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54-494: After Isidore was condemned for supporting the Union of Florence , Jonah was appointed as metropolitan by a council of Russian bishops at the behest of Vasily II of Moscow . Like his immediate predecessors, he permanently resided in Moscow , and was the last Moscow-based primate of the metropolis to keep the traditional title with reference to the metropolitan city of Kiev . He was also

108-421: A bishop of Ryazan and Murom . Despite sporadic Russian attempts to pressure the patriarch of Constantinople into choosing a metropolitan from Russia's native population, most appointees remained Greeks. After Photius's death in 1431, Grand Prince Vasily II of Moscow nominated Jonah for the post of metropolitan, but Patriarch Joseph II of Constantinople chose Isidore to become the metropolitan. After

162-482: A new trial for Joan of Arc (c. 1412–1431), at which she was posthumously vindicated. Callixtus III canonized the following four saints during his pontificate: Vincent Ferrer (3 June 1455), Osmund (1 January 1457), Albert of Trapani (15 October 1457), and Rose of Viterbo (1457). Callixtus III elevated nine new cardinals into the cardinalate in two consistories on 20 February 1456 and 17 December 1456, two of whom were cardinal nephews . The first of them

216-677: A good impression there with his diplomatic skills and knowledge of the Slavonic language . However, only five months later, in September 1437, he left Moscow to participate to the Council of Florence for the unification of the Churches of Rome and Constantinople. Isidore brought the news of the Council to Moscow in 1441, and according to Russian sources, Vasily II along with a council of Russian bishops condemned

270-604: A great following on 8 September 1437, travelled via Riga and Lübeck , and arrived at Ferrara on 15, August, 1438. On the way, he caused offense by his friendly conduct towards the Latins. At Ferrara and at Florence, where the council moved to in January, 1439, Isidore was one of the six chief speakers on the Byzantine side. Together with Bessarion he steadfastly worked for the union, and never swerved afterwards in his acceptance of it. After

324-457: A life of virtue." Later, as pope, Borgia canonized Ferrer on 3 June 1455. Borgia was chosen as a delegate of the Diocese of Lerida to the Council of Constance in 1416, but did not partake in the proceedings as King Alfonso V of Aragon was opposed to the council. Because of this he went to Barcelona as a representative of his diocese in a synod. Borgia cared strongly for the reestablishment of

378-676: A mellifluous speech about the splendour of the Roman Empire at Constantinople, but his efforts did not result in union of the churches. In 1437, Isidore was appointed Metropolitan of Kiev and all Rus' by Emperor John VIII Palaeologus and consecrated by Patriarch Joseph II . The Emperor hoped to draw the Eastern Orthodox Church in Kievan Rus' into communion with the Holy See and thereby to secure Constantinople 's protection against

432-547: A professor of law at the University of Lleida ; he later served as a diplomat for the kings of Aragon . He became a tutor for King Alfonso V 's illegitimate son Ferdinand . After arranging a reconciliation between Alfonso and Pope Martin V , Borgia was made Bishop of Valencia. In 1444, Pope Eugene IV named him a cardinal , and Borgia became a member of the Roman Curia. During the siege of Belgrade (1456) , Callixtus initiated

486-629: A result, Jonah and Vasily II tacitly accepted the co-existence of two Russian Orthodox hierarchies. Jonah died on 31 March 1461. He was buried in the Dormition Cathedral in the Moscow Kremlin . He was canonized by Macarius at the Moscow Council of 1547 . The Eastern Orthodox Church commemorates Jonah on the following dates. Isidore of Kiev Isidore of Kiev , also known as Isidore of Thessalonica (1385 – 27 April 1463),

540-752: A series of letters describing the events of the siege. He warned of the danger of further expansion of the Turks in the multiple letters and even seems to be the earliest eyewitness to have compared Mehmed II with Alexander the Great . He made his way back to Rome in 1455, and was made Bishop of Sabina , presumably adopting the Latin Rite. Pope Pius II (1458–64) later gave him two titles successively, those of Latin Patriarch of Constantinople and Archbishop of Cyprus , neither of which he could convert into real jurisdiction. He

594-465: A special knowledge and distillation devices he became an author of the alcoholic beverage of a new, higher quality. This "bread wine" as it was initially known, was produced for a long time exclusively in the Grand Duchy of Moscow and in no other principality of Rus' (this situation persisted until the era of industrial production). That's why this beverage for a long time was associated with Moscow. Vodka

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648-802: A uniquely Russian alcoholic drink by the international arbitration in 1982 in a lawsuit brought by Poland claiming exclusive right to use the term "vodka" or "wodka". However, Mark Lawrence Schrad in Vodka Politics: Alcohol, Autocracy, and the Secret History of the Russian State , notes there is no evidence in the archives of the Permanent Court of Arbitration in The Hague of any such legal action by Poland. A type of distilled liquor close to one that would later become generally designated by

702-457: Is a diminutive of voda , which means "water" in Russian. The first written usage of the word vodka in an official Russian document in its modern meaning is dated by the decree of Empress Elizabeth of June 8, 1751, which regulated the ownership of vodka distilleries. In September 1443, after two years of imprisonment, Metropolitan Isidor escaped to Tver , then to Lithuania and on to Rome . He

756-429: The Council of Basel (1431–1439). Borgia was appointed Bishop of Valencia by Pope Martin V on 20 August 1429 and was consecrated on 31 August 1429. He authorized Pedro Llorens to take possession of the see in his name. Borgia also tutored Alfonso V's illegitimate son Ferrante . Pope Eugene IV elevated him to the cardinalate on 2 May 1444 after he managed to reconcile the pope and King Alfonso V of Aragon. He

810-608: The Dormition Cathedral in the Moscow Kremlin , Isidore had a Latin Rite crucifix carried in front of the procession and named Pope Eugene IV during the prayers of the liturgy. He also read aloud the decree of unification. Isidore passed a message to Vasili II from the Holy See , containing a request to assist the Metropolitan in spreading the Union in Rus'. Three days later, Isidore was arrested by

864-563: The 1456 appearance of Halley's Comet , believing it to be an ill omen for the Christian defenders of Belgrade from the besieging armies of the Ottoman Empire . No known primary source supports the authenticity of this account. The 29 June 1456 papal bull of Callixtus III calling for a public prayer for the success of the crusade makes no mention of the comet. By 6 August, when the Turkish siege

918-497: The Council in order to protect the purity of the faith. Isidore escaped alive, while the metropolitan throne sat vacant for seven years, as no replacement had been sent by Constantinople. Vasily II convened a council in 1448 as a result. Jonah was elected as metropolitan by a majority of Russian bishops in Moscow on 15 December 1448, without the consent of the patriarch of Constantinople. Although not all Russian clergy supported Jonah,

972-556: The Crusade, and to engage the prayers of the faithful for the success of the enterprise. It was by order of Callixtus III that the bells were rung at midday to remind the faithful that they should pray for the welfare of the crusaders. The princes of Europe were slow in responding to the call of the pope, largely due to national rivalries. England and France's Hundred Years' War had just ended in 1453. Forces led by John Hunyadi ( Hungarian : Hunyadi János ), Captain-General of Hungary, met

1026-559: The Grand Prince and imprisoned in the Chudov Monastery . He was denounced by certain Rus' clergymen , who were under pressure of Vasili II, for refusing to renounce the union with Rome. According to the hypothesis proposed by the Russian historian William Pokhlyobkin , Isidore allegedly produced the first genuine recipe of Russian vodka while being detained in Chudov Monastery . Pokhlyobkin claimed that vodka had been recognized as

1080-451: The Orthodox faith. During this Council, Isidore fervently defended the union between the Churches of East and West, but he was opposed by the secular representative from Ruthenia - ambassador Foma (Thomas) of Tver . Finally, the union agreement was signed and Isidore returned to Eastern Europe. Sylvester Syropoulos and other Greek writers charge Isidore with perjury because he accepted

1134-495: The Russian word vodka came to Russia in the late 14th century. In 1386, the Genoese ambassadors brought the first aqua vitae ("the living water") to Moscow and presented it to Grand Prince Dmitry Donskoy , who previously had defeated the Tatar - Mongols and their Genoese mercenaries in the remarkable large-scale Battle of Kulikovo in 1380. The Genoese likely got this beverage with

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1188-607: The Sacred College of Cardinals and the Latin Patriarch of Constantinople . Isidore was born in southern Greece circa 1385. He may have been a member of, or at least connected to, the Palaiologos family . He arrived at Constantinople , became a monk, and was there made hegumenos of the monastery of St Demetrius. He knew Latin well, and had considerable fame as a theologian. He was also an accomplished orator; he seems from

1242-512: The Turks and defeated them at Belgrade on 22 July 1456). Shortly after his victory, Hunyadi himself died of a fever. On 29 June 1456, Callixtus III ordered the church bells to be rung at noon (see noon bell ) as a call to prayer for the welfare of those defending Belgrade. To commemorate this victory, Callixtus III ordered the Feast of the Transfiguration to be held annually on 6 August. In 1456

1296-557: The areas lost to the Uniate church, and he was able to add Lithuania and Kiev to his title, but he was unable to gain Galicia . From 1451, Jonah purged the regions of Isidore's influence, but in 1458, Lithuania was separated from his jurisdiction. The influence of Catholicism increased in those regions until Casimir 's inclination toward Orthodoxy was repressed and he accepted the demands of Pope Callixtus III . As soon as Vasily II heard about

1350-619: The beginning to have been eager for reunion with the West. It was the time when the Court of Constantinople , on the eve of its final destruction by the Turks , was considering the chance of rescue from the Western princes as a result of reuniting with Rome . In 1434 Isidore was sent to Basel by John VIII Palaiologos (1425–1448) as part of an embassy to open negotiations with the Council of Basel . Here he made

1404-533: The bishop Gerasim  [ ru ] was appointed as metropolitan, but the latter did not come to Moscow and remained metropolitan only in Lithuania. Soon, Švitrigaila suspected Gerasim of treason and executed him in 1435. When Jonah finally arrived to Constantinople in 1436, the patriarch had already chosen the Greek bishop Isidore and appointed the latter as the new metropolitan. Isidore came to Moscow in 1437 and made

1458-529: The council, Pope Eugene IV made him his legate for all Ruthenia and Lithuania . While returning to Moscow, news reached Isidore, at Benevento , that he had been made Cardinal-Priest of the Title of St Peter and Marcellinus. This was one of the few cases at the time in which a person not of the Latin Rite was made a cardinal. From Buda , in March 1440, he published an encyclical calling on all Rus' bishops to accept

1512-485: The custom that bells be rung at midday to remind the faithful to pray for the crusaders. The tradition of the Angelus noon bell still exists in most Catholic churches to this day. He was also responsible for the retrial of Joan of Arc that saw her vindicated. He appointed two nephews as cardinals , one of whom became Pope Alexander VI . He is the last pope to date to take on the pontifical name "Callixtus". Alfonso de Borgia

1566-470: The death of Photius in 1431, Jonah was chosen by the grand prince of Moscow and a council of Russian bishops as the new metropolitan at the end of 1432. However, due to a succession crisis and civil strife in Moscow, he did not hurry to Constantinople to receive his ordination and did not decide to go to Constantinople until the middle of 1435. Meanwhile, at the request of the Lithuanian grand duke Švitrigaila ,

1620-403: The energy, constancy and purpose which he displayed in dealing with the burning question of the day – the protection of Western civilization from the Turkish power. In this matter he gave a grand example to Christendom, and it is to be observed that in the midst of the military and political interest which claimed so large a share of his time and attention, he did not neglect the internal affairs of

1674-666: The first metropolitan in Moscow to be appointed without the approval of the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople , as had been the norm, which marked the beginning of autocephaly of the Russian Orthodox Church . He is recognised as a saint in the Russian Orthodox Church. From the late 1420s, Jonah had been living in the Simonov Monastery in Moscow and was close to Metropolitan Photius , who made him

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1728-516: The help of the alchemists of Provence , who used the Arab-invented distillation apparatus to convert grape must into alcohol . Since Islam prohibited the drinking of any alcoholic beverages for Muslims, they used alcohol mainly for the production of perfumes . In Christian Europe, however, the aqua vitae became the predecessor of all modern strong alcoholic beverages, including brandy , whisky , schnapps and Russian vodka. The liquid that

1782-427: The invading Ottoman Turks . The Grand Duke of Moscow — Vasili II — was suspicious of the new metropolitan. He allowed Isidore to go to Florence to attend the continuation of the Council of Basel in 1439 on condition that Isidore should return with "the rights of Divine law and the constitution of the holy Church" uninjured. Isidore assured him that he would return from the ecumenical council without betraying

1836-538: The mother of Pedro Luis de Borja and Pope Alexander VI . His other sister Catalina became of the mother of Luis de Milà y de Borja . Alfonso was baptized at Saint Mary's Basilica in Xativa , where he is honored with a statue in his memory. Borgia studied grammar, logic and the arts in Valencia and went in 1392 to the University of Lleida where he obtained a doctorate in both canon law and civil law . His early career

1890-403: The move was subsequently justified in the Russian point of view following the fall of Constantinople in 1453, which was interpreted as divine punishment. While it is possible that the failure to obtain the blessing from Constantinople was not intentional, nevertheless, this marked the beginning of autocephaly of the Russian Orthodox Church . Jonah's first effort as metropolitan was to recover

1944-685: The ordination of Gregory as metropolitan of the newly established metropolis of Kiev , he sent a delegation to the Polish ruler warning him to not accept Gregory. Jonah also tasked Vassian of the Trinity Lavra of St. Sergius and Kassian of the Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery with the goal of persuading local Russian feudal princes and nobles who resided in Lithuania to continue to side with Orthodoxy, but this attempt failed. The Polish–Lithuanian rulers of those lands ultimately supported Gregory. As

1998-462: The pope and presented him with the roll of the law. Callixtus III then read from the law and stated "We ratify the law, but condemn your interpretation", which instigated a riot at the ceremony that endangered the pope's life. Not quite two years after the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, Callixtus was chiefly concerned with the organization of Christian Europe against an invasion by the Ottoman Empire . At

2052-585: The pope issued the papal bull Inter Caetera (not to be confused with Inter Caetera of 1493), reaffirming the earlier bulls Dum Diversas and Romanus Pontifex which recognized Portugal's trade rights in territories it had discovered along the West African coast. This confirmation of Romanus Pontifex also gave the Portuguese the military Order of Christ under Henry the Navigator . Callixtus III ordered

2106-455: The repair of fortifications at his own expense and was wounded in the early hours of the sack. He managed to escape the carnage by dressing up a dead body in his cardinal's robes. While the Turks were cutting off its head and parading it through the streets, the real cardinal was shipped off to Asia Minor with a number of insignificant prisoners as a slave, and later found safety in Crete . He composed

2160-557: The time, it was said that Callixtus III "speaks and thinks of nothing but the crusade", spending hours discussing the topic with a warlike zeal. An extensive building program underway in Rome was cancelled and the money funneled toward a crusade. Papal nuncios were dispatched to all the countries of Europe to beseech the princes to join once more in an effort to check the danger of a Turkish invasion. Missionaries were sent to England , France , Germany , Hungary , Portugal , and Aragon to preach

2214-511: The union, but when he at last arrived in Moscow (Easter, 1441), and proclaimed the union in the Kremlin church, he found that Vasily II and most of the bishops and people would have none of it. Then, at Vasily's command, six Rus' bishops met in a synod, deposed Isidore, and imprisoned him. The Grand Duchy of Moscow princes denounced the union with Rome, but Isidore persisted. On his return from Italy , during his first Pontifical Divine Liturgy in

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2268-413: The union, despite his promise to Vasili II. It is possible that Isidore had been a pupil of the neoplatonist Gemistus Pletho , and went with his teacher and two of Pletho's other students, Bessarion and Mark Eugenikos , to attend the Council of Ferrara, which was intended to negotiate the reunion of the Orthodox and Catholic Churches. The large delegation of theologians and philosophers set out with

2322-509: The unity of the church and his influence with the Aragonese monarch was the factor that allowed for the conclusion of the accord between the king and the new pope. In 1418, he was named as the rector of San Nicolas of Valencia. He was also the vice-chancellor of the University of Lleida from 1420 to 1423. In 1424, he resigned his position and dedicated his service to the Aragonese king. In 1424, he

2376-634: Was Dean of the Sacred College of Cardinals from October 1461 until his death in 1463. Pope Callixtus III Pope Callixtus III ( Italian : Callisto III , Valencian : Calixt III , Spanish : Calixto III ; 31 December 1378 – 6 August 1458), born Alfonso de Borgia ( Valencian : Alfons de Borja ), was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 8 April 1455 to his death, in August 1458. Borgia spent his early career as

2430-420: Was Rodrigo de Borgia who later became Pope Alexander VI (1492–1503), infamous for his corruption and immorality. The second was Luis Julian de Milà . The pope approved of the establishment of the University of Greifswald in 1456. According to one story that first appeared in a 1475 posthumous biography and was subsequently embellished and popularized by Pierre-Simon Laplace , Callixtus III excommunicated

2484-568: Was a prelate of Byzantine Greek origin. From 1437 to 1441 he served as the Metropolitan of Kiev and all Rus' in the patriarchate of Constantinople of the Eastern Orthodox Church . He was a supporter of the Union of Florence which he proclaimed in Hagia Sophia on 12 December 1452. In the Latin Church , Isidore was the cardinal bishop of Sabina , Archbishop of Cyprus , Camerlengo of

2538-606: Was born in La Torreta in 1378. La Torreta was at the time in the Señorío de Torre de Canals (but is now a neighborhood of Novetlè ). At the time he was born in the Kingdom of Valencia under the Crown of Aragon . He was the eldest child of Juan Domingo de Borja y Doncel and Francina Llançol. His sister Isabel married Jofré Llançol i Escrivà (son of Rodrigo Gil de Borja y Fennolet ), and become

2592-588: Was broken, the comet had not been visible in either Europe or Turkey for several weeks. Callixtus III died on 6 August 1458. His remains were transferred in 1586 and again in 1610 with the remains of his nephew Alexander VI to Santa Maria in Monserrato . His remains were transferred once more on 21 August 1889 in the chapel of San Diego. In his will he left 5000 ducats to establish a hospital. Catholic historian Ludwig von Pastor opined: "Except for his nepotism, Calixtus III deserves high praise, more especially for

2646-448: Was elected pope at an advanced age as a "compromise candidate" in the conclave of 8 April 1455 . He took the pontifical name Callixtus III. He was crowned on 20 April 1455 by Cardinal Protodeacon Prospero Colonna . After his coronation, he rode a white horse through the streets of the city and followed the ancient custom, known as Monte Giordano, where representatives of the Jews met with

2700-557: Was elevated as the Cardinal-Priest of Santi Quattro Coronati . He took up his official residence in Rome and was a member of the Roman Curia . He participated in the papal conclave of 1447 that saw the election of Pope Nicholas V . He was known for an austere and charitable life. Borgia's coat of arms after he was consecrated featured a grazing ox. As pope it remained the same. Borgia

2754-463: Was graciously received by the pope in 1443. Pope Nicholas V (1447–1455) sent him as legate to Constantinople to arrange the reunion there in 1452, and gave him two hundred soldiers to help the defence of the city. On 12 December of that year he was able to unite three hundred of the Byzantine clergy in a celebration of the short-lived reunion. Before the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, he subsidized

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2808-484: Was named as the apostolic administrator of the see of Mallorca. It was at that time that the king desired that he be made a cardinal ; Pope Martin V refused the request. During the Great Western Schism he supported Antipope Benedict XIII and was also the driving force behind Antipope Clement VIII 's submission to Pope Martin V in 1429. He then served as a diplomat to the kings of Aragon , especially during

2862-586: Was obtained as a result of distillation of grape must was thought to be a concentrate and a "spirit" of wine ( spiritus vini in Latin), from where came the name of this substance in many European languages (like English spirit , or Russian spirt ). According to the Pokhlyobkin's hypothesis, Isidore, kept as a prisoner in Chudov Monastery inside the Moscow Kremlin , made a recipe of the first Russian vodka. Having

2916-425: Was spent as a professor of law at the University of Lleida. Around 1411, he attended a sermon by Vincent Ferrer . Afterward, the Dominican said to the future pope: "My son, you one day will be called to be the ornament of your house and of your country. You will be invested with the highest dignity that can fall to the lot of man. After my death, I shall be the object of your special honour. Endeavor to persevere in

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