditions warm, naturally desalinated melt water is recovered. This technique relies on extended periods of natural sub-freezing conditions. A different freeze–thaw method, not weather dependent and invented by Alexander Zarchin , freezes seawater in
1273-418: Is currently expensive compared to most alternative sources of water, and only a very small fraction of total human use is satisfied by desalination. It is usually only economically practical for high-valued uses (such as household and industrial uses) in arid areas. However, there is growth in desalination for agricultural use and highly populated areas such as Singapore or California. The most extensive use
1340-425: Is expected that costs will continue to decrease with technology improvements that include, but are not limited to, improved efficiency, reduction in plant footprint, improvements to plant operation and optimization, more effective feed pretreatment, and lower cost energy sources. Reverse osmosis uses a thin-film composite membrane, which comprises an ultra-thin, aromatic polyamide thin-film. This polyamide film gives
1407-402: Is important for agriculture. It is possible to desalinate saltwater, especially sea water , to produce water for human consumption or irrigation. The by-product of the desalination process is brine . Many seagoing ships and submarines use desalination. Modern interest in desalination mostly focuses on cost-effective provision of fresh water for human use. Along with recycled wastewater , it
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#17329014185871474-548: Is in line with the Crown Prince’s Vision 2030 localisation agenda, which encourages firms to train and hire locals. SWA operates its desalination plants at 99.2% of their design capacity by maintaining existing plants and investing in new technology. This has been achieved as part of its plans to replace older assets and strengthen the infrastructure for desalinated water production across the Kingdom, with an availability coefficient of 99.6% for its desalination plants. In
1541-498: Is in the Persian Gulf . While noting costs are falling, and generally positive about the technology for affluent areas in proximity to oceans, a 2005 study argued, "Desalinated water may be a solution for some water-stress regions, but not for places that are poor, deep in the interior of a continent, or at high elevation. Unfortunately, that includes some of the places with the biggest water problems.", and, "Indeed, one needs to lift
1608-407: Is more cost effective if kept at a small scale. Wave powered desalination systems generally convert mechanical wave motion directly to hydraulic power for reverse osmosis. Such systems aim to maximize efficiency and reduce costs by avoiding conversion to electricity, minimizing excess pressurization above the osmotic pressure, and innovating on hydraulic and wave power components. One such example
1675-493: Is most suitable for large scale desert greening as it has a km footprint for the water distillation and the same for landscape transformation in desert greening, respectively the regeneration of natural fresh water cycles. In vacuum distillation atmospheric pressure is reduced, thus lowering the temperature required to evaporate the water. Liquids boil when the vapor pressure equals the ambient pressure and vapor pressure increases with temperature. Effectively, liquids boil at
1742-417: Is one of the few water resources independent of rainfall. Due to its energy consumption, desalinating sea water is generally more costly than fresh water from surface water or groundwater , water recycling and water conservation ; however, these alternatives are not always available and depletion of reserves is a critical problem worldwide. Desalination processes are using either thermal methods (in
1809-449: Is the most thermodynamically efficient among methods powered by heat, a few limitations exist such as a max temperature and max number of effects. Vapor-compression evaporation involves using either a mechanical compressor or a jet stream to compress the vapor present above the liquid. The compressed vapor is then used to provide the heat needed for the evaporation of the rest of the sea water. Since this system only requires power, it
1876-730: The Middle Ages , but desalination became feasible on a large scale only in the modern era. A good example of this experimentation comes from Leonardo da Vinci (Florence, 1452), who realized that distilled water could be made cheaply in large quantities by adapting a still to a cookstove. During the Middle Ages elsewhere in Central Europe, work continued on distillation refinements, although not necessarily directed towards desalination. The first major land-based desalination plant may have been installed under emergency conditions on an island off
1943-656: The South Seas , reported that he had been able to supply his men with fresh water by means of shipboard distillation. Additionally, during the early 1600s, several prominent figures of the era such as Francis Bacon and Walter Raleigh published reports on desalination. These reports and others, set the climate for the first patent dispute concerning desalination apparatus. The two first patents regarding water desalination were approved in 1675 and 1683 (patents No. 184 and No. 226, published by William Walcot and Robert Fitzgerald (and others), respectively). Nevertheless, neither of
2010-457: The 1500s, and formulated practical advice that was publicized to all U.S. ships on the reverse side of sailing clearance permits. Beginning about 1800, things started changing as a consequence of the appearance of the steam engine and the so-called age of steam . Knowledge of the thermodynamics of steam processes and the need for a pure water source for its use in boilers generated a positive effect regarding distilling systems. Additionally,
2077-484: The Kingdom’s water comes from desalination, while 30% is sourced from non-renewable groundwater and only 10% from surface water located in the south-west of the country. The Saudi Water Authority (SWA) has a production capacity of 7.5 million cubic metres per day. It aims to produce 11.5 million cubic metres per day, leveraging seawater and underground water. It holds the top spot in the Guinness Book of Records as
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2144-577: The Ministry of Agriculture and Water in 1972. On September 6, 1974, the Council of Ministers established an independent water desalination corporation, administratively affiliated with the Minister of Agriculture and Water, and appointed its head by royal order. It primarily focused on improving the natural water resources by desalinating saline water in regions of the Kingdom where natural resources were insufficient to meet their needs, utilising water resources of
2211-483: The Ministry of Agriculture and Water, established in 1966 to enhance water security in the Kingdom and provide water for the needs of the population and the agricultural sector, as Saudi Arabia's climate is one of the harshest and driest in the world. It was led by Prince Muhammad Al-Faisal, who held expertise in seawater technology. Water Desalination for Salty was transformed into the Agency for Desalination Affairs within
2278-476: The RO membranes are destroyed. To mitigate damage, various pretreatment stages are introduced. Anti-scaling inhibitors include acids and other agents such as the organic polymers polyacrylamide and polymaleic acid , phosphonates and polyphosphates . Inhibitors for fouling are biocides (as oxidants against bacteria and viruses), such as chlorine, ozone, sodium or calcium hypochlorite. At regular intervals, depending on
2345-484: The Red Sea and the Persian Gulf . SWCC was given the authority to produce electrical energy independently when necessary. In the early stages, SWCC adopted Multi-Stage Flash (MSF) distillation as the primary technology, later switching to Multi-Effect Distillation (MED). After that, SWCC switched to Reverse Osmosis (RO), and as of 2024, RO is the primary technology used by SWCC in its desalination plants. In its early years,
2412-476: The SWCC focused on building its first desalination plants. The first plant was built in the city of Jeddah on the Red Sea coast. Using MSF distillation, the plant began producing desalinated water for the city's residents. SWCC invested in research and development and collaborated with international partners and academic institutions to improve the efficiency of its desalination processes, as the initial desalination process
2479-645: The UAE; and the biggest plant with a volume of 1,401,000 m3/d is in Saudi Arabia (Ras Al Khair). As of 2021 22,000 plants were in operation In 2024 the Catalan government installed a floating offshore plant near the port of Barcelona and purchased 12 mobile desalination units for the northern region of the Costa Brava to combat the severe drought. In 2012, cost averaged $ 0.75 per cubic meter. By 2022, that had declined (before inflation) to $ 0.41. Desalinated supplies are growing at
2546-473: The case of distillation ) or membrane-based methods (e.g. in the case of reverse osmosis ). An estimate in 2018 found that "18,426 desalination plants are in operation in over 150 countries. They produce 87 million cubic meters of clean water each day and supply over 300 million people." The energy intensity has improved: It is now about 3 kWh/m (in 2018), down by a factor of 10 from 20–30 kWh/m in 1970. Nevertheless, desalination represented about 25% of
2613-414: The channel, the researchers were able to achieve NaCL concentration drop of 25000 ppm with a recovery rate of 10% of the original water volume. The desalination process's energy consumption depends on the water's salinity. Brackish water desalination requires less energy than seawater desalination. The energy intensity of seawater desalination has improved: It is now about 3 kWh/m (in 2018), down by
2680-642: The coast of Tunisia in 1560. It is believed that a garrison of 700 Spanish soldiers was besieged by the Turkish army and that, during the siege, the captain in charge fabricated a still capable of producing 40 barrels of fresh water per day, though details of the device have not been reported. Before the Industrial Revolution , desalination was primarily of concern to oceangoing ships, which otherwise needed to keep on board supplies of fresh water. Sir Richard Hawkins (1562–1622), who made extensive travels in
2747-509: The company started the operation of barges, launching the first floating system for desalinated water production. In 2015, the company operationalised the Jubail system phase two with a production capacity of approximately one million m³/day. For several years, it was the largest water desalination system in the world. Later, the Ras Al-Khair plant was inaugurated, securing a Guinness certificate as
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2814-399: The company’s emissions by 10.8 million tonnes by 2024. It sources 20% of its desalination energy consumption from renewable sources in its new desalination plants. Desalination Desalination is a process that removes mineral components from saline water . More generally, desalination is the removal of salts and minerals from a substance. One example is soil desalination . This
2881-421: The condensation of the water vapor from the previous step. Multiple-effect distillation (MED) works through a series of steps called "effects". Incoming water is sprayed onto pipes which are then heated to generate steam. The steam is then used to heat the next batch of incoming sea water. To increase efficiency, the steam used to heat the sea water can be taken from nearby power plants. Although this method
2948-673: The construction of over 200 electrodialysis and distillation plants globally, reverse osmosis (RO) research, and international cooperation (for example, the First International Water Desalination Symposium and Exposition in 1965). The Office of Saline Water merged into the Office of Water Resources Research in 1974. The first industrial desalination plant in the United States opened in Freeport, Texas in 1961 after
3015-444: The cost of such carbon removal can be paid for in large part if not entirely from the sale of the desalinated water produced as a byproduct. Microbial desalination cells are biological electrochemical systems that implements the use of electro-active bacteria to power desalination of water in situ , resourcing the natural anode and cathode gradient of the electro-active bacteria and thus creating an internal supercapacitor . In
3082-474: The early stages, SWA adopted Multi-Stage Flash (MSF) distillation as the primary desalination technology, miming the natural process of evaporation and condensation, using heat to evaporate water and then condensing it to produce fresh water. Later, the company switched to Multi-Effect Distillation (MED) due to the MSF energy-intensiveness and extensive maintenance required as a result of the scaling and corrosion caused by
3149-407: The energy consumed by the water sector in 2016. Ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle observed in his work Meteorology that "salt water, when it turns into vapour, becomes sweet and the vapour does not form salt water again when it condenses", and that a fine wax vessel would hold potable water after being submerged long enough in seawater, having acted as a membrane to filter the salt. At
3216-403: The high salt content of seawater. Like MSF, MED used heat to evaporate and condense water but was more efficient because it used the steam produced in one effect to heat the next, creating a cascade of multiple effects. MED showed improvement over MSF in terms of energy efficiency but still suffered from scale buildup and corrosion issues. After that, SWA switched to Reverse Osmosis (RO), which uses
3283-480: The local population has access to potable water https://ussaudi.org/water-in-saudi-arabia-desalination-wastewater-and-privatization/ , social awareness around water conservation has traditionally been low in the kingdom. The growing population will require additional water resources, with output required to almost double in 2024 from current rates in order to meet demand. SWA has also been active in promoting water conservation and has launched awareness campaigns to educate
3350-507: The membrane contamination; fluctuating seawater conditions; or when prompted by monitoring processes, the membranes need to be cleaned, known as emergency or shock-flushing. Flushing is done with inhibitors in a fresh water solution and the system must go offline. This procedure is environmentally risky, since contaminated water is diverted into the ocean without treatment. Sensitive marine habitats can be irreversibly damaged. Off-grid solar-powered desalination units use solar energy to fill
3417-438: The membrane feed side) to preferentially induce water permeation through the membrane while rejecting salts. Reverse osmosis plant membrane systems typically use less energy than thermal desalination processes. Energy cost in desalination processes varies considerably depending on water salinity, plant size and process type. At present the cost of seawater desalination, for example, is higher than traditional water sources, but it
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#17329014185873484-674: The membrane its transport properties, whereas the remainder of the thin-film composite membrane provides mechanical support. The polyamide film is a dense, void-free polymer with a high surface area, allowing for its high water permeability. A recent study has found that the water permeability is primarily governed by the internal nanoscale mass distribution of the polyamide active layer. The reverse osmosis process requires maintenance. Various factors interfere with efficiency: ionic contamination (calcium, magnesium etc.); dissolved organic carbon (DOC); bacteria; viruses; colloids and insoluble particulates; biofouling and scaling . In extreme cases,
3551-422: The public about the importance of water conservation. Since desalination is a high-intensity operation, SWA focuses on reducing its carbon emissions at existing plants from 60 to 37 million tonnes by 2025, nearly halving its emissions. SWA is also committed to planting 5 million trees by 2030. It also aims to replace the use of liquid fuel in its plants with alternative low-emission energy sources, which will reduce
3618-882: The same time the desalination of seawater was recorded in China. Both the Classic of Mountains and Water Seas in the Period of the Warring States and the Theory of the Same Year in the Eastern Han Dynasty mentioned that people found that the bamboo mats used for steaming rice would form a thin outer layer after long use. The as-formed thin film had adsorption and ion exchange functions, which could adsorb salt. Numerous examples of experimentation in desalination appeared throughout Antiquity and
3685-407: The sea and somewhat high, such as Riyadh and Harare . By contrast in other locations transport costs are much less, such as Beijing, Bangkok , Zaragoza , Phoenix , and, of course, coastal cities like Tripoli . After desalination at Jubail , Saudi Arabia, water is pumped 320 km inland to Riyadh . For coastal cities, desalination is increasingly viewed as a competitive choice. In 2023, Israel
3752-417: The spread of European colonialism induced a need for freshwater in remote parts of the world, thus creating the appropriate climate for water desalination. In parallel with the development and improvement of systems using steam ( multiple-effect evaporators ), these type of devices quickly demonstrated their desalination potential. In 1852, Alphonse René le Mire de Normandy was issued a British patent for
3819-440: The two inventions entered service as a consequence of scale-up difficulties. No significant improvements to the basic seawater distillation process were made during the 150 years from the mid-1600s until 1800. When the frigate Protector was sold to Denmark in the 1780s (as the ship Hussaren ) its still was studied and recorded in great detail. In the United States, Thomas Jefferson catalogued heat-based methods going back to
3886-428: The water by 2000 m, or transport it over more than 1600 km to get transport costs equal to the desalination costs." Thus, it may be more economical to transport fresh water from somewhere else than to desalinate it. In places far from the sea, like New Delhi, or in high places, like Mexico City , transport costs could match desalination costs. Desalinated water is also expensive in places that are both somewhat far from
3953-467: The water industry, and ensuring its alignment with the standing Saudi benchmarks for local content and sustainability. Prior to its name and mandate change, SWA was known as Saline Water Conversion Corporation (SWCC), a government corporation that operated desalination plants and power stations in Saudi Arabia. SWCC was established in Saudi Arabia in 1974 as "Water Desalination for Salty". SWA (SWCC) originated from Water Desalination for Salty office in
4020-420: The water sector. This was formally announced on 07 May 2024. SWA has a supervisory and strategic role in regulating and overseeing the water sector of Saudi Arabia and is also responsible for developing new policies, strategies, programs, and initiatives, instituting necessary control and requirements for water sector licenses related to developing human capacity, developing technical and engineering standards for
4087-425: The water vapor is condensed onto a cool surface. There are two types of solar desalination. The first type uses photovoltaic cells to convert solar energy to electrical energy to power desalination. The second type converts solar energy to heat, and is known as solar thermal powered desalination. Water can evaporate through several other physical effects besides solar irradiation . These effects have been included in
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#17329014185874154-499: The world's largest dual-purpose water desalination and power production plant. In 2021, Saline Water Conversion Corporation set a new Guinness World Record title for the lowest energy consumption for a water desalination plant with 2.27 kW/h per cubic meter of desalinated water. In 2022, SWCC launched the world's largest floating desalination plant. In 2023, SWCC became the largest producer by transferring operating tasks and specialisations for 139 dam and well plants, achieving
4221-470: The world’s largest producer of desalinated water, accounting for 22% of the world’s global production. SWA operates and monitors 33 desalination plants and over 139 purification plants in the country. The largest is located on the east coast of Jubail. The company has 14 transmission systems and 4,000 km (2,500 mi) of pipelines. The SWCC workforce employs 9,100 people, 98% of whom are local Saudi citizens. The company’s high rate of local Saudi citizens workforce
4288-610: Was created in the United States Department of the Interior in 1955 in accordance with the Saline Water Conversion Act of 1952. This act was motivated by a water shortage in California and inland western United States. The Department of the Interior allocated resources including research grants, expert personnel, patent data, and land for experiments to further advancements. The results of these efforts included
4355-535: Was energy-intensive and produced a significant amount of brine, a highly concentrated saline solution that had to be disposed of carefully to avoid environmental harm. In 1978, SWCC launched the operation of reverse osmosis plants in Jeddah. The company also assumed full responsibility for operating and maintaining its plants and pipelines. In 1983, SWCC commissioned the Jubail-Riyadh water transmission system. In 2008,
4422-585: Was installed at Suakin during the 1880s that provided freshwater to the British troops there. It consisted of six-effect distillers with a capacity of 350 tons/day. After World War II, many technologies were developed or improved such as Multi Effect Flash desalination (MEF) and Multi Stage Flash desalination (MSF). Another notable technology is freeze-thaw desalination. Freeze-thaw desalination, (cryo-desalination or FD), excludes dissolved minerals from saline water through crystallization. The Office of Saline Water
4489-505: Was using desalination to replenish the Sea of Galilee 's water supply. Not everyone is convinced that desalination is or will be economically viable or environmentally sustainable for the foreseeable future. Debbie Cook wrote in 2011 that desalination plants can be energy intensive and costly. Therefore, water-stressed regions might do better to focus on conservation or other water supply solutions than invest in desalination plants. Desalination
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