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75-554: Sajama National Park is Bolivia's oldest national park. The park lies within the Central Andean dry puna ecoregion . It features a spectacular Andean landscape, with elevations of 4,200–6,542 m (13,780–21,463 ft). It contains the snowy cone of the volcano Sajama , the highest mountain in Bolivia at 6,542 m. The park also includes the Payachata volcanic group . The area

150-569: A 1979 study, its presumed ancestor is either Chenopodium berlandieri , from North America, or the Andean species Ch. hircinum , although more recent studies, in 2011, even suggest Old World relatives. On the other hand, morphological features relate Ch.   quinoa of the Andes and Ch. nuttalliae of Mexico. Some studies have suggested that both species may have been derived from the same wild type. A weedy quinoa, Ch.   quinoa var. melanospermum ,

225-620: A commercial scale. Quinoa plants do best in sandy, well-drained soils with a low nutrient content, moderate salinity, and a soil pH of 6 to   8.5. The seedbed must be well prepared and drained to avoid waterlogging. Rotation is used in its Andean native range. Rotation is common with potato , cereals and legumes including Lupinus mutabilis . Quinoa has gained attention for its adaptability to contrasting environments such as saline soils, nutrient-poor soils and drought stressed marginal agroecosystems. Yields are maximised when 170–200 kg/ha (150–180 lb/acre) of nitrogen

300-503: A complex picture. The degree to which individual producers benefit from the global quinoa boom depends on its mode of production , for example through producer associations and co-operatives such as the Asociación Nacional de Productores de Quinua (founded in the 1970s), contracting through vertically integrated private firms, or wage labor. State regulation and enforcement may promote a shift to cash-cropping among some farmers and

375-506: A focus on themes broader than simply provided economic opportunity. Arrangements between the Aymara people and the rest of the management committee for the park have helped to ensure extensive planning and local participation in decisions is taking place, but admittedly plans are not always perfect. Even when using the most optimistic of scenarios, SERNAP concedes that a fair number of indigenous people will have to leave this region in order to assure

450-401: A low gastrointestinal irritant. In South America, these saponins have many uses, including as a detergent for clothing and washing, and as a folk medicine antiseptic for skin injuries. Additionally, the leaves and stems of all species of the genus Chenopodium and related genera of the family Amaranthaceae , including quinoa, contain high levels of oxalic acid . The plant's growth

525-419: A minimum livelihood. In situations like these, every cost and benefit of ecotourism must be carefully weighed. Ecotourism can be defined in a variety of ways, but broadly it is travel that has the object of enjoying features of what is seen as the natural, beautiful, and exotic environment. Main themes of ecotourism also involve sustainable activities and behavior that results in minimal negative consequences for

600-555: A more interesting commodity and global excitement for it increased. At this point, Bolivia and Peru were the only major producers of quinoa. In 2013, there was an extreme increase in imports of quinoa by the United States, Canada and various European countries. In 2016, growth began to slow. Imports were still increasing but at a slower rate and quinoa prices declined as other countries began producing it. By 2015, over 75 countries were producing quinoa, as opposed to only eight countries in

675-553: A potential for increased yields in controlled environments, it has been selected as an experimental crop in NASA 's Controlled Ecological Life Support System for long-duration human occupied space flights . In their natural state, the seeds have a coating that contains bitter-tasting saponins , making them unpalatable . Most of the grain sold commercially has been processed to remove this coating. This bitterness has beneficial effects during cultivation, as it deters birds and, therefore,

750-468: A rich source of the dietary minerals manganese (30%   DV) and phosphorus (22%   DV). However, cooked quinoa is reduced to being just a moderate source (10–19%   DV) of dietary fiber and folate (11%), as well as of the dietary minerals iron (11%), magnesium (18%), and zinc (11%). (table). Quinoa is gluten-free . Because quinoa has a high concentration of protein and is a good source of many micronutrients , has versatility in preparation, and

825-425: A secondary axis emerges either with flowers (amaranthiform) or bearing a tertiary axis carrying the flowers (glomeruliform). These are small, incomplete, sessile flowers of the same colour as the sepals, and both pistillate and perfect forms occur. Pistillate flowers are generally located at the proximal end of the glomeruli and the perfect ones at the distal end of it. A perfect flower has five sepals, five anthers and

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900-445: A shift toward subsistence production among others, while enabling many urban refugees to return to working the land , outcomes with complex and varied social effects. The growth of quinoa consumption outside of its indigenous region has raised concerns over food security of the original consumers, unsustainably intensive farming of the crop, expansion of farming into otherwise marginal agricultural lands with concurrent loss of

975-496: A superior ovary, from which two to three stigmatic branches emerge. The green hypogynous flowers have a simple perianth and are generally self-fertilizing , though cross-pollination occurs. In the natural environment, betalains serve to attract animals to generate a greater rate of pollination and ensure, or improve, seed dissemination. The fruits (seeds) are about 2 mm ( 1 ⁄ 16  in) in diameter and of various colors — from white to red or black, depending on

1050-630: A traditional, quinoa-based diet, whether because quinoa is held to be worth too much to keep for oneself and one's family, or because processed foods have higher status despite their poorer nutritional value . Efforts are being made in some areas to distribute quinoa more widely and ensure that farming and poorer populations have access to it and have an understanding of its nutritional importance, including use in free school breakfasts and government provisions distributed to pregnant and nursing women in need. In terms of wider social consequences, research on traditional producers in Bolivia has emphasised

1125-847: A very useful and effective means to protect this land, it also has its detriments. Some challenges to management systems like the one in place in this park are unclear roles, distrust, and poor communication, which has been seen in Sajama. Central Andean dry puna Too Many Requests If you report this error to the Wikimedia System Administrators, please include the details below. Request from 172.68.168.226 via cp1108 cp1108, Varnish XID 827923337 Upstream caches: cp1108 int Error: 429, Too Many Requests at Fri, 29 Nov 2024 08:33:35 GMT Quinoa Quinoa ( Chenopodium quinoa ; / ˈ k iː n . w ɑː , k i ˈ n oʊ . ə / , from Quechua kinwa or kinuwa )

1200-517: A year. The lodge is currently managed entirely by native Aymara villagers. This area of Bolivia also features the Sajama Lines , mysterious lines covering the altiplano, etched into ground over thousands of years by the ancient ancestors of the Aymara people. The lines are estimated to be about 16,000 kilometers in length, roughly three times the breadth of the United States. The lines are thought to have been used as ancient pilgrimage routes. The park

1275-622: Is 13% water, 64% carbohydrates , 14% protein , and 6% fat . Nutritional evaluations indicate that a 100 g ( 3 + 1 ⁄ 2  oz) serving of raw quinoa seeds has a food energy of 1,539 kJ (368 kcal) and is a rich source (20% or higher of the Daily Value , DV) of protein, dietary fiber , several B vitamins , including 46%   DV for folate , and for several dietary minerals such as magnesium (55%   DV), manganese (95%   DV), phosphorus (65%   DV), and zinc (33%   DV) (table). After boiling, which

1350-415: Is a dicotyledonous annual plant , usually about 1–2 m (3–7 ft) high. It has broad, generally powdery, hairy, lobed leaves, normally arranged alternately . The woody central stem is branched or unbranched depending on the variety and may be green, red or purple. The flowering panicles arise from the top of the plant or from leaf axils along the stem. Each panicle has a central axis from which

1425-400: Is a flowering plant in the amaranth family . It is a herbaceous annual plant grown as a crop primarily for its edible seeds ; the seeds are rich in protein , dietary fiber , B vitamins and dietary minerals in amounts greater than in many grains. Quinoa is not a grass but rather a pseudocereal botanically related to spinach and amaranth ( Amaranthus spp.), and originated in

1500-519: Is also scattered with cultural treasures and remnants of the Aymara's ancient culture. Chullpas , tall funerary towers devoted to noble Aymara families, dot the landscape. These shrines are thought to have been deliberately placed in visible areas to ensure reverence and remembrance for the dead. Pucaras , ancient fortifications, can also be found. Bolivian law defines protected areas as “natural areas with or without human intervention, declared under state protection by law, in order to protect and preserve

1575-439: Is available. The addition of phosphorus does not improve yield. The genome of quinoa was sequenced in 2017. Through traditional selective breeding and, potentially, genetic engineering , the plant is being modified to have higher crop yield , improved tolerance to heat and biotic stress , and greater sweetness through saponin inhibition. Traditionally, quinoa grain is harvested by hand, and only rarely by machine, because

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1650-586: Is composed of two words coming from the Greek χήν,-νός, goose and πόδῖον, podion "little foot", or "goose foot", because of the resemblance of the leaves with the trace of a goose's foot. The specific epithet quinoa is a borrowing from the Spanish quinua or quinoa , itself derived from Quechua kinuwa . The Incas nicknamed quinoa chisiya mama , which in Quechua means "mother of all grains". Chenopodium quinoa

1725-456: Is highly variable due to the number of different subspecies, varieties and landraces (domesticated plants or animals adapted to the environment in which they originated). However, it is generally undemanding and altitude-hardy; it is grown from coastal regions to over 4,000 m (13,000 ft) in the Andes near the equator, with most of the cultivars being grown between 2,500 m (8,200 ft) and 4,000 m (13,000 ft). Depending on

1800-497: Is jointly administered by park service officials and the indigenous people, the Aymara. However, the collaborative efforts between the Aymara and the Bolivian national parks authority ( Servicio Nacional de Áreas Protegidas, SERNAP ) did not begin until 1998, when SERNAP was formed. Sajama National Park did not have a formal administration nor park rangers until 1995, and relations between the Aymara people and this early park administration

1875-465: Is known from South America, but no equivalent closely related to Ch.   nutalliae has been reported from Mexico so far. Studies regarding the genetic diversity of quinoa suggest that it may have passed through at least three bottleneck genetic events, with a possible fourth expected: Over the last 5,000   years the biogeography of Ch. quinoa has changed greatly, mainly by human influence, convenience and preference. It has changed not only in

1950-509: Is not a viable source of income for many of the people in this region, they have been forced to look for other income options. Ecotourism can significantly aid natural places with weak economies, and help to generate an economical way to promote preservation. However, certain elements should be provided in order to ensure profitable and safe ecotourism. These elements, which are not exclusive or explicitly limiting, include culturally appropriate opportunities for local people, secure land tenure, and

2025-410: Is not very conducive to productive agriculture. Only hearty crops like tubers and grains such as quinoa can grow in this area, and even then they are not extremely successful. The Queñoa forests that rise along the slope of Sajama Mountain in the park are regarded as some of the highest forests in the world. There are numerous geysers and hot springs (Aguas Termales) which are about an hour's walk from

2100-401: Is partially due to the attention it received as a food that may help alleviate food insecurity in some world regions. Quinoa is high in protein , which makes it a possible alternative to meat for vegetarians and vegans, and for people who are lactose intolerant . It also has high concentrations of dietary minerals . Quinoa does not contain gluten . Some of these qualities may have improved

2175-595: Is similar to that of coastal Chile where the crop has been grown for centuries. Due to the short growing season, North American cultivation requires short-maturity varieties, typically of Bolivian origin. Quinoa is planted in Idaho where a variety developed and bred specifically for the high-altitude Snake River Plain is the largest planted variety in North America. Several countries within Europe have successfully grown quinoa on

2250-421: Is slow growing and may take anywhere from 2–3 years to regrow to a commercially viable length after shearing. By caring for the vicuñas, the Aymara deepen their connection to their environment and create a continuing means for income. However, the trade of vicuña wool is highly regulated, causing slow trade and sometimes even an inability to trade. While a local management co-administrative approach may seem like

2325-414: Is the typical preparation for eating the seeds, many nutritional evaluations change. Although a 100 g ( 3 + 1 ⁄ 2  oz) serving of cooked quinoa increases to 72% water, most nutritional evaluations are reduced, such as, 21% carbohydrates, 4% protein, and 2% fat, and the food energy of cooked quinoa is reduced to 503 kJ (120 kcal). Although similarly reduced, cooked quinoa remains

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2400-559: The Andean region of northwestern South America. It was first used to feed livestock 5,200–7,000 years ago, and for human consumption 3,000–4,000 years ago in the Lake Titicaca basin of Peru and Bolivia. The plant thrives at high elevations and produces seeds that are rich in protein. Almost all production in the Andean region is done by small farms and associations. Its cultivation has spread to more than 70 countries, including Kenya, India,

2475-542: The UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List due to its universal cultural and natural significance. The Aymara people are indigenous to the Bolivian and Peruvian Altiplano , and make up a quarter of Bolivia's population. Latest estimates predict about 300 families in the affluence zone of the park and about 100 in the park's interior. Much of the Aymara population participates in llama and alpaca herding and yarn spinning. Circular houses, traditional to

2550-512: The cultivar . In regards to the "newly" developed salinity resistance of C.   quinoa , some studies have concluded that accumulation of organic osmolytes plays a dual role for the species. They provide osmotic adjustment, in addition to protection against oxidative stress of the photosynthetic structures in developing leaves. Studies also suggested that reduction in stomatal density in reaction to salinity levels represents an essential instrument of defence to optimize water use efficiency under

2625-657: The "quinoa bust" because of the devastation the price fall caused for farmers and industry. Rising quinoa prices over the period of 2006 to 2017 may have reduced the affordability of quinoa to traditional consumers. However, a 2016 study using Peru's Encuesta Nacional de Hogares found that rising quinoa prices during 2004–2013 led to net economic benefits for producers, and other commentary indicated similar conclusions, including for women specifically. It has also been suggested that as quinoa producers rise above subsistence-level income , they switch their own consumption to Western processed foods which are often less healthy than

2700-449: The Andes, lead to sterilization of the pollen. Rainfall requirements are highly variable between the different cultivars, ranging from 300 to 1,000 mm (12 to 39 in) during the growing season . Growth is optimal with well-distributed rainfall during early growth and no rain during seed maturation and harvesting. Quinoa has been cultivated in the United States, primarily in the high elevation San Luis Valley of Colorado where it

2775-437: The Aymara and the Bolivian government is the use of the coca plant by the Aymara. The Aymara have grown coca plants for centuries, using the leaves in traditional medicines and rituals. Over the last century, the Bolivian government has done its best to restrict this process due to fears of cocaine production. While coca cultivation for traditional practices is legal in Bolivia, there has still been strife and conflict between

2850-458: The Aymara people and the newly instated park rangers. Through dialogue, often new ideas and techniques for management and conservation can surface. From the aspect of planning, municipal, regional, and traditional authorities, as well as community members are required to participate in the management of Bolivia's national parks. This ensures that the voices and views of all stakeholders are clearly acknowledged. This process also increases trust between

2925-409: The Aymara people has further been complicated with the election of Bolivia's first indigenous president, Evo Morales , in 2006. Morales was born into an Aymara family of subsistence farmers. In 2009, Morales helped enact a new constitution . The new constitution names Bolivia as a secular state, rather than a Catholic one as the previous constitution stated. It also recognizes a variety of autonomies at

3000-474: The Aymara, can still be found today. The Aymara people also have the unique tradition of handing down historic textiles through the generations as inherited wealth. Because the Aymara people rely so heavily on the natural environment, they take on a protectoral role regarding its use. For example, the Aymara recently protested against the Dakar Rally , an off-road race taking place through Bolivia's salt flats for

3075-446: The United States and European countries. As a result of increased popularity and consumption in North America, Europe, and Australasia , quinoa crop prices tripled between 2006 and 2014. The species Chenopodium quinoa was first described by Carl Ludwig Willdenow (1765–1812), a German botanist who studied plants from South America, brought back by explorers Alexander von Humboldt and Aimé Bonpland . The genus name Chenopodium

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3150-472: The area of distribution, but also in regards to the climate this plant was originally adapted to, in contrast to the climates on which it is able to successfully grow in now. In a process started by a number of pre-Inca South American indigenous cultures, people in Chile have been adapting quinoa to salinity and other forms of stress over the last 3,000   years. Quinoa is also cultivated, since an early date, near

3225-526: The beginning, this diverse committee laid out fairly detailed plans to ensure that their economic and conservational goals were met. The original committee members believed that the success of the park depended upon the incorporation of three things: planning, participation, and projects. Planning regulations and developing a "horizon" for the park was a long and arduous process, but it brought the diverse group of people closer together. The planning and discussion helped to eradicate previously held prejudices between

3300-564: The coast of northern Chile , where it was grown by the Chinchorro culture . Ch. quinoa was brought to the lowlands of south-central Chile at an early date from the Andean highlands. Varieties in the lowlands of south-central Chile derive directly from ancestral cultivars which then evolved in parallel to those of the highlands. It has been suggested that the introduction of Ch. quinoa occurred before highland varieties with floury perisperm emerged. There are wide discrepancies in

3375-475: The different inhabitants of the area, because they know that they are playing a role in the process. Finally, projects are aimed to generate income while offering alternative livelihoods that employ a more sustainable use of biodiversity resources. Besides ecotourism, there have been arrangements to create initiatives for the sustainable management of the park's vicuñas. Vicuña fur is extremely valuable, with scarves of their wool costing well over $ 1,000. However, it

3450-606: The drawbacks of quinoa, meat production in most cases is still less sustainable than quinoa. Quinoa is an important food for the Indigenous people of the Andean Altiplano , especially the Aymara and Quechua communities. Historically, it was consumed as a subsistence food, which was devalued by the Spanish when they colonized the region. For the Indigenous communities, growing quinoa represented food security and well-being, and it

3525-616: The early 1940s; as of 2015 the crop is mostly grown in three areas by only some 300 smallholder farmers. Each of these areas is different: indigenous small-scale growers near the border with Bolivia who grow many types of Bolivian forms, a few farmers in the central region who exclusively grow a white-seeded variety and generally market their crops through a well-known cooperative, and in the south by women in home gardens in Mapuche reserves. When Amaranthaceae became abundant in Lake Pacucha , Peru,

3600-429: The elements, and arid, dry conditions. One example of unique wildlife in the park is the vicuña , a species of camelid related to the llama and the alpaca. These animals are prized because of their soft and warm, but extremely lightweight fur. Historically, only Incan emperors were allowed to wear their wool. Indigenous populations in the area still continue a rich cultural tradition of myths, legends, and rituals involving

3675-637: The environment and landscape of the park. However, some may question the effectiveness of protected areas when considering socioeconomic impacts on surrounding communities. Regulating the use of protected land may harm the livelihoods and cultures of those people who cherish it the most. However, recent studies in Bolivia have shown no evidence that the establishment of protected areas has exacerbated poverty. If anything, these studies conclude, estimates indicate that communities that are affected by protected areas have experienced greater levels of poverty reduction when compared to similar unaffected communities. Therefore,

3750-527: The environment. Until recently, tourist activity in the park has been relatively nonexistent. The park is located far from any urban centers, and surrounded by mostly undeveloped land lacking infrastructure. However, a focus area for the co-administrative management committee is the creation of sustainable and responsible income-generating practices. For example, the Tomarapi eco-lodge opened in 2003, and provides local food and lodging for between 2000 and 3000 visitors

3825-542: The extreme variability of the maturity period of most quinoa cultivars complicates mechanization. Harvest needs to be precisely timed to avoid high seed losses from shattering, and different panicles on the same plant mature at different times. The crop yield in the Andean region (often around 3 t/ha up to 5 t/ha) is comparable to wheat yields. In the United States, varieties have been selected for uniformity of maturity and are mechanically harvested using conventional small grain combines. The plants are allowed to stand until

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3900-410: The first time. The Aymara cited fears of environmental damage from litter and ruts in the white landscape from the vehicles as cause for concern. The Aymara have traditionally been an underrepresented group since colonial times. They fought alongside the victorious liberal party during Bolivia's Civil War of 1899 . However, the Aymara are still being targeted. One current example of the struggle between

3975-477: The flora and fauna, genetic resources, natural ecosystems, watersheds and values of scientific, esthetic, historical, economic, and social interest, in order to conserve and protect natural and cultural heritage of the country.” As all protected areas in Bolivia are inhabited, nature conservation is not possible against the will of the local people. It is necessary to take their traditional rights, existing value systems and social organization into account. The reserve

4050-489: The given conditions to which it may be exposed. Chenopodium quinoa is believed to have been domesticated in the Peruvian Andes from wild or weed populations of the same species. There are non-cultivated quinoa plants ( Chenopodium quinoa var. melanospermum ) that grow in the area it is cultivated; these may either be related to wild predecessors, or they could be descendants of cultivated plants. Raw, uncooked quinoa

4125-562: The government and the Aymara people due to this plant. When the practices of poor, disenfranchised, or indigenous people is demonized or condemned, there is often heavy dispute and strife between the two sides. By targeting the Aymara's use of the coca plant, the Bolivian government could be helping to create an even bigger problem and contributing to unrest. Small populations with little political power are often viewed as “inferior”, and can easily be blamed for an array of different problems, from political, to social, to environmental. The plight of

4200-487: The lake was fresh, and the lack of Amaranthaceae taxa strongly indicates droughts which turned the lake into a saltmarsh . Based on the pollen associated with soil manipulation, this is an area of the Andes where domestication of C.   quinoa became popular, although it was not the only one. It was domesticated in various geographical zones. With this, morphological adaptations began to happen until having five ecotypes today. Quinoa's genetic diversity illustrates that it

4275-403: The local and departmental level, which many argue gives people like the Aymara more freedom. However, there has been some backlash against the constitution. Many opposed to it claim that it is "Aymara-centric", and not applicable or appropriate for all Bolivian citizens and is actually ostracizing. The Aymara people who have lived in this region since before colonial times have a special bond with

4350-529: The market to economically privileged people in North America, possibly increasing the price of quinoa. Quinoa is used in the Jewish community as a substitute for the leavened grains that are forbidden during the Passover holiday. Several kosher certification organizations refuse to certify it as being kosher for Passover, citing reasons including its resemblance to prohibited grains or fear of cross-contamination of

4425-504: The natural environment, threatening both the sustainability of producer agriculture and the biodiversity of quinoa. Studies have found that smallholder traditional farming of quinoa, specifically in the Andean region of Peru has significantly less of an environmental impact in carbon produced, than the modern industrial quinoa production. World demand for quinoa is sometimes presented in the media particularly as being caused by rising veganism , but one academic has commented that despite

4500-476: The plant requires minimal protection. The genetic control of bitterness involves quantitative inheritance . Although lowering the saponin content through selective breeding to produce sweeter, more palatable varieties is complicated by ≈10% cross-pollination , it is a major goal of quinoa breeding programs , which may include genetic engineering . The toxicity category rating of the saponins in quinoa treats them as mild eye and respiratory irritants and as

4575-400: The presence of Sajama National Park and its management committee may help the Aymara people, giving them power to protect their environment and the organisms that inhabit it. The area is typically very dry, receiving less rainfall than half the climatic demand. There are also very cold nights in this arid region, with frosts occurring well into the typical growing season. The Bolivian altiplano

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4650-513: The product from nearby fields of prohibited grain or during packaging. However, in December 2013 the Orthodox Union , the world's largest kosher certification agency , announced it would begin certifying quinoa as kosher for Passover. Quinoa is an allotetraploid plant, containing two full sets of chromosomes from two different species which hybridised with each other at one time. According to

4725-413: The production of non-ferrous metal. Significant in countries such as Chile or Peru, the emissions from this industry have decreased in recent times. Sajama is home to a unique set of organisms peculiar to the alpine regions of the Andes. Plants and animals must be able to handle high altitudes with less available oxygen, cold nightly temperatures with frosts well into spring, little shade or protection from

4800-439: The stalks and seeds have dried out and the grain has reached a moisture content below 10%. Handling involves threshing the seedheads from the chaff and winnowing the seed to remove the husk . Before storage, the seeds need to be dried in order to avoid germination . This was traditionally done manually, which is labour-intensive. In 2020, world production of quinoa was 175,188 tonnes , led by Peru and Bolivia with 97% of

4875-462: The suggested dates of introduction, one study suggests c. 1000 BC as the introduction date while another suggests 600–1100 AD. In colonial times the plant is known to have been cultivated as far south as the Chiloé Archipelago and the shores of Nahuel Huapi Lake . The cuisine of Chiloé included bread made of Quinoa until at least the mid-19th century. In Chile it had almost disappeared by

4950-459: The total when combined (table). Since the early 21st century when quinoa became more commonly consumed in North America, Europe, and Australasia where it was not typically grown, the crop value increased. Between 2006 and 2013, quinoa crop prices tripled. In 2011, the average price was US$ 3,115 per tonne with some varieties selling as high as $ 8,000 per tonne. This compares with wheat prices of about US$ 340 per tonne, making wheat about 10% of

5025-546: The value of quinoa. The resulting effect on traditional production regions in Peru and Bolivia also influenced new commercial quinoa production elsewhere in the world, such as the United States. By 2013, quinoa was being cultivated in some 70 countries. As a result of expanding production outside the Andean highlands native for quinoa, the price plummeted starting in early 2015 and remained low for years. From 2018 to 2019, quinoa production in Peru declined by 22%. Some refer to this as

5100-410: The variety, optimal growing conditions are in cool climates with temperatures that vary between −4 °C (25 °F) during the night to near 35 °C (95 °F) during the day. Some cultivars can withstand lower temperatures without damage. Light frosts normally do not affect the plants at any stage of development, except during flowering. Midsummer frosts during flowering, a frequent occurrence in

5175-501: The vicuña. Once poached to near extinction because their fine, valuable wool, they are now protected in the area and their numbers are rebounding. The area is also home to armadillos , viscachas and spectacled bears . The park has been designated an Important Bird Area (IBA) by BirdLife International because it supports significant populations of puna rheas , Chilean and puna flamingos , horned coots , diademed plovers , Andean condors and giant conebills . Because agriculture

5250-549: The village of Sajama. The icy cap of Mount Sajama, Bolivia's highest point, has enabled a variety of scientific endeavors. The recovery of ice cores from the summit in 1998 offered a unique look at historic South American climatic and atmospheric conditions, and marked the first time that this information of this kind has been available for a location with a tropical latitude. Data from these cores indicates an increase in many atmospheric heavy metals , likely caused by anthropogenic sources. The presence of these metals could be due to

5325-459: Was and is a vital crop. Andean agronomists and nutrition scientists began researching quinoa in the early twentieth century, and it became the subject of much interest among researchers involved in neglected and underutilized crop studies in the 1970s. In 2004, the international community became increasingly interested in quinoa and it entered a boom and bust economic cycle that would last for over ten years. Between 2004 and 2011, quinoa became

5400-405: Was declared a nature reserve in 1939 because of the native Queñoa de Altura trees that grow on the hillsides of this region. This shrub-like tree has adapted to the high elevations and harsh climate of the Andes. At the time that the area was declared a national park, rampant harvesting of this tree was taking place to create charcoal to supply Bolivian mines. On 1 July 2003, the park was added to

5475-406: Was essentially nonexistent due to top-down approaches and policies. Sajama's co-administrative Management Committee now includes representatives from each of the communities, the sub-alcaldía (local administration's decentralized office in Sajama village), the mayor of Curahuara de Carangas, a representative of the prefectural administration, and delegates from different NGOs active in the area. From

5550-633: Was introduced in 1983. In this high-altitude desert valley, maximum summer temperatures rarely exceed 30 °C (86 °F) and night temperatures are about 7 °C (45 °F). In the 2010s, experimental production was attempted in the Palouse region of Eastern Washington, and farmers in Western Washington began producing the crop. The Washington State University Skagit River Valley research facility near Mount Vernon grew thousands of its own experimental varieties. The Puget Sound region's climate

5625-761: Was involved in almost every meal of the day. The United Nations General Assembly declared 2013 as the " International Year of Quinoa ", in recognition of the ancestral practices of the Andean people, who have preserved it as a food for present and future generations, through knowledge and practices of living in harmony with nature. The objective was to draw the world's attention to the role that quinoa could play in providing food security , nutrition and poverty eradication in support of achieving Millennium Development Goals . Some academic commentary emphasized that quinoa production could have ecological and social drawbacks in its native regions, and that these problems needed to be tackled. The increasing demand for quinoa

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