The Radio-86RK ( Russian : Радио-86РК ) is a build-it-yourself home computer designed in the Soviet Union . It was featured in the popular Radio ( Russian : Радио ) magazine for radio hams and electronics hobbyists in 1986. The letters RK in the title stands for the words Radio ham's Computer ( Russian : Радиолюбительский компьютер ). Design of the computer was published in a series of articles describing its logical structure, electrical circuitry, drawings of printed circuit boards and firmware. The computer could be built entirely out of standard off-the-shelf parts. Later it was also available in a kit form as well as fully assembled form.
43-730: Sacra Music (stylized in all caps ) is a Japanese record label subsidiary of Sony Music Entertainment Japan . The record label was established on April 1, 2017, specializing in anison music. On September 25, 2021, SACRA MUSIC started an official YouTube channel with the mascot character VTuber "SACRA Rokuban-cho" voiced by Sally Amaki . This character is responsible for sharing the latest news of SACRA MUSIC. All caps In typography , text or font in all caps (short for " all capitals ") contains capital letters without any lowercase letters. For example: THE QUICK BROWN FOX JUMPS OVER THE LAZY DOG. All-caps text can be seen in legal documents, advertisements , newspaper headlines , and
86-570: A composite video input as a display. As most Soviet TVs of the time did not have video inputs, it was necessary to install a special module or modify the TV's electronics to implement it. The approximate cost of all required components was about 260 rubles . The circuitry of the Radio-86RK contains only 29 chips and was relatively easy to assemble. However, finding the chips to buy was difficult, as they were scarce and sold in small volumes in major cities of
129-683: A commonly preferred alternative to all caps text is the use of small caps to emphasise key names or acronyms (for example, Text in Small Caps ), or the use of italics or (more rarely) bold . In addition, if all caps must be used it is customary to slightly widen the spacing between the letters, by around 10 per cent of the point height. This practice is known as tracking or letterspacing. Some digital fonts contain alternative spacing metrics for this purpose. Messages completely in capital letters are often equated on social media to shouting and other impolite or argumentative behaviors. This became
172-483: A computer program shouting at its user. Information technology journalist Lee Hutchinson described Microsoft's using the practice as "LITERALLY TERRIBLE ... [it] doesn't so much violate OS X's design conventions as it does take them out behind the shed, pour gasoline on them, and set them on fire." In programming, writing in all caps (possibly with underscores replacing spaces ) is an identifier naming convention in many programming languages that symbolizes that
215-495: A delicate scanning of characters (from a damaged image that needs further contextual text correction). Depending on the typeface , these similarities accidentally create various duplicates (even quite briefly and without realizing it when reading). E.g. H/A, F/E or I/T by adding a bar; P/R, O/Q, even C/G from similar errors; V/U, D/O, even B/S while rounding the shape; and more deformations implying mixings. Adding digits in all caps styled texts may multiply these confusions, which
258-399: A mainstream interpretation with the advent of networked computers, from the 1980s onward. However, a similar interpretation was already evidenced by written sources that predated the computing era, in some cases by at least a century, and the textual display of shouting or emphasis was still not a settled matter by 1984. The following sources may be relevant to the history of all caps: Before
301-406: A number of models: The technical capabilities of the Radio-86RK were very modest. It did not have a graphics mode. The RAM expansion was impossible without serious modifications and loss of compatibility. As the volume of production of home computers was small, and the demand for them kept increasing, the editorial board decided to publish a new design for the build-it-yourself computer. Although
344-401: A single large connector for power, keyboard, tape recorder and even video output. Hence it was easy to disconnect the board and work on both sides of it outside the case. Next, the firmware has to be written in two erasable ROM chips using a chip programmer . Also a power supply unit, a keyboard and a computer case were to be made. The computer used a normal domestic TV set connected to
387-532: A slowed speed is possible – but in principle too many factors of low legibility are involved." Other critics are of the opinion that all caps letters in text are often "too tightly packed against each other". Besides the aforementioned speed of reading, all caps is can be prone to character -based ambiguities. Namely, the upper-case letters are globally simpler than their lower-case counterpart. For example, they lack ascenders and descenders . Since they are built from fewer positional and building elements (e.g.
430-416: A smaller grid pertaining to minimalist digital fonts), they are more fragile to small changes. These variations, generally involuntary but sometimes induced on purpose, are caused by a misinterpretation (the information is transferred) or by a deterioration (the data is lost, in the analysis wording). They can occur horizontally and/or vertically, while misreading (without this extra effort or time), or during
473-663: A term is conspicuous, we look at more than formatting. A term that appears in capitals can still be inconspicuous if it is hidden on the back of a contract in small type. Terms that are in capitals but also appear in hard-to-read type may flunk the conspicuousness test. A sentence in capitals, buried deep within a long paragraph in capitals will probably not be deemed conspicuous...it is entirely possible for text to be conspicuous without being in capitals. Certain musicians—such as Marina , Finneas , who are both known mononymously, and MF DOOM —as well as some bands such as Haim and Kiss —have their names stylised in all caps. Additionally, it
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#1732863316544516-403: Is an "apparent consensus" that lower-case text is more legible, but that some editors continue to use all caps in text regardless. In his studies of all caps in headlines , he states that, "Editors who favor capitals claim that they give greater emphasis. Those who prefer lower case claim their preferences gives greater legibility." Wheildon, who informs us that "When a person reads a line of type,
559-615: Is common for bands with vowelless names (a process colourfully known as " disemvoweling ") to use all caps, with prominent examples including STRFKR , MSTRKRFT , PWR BTTM , SBTRKT , JPNSGRLS (now known as Hotel Mira), BLK JKS , MNDR , and DWNTWN . Miles Tinker , renowned for his landmark work, Legibility of Print , performed scientific studies on the legibility and readability of all-capital print. His findings were as follows: All-capital print greatly retards speed of reading in comparison with lower-case type. Also, most readers judge all capitals to be less legible. Faster reading of
602-435: Is less legible and readable than lower-case text. In addition, switching to all caps may make text appear hectoring and obnoxious for cultural reasons, since all-capitals is often used in transcribed speech to indicate that the speaker is shouting. All-caps text is common in comic books, as well as on older teleprinter and radio transmission systems, which often do not indicate letter case at all. In professional documents,
645-666: Is one aim of Leet (intentional pseudo duplicates) and can provide simple means of concealing messages (often numbers). Radio-86RK The Radio-86RK is the successor of earlier build-it-yourself computer of the same designers, the Micro-80 , and has limited compatibility with it. Its description was also published in a series of articles in the Radio magazine in the early 1980s. But its complex design, consisting of several modules and containing about 200 chips, lack of printed circuit board drawings and most importantly lack of chips on sale made
688-557: The ASCII table , so can display both alphabets, but all caps only. Mikrosha is switchable to KOI-7N1, in this mode, it can display both caps and lower-case, but in Cyrillic only. Other Soviet computers, such as BK0010 , MK 85 , Corvette and Agat-9 , use 8-bit encoding called KOI-8R, they can display both Cyrillic and Latin in caps and lower-case. Many, but not all NES games use all caps because of tile graphics, where charset and tiles share
731-537: The BASIC interpreter: an adapted version of Micro-80 BASIC and a version specially developed for the Radio-86RK featuring enhanced editing capabilities, new functions, and other improvements. Other software published in the magazine included assembler , debugger , disassembler , text editor , voice recorder, music editing system. Also, a lot of BASIC programs were published, including calculations for electronic circuits design and games. Another way of obtaining software
774-423: The Radio magazine distributed programs for the Radio-86RK in the form of hexadecimal dumps . After entering the program dump into the computer's memory, it could be saved to the tape. It was easy to make a mistake when typing in large dumps, so the magazine published checksums along with the dumps. It was necessary to execute "O" monitor directive to calculate the checksum. The magazine published two versions of
817-480: The Radio magazine had published new firmware for Microsha that improved software compatibility. Following magazine publication, a number of factories started industrial production of several home computer models using the Radio-86RK design. Not all models were fully compatible with Radio-86RK and included different improvements, such as expanded memory size, additional character sets, rudimentary color support. The list of models includes: Volume of production for
860-601: The USSR . It was particularly difficult to find the KR580VG75 video chip, which was produced only in small quantities. This led to the development of a replacement video circuit which contained 19 chips on a separate board, and was similar to the display module of the Micro-80 computer. The editorial board of Radio magazine received a large amount of mail in response to the publication. In almost every letter, readers noted how difficult it
903-568: The 1990s, more than three-quarters of newspapers in the western world used lower-case letters in headline text. Discussion regarding the use of all caps for headlines centers on the greater emphasis offered by all caps versus the greater legibility offered by lower-case letters. Colin Wheildon conducted a scientific study with 224 readers who analyzed various headline styles and concluded that "Headlines set in capital letters are significantly less legible than those set in lower case." All caps typography
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#1732863316544946-452: The 5 and 10-minute time limits, and 13.9 percent for the whole 20-minute period". Tinker concluded that, "Obviously, all-capital printing slows reading to a marked degree in comparison with Roman lower case." Tinker provides the following explanations for why all capital printing is more difficult to read: Text in all capitals covers about 35 percent more printing surface than the same material set in lower case. This would tend to increase
989-407: The assembly of the computer hard to accomplish. Micro-80 computers were assembled by only a few enthusiasts. To assemble the computer, it was required to acquire the necessary electronic components , to make two printed circuit boards and mount all components on them. It was mostly a single board computer, as the second board served only as the base to mount the keyboard keys. The main board used
1032-420: The authors had given that name to the original computer, but the editorial board has changed the name to Radio-86RK. Eventually, the name Microsha was given to the industrially produced version of Radio-86RK. Microsha preparation for serial production went in parallel with Radio-86RK articles publication. The changes authors made to the design and firmware made Microsha incompatible with Radio-86RK. In 1989,
1075-601: The designers of the Radio-86RK had developed a new 16-bit computer, the Micro-16 (based on the K1810VM86 microprocessor, with a CGA -compatible graphics mode that was capable of running software for the CP/M-86 and MS-DOS ), the editorial board again opted for a computer based on the 8-bit processor KR580VM80. The main reason for this was the availability of electronic components for purchase and their cost. The publication of articles on
1118-458: The development of lower-case letters in the 8th century, texts in the Latin alphabet were written in a single case, which is now considered to be capital letters. Text in all caps is not widely used in body copy . The main exception to this is the so-called fine print in legal documents. Capital letters have been widely used in printed headlines from the early days of newspapers until the 1950s. In
1161-440: The electrical circuitry of the controller but not the firmware. Radio-86RK owners were invited to buy the fully assembled controller or a kit along with two floppy disks containing external DOS commands, programming languages and text description of the operating system. The first industrially produced version of the Radio-86RK was the computer named Microsha (an abbreviation for the words Microcomputer and School ). Initially,
1204-534: The evidence that all-capital printing retards speed of reading to a striking degree in comparison with lower case and is not liked by readers, it would seem wise to eliminate such printing whenever rapid reading and consumer (reader) views are of importance. Examples of this would include any continuous reading material, posters, bus cards, billboards, magazine advertising copy, headings in books, business forms and records, titles of articles, books and book chapters, and newspaper headlines. Colin Wheildon stated that there
1247-534: The eye recognizes letters by the shapes of their upper halves", asserts that recognizing words in all caps "becomes a task instead of a natural process". His conclusions, based on scientific testing in 1982–1990, are: "Headlines set in capital letters are significantly less legible than those set in lower case." John Ryder , in the Case for Legibility , stated that "Printing with capital letters can be done sufficiently well to arouse interest and, with short lines, reading at
1290-563: The given identifier represents a constant . A practice exists (most commonly in Francophone countries) of distinguishing the surname from the rest of a personal name by stylizing the surname only in all caps. This practice is also common among Japanese, when names are spelled using Roman letters. In April 2013, the U.S. Navy moved away from an all caps-based messaging system, which was begun with 1850s-era teleprinters that had only uppercase letters. The switch to mixed-case communications
1333-563: The lower-case print is due to the characteristic word forms furnished by this type. This permits reading by word units, while all capitals tend to be read letter by letter. Furthermore, since all-capital printing takes at least one-third more space than lower case, more fixation pauses are required for reading the same amount of material. The use of all capitals should be dispensed with in every printing situation. According to Tinker, "As early as 1914, Starch reported that material set in Roman lower case
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1376-523: The opportunity to add marginal notes emphasising key points. Legal writing expert Bryan A. Garner has described the practice as "ghastly". A 2020 study found that all-caps in legal texts is ineffective and is, in fact, harmful to older readers. In 2002, a US court spoke out against the practice, ruling that simply making text all-capitals has no bearing on whether it is clear and easily readable: Lawyers who think their caps lock keys are instant "make conspicuous" buttons are deluded. In determining whether
1419-489: The reading time. When this is combined with the difficulty in reading words in all-capital letters as units, the hindrance to rapid reading becomes marked. In the eye-movement study by Tinker and Patterson, the principal difference in oculomotor patterns between lower case and all capitals was the very large increase in number of fixation pauses for reading the all-capital print. All caps text should be eliminated from most forms of composition, according to Tinker: Considering
1462-567: The same ROM. Game designers often choose to have less characters in favor of more tiles. With the advent of the bulletin board system , or BBS, and later the Internet, typing messages in all caps commonly became closely identified with "shouting" or attention-seeking behavior, and may be considered rude. Its equivalence to shouting traces back to at least 1984 and before the Internet, back to printed typography usage of all capitals to mean shouting. For this reason, etiquette generally discourages
1505-521: The tape. The operating system has a minimalistic user interface with only seven commands; it also adds support for file operations to the BASIC interpreter. In October 1992, the Radio magazine and TOO Lianozovo company announced a floppy-disk controller for the Radio-86RK and the Microsha . The disk operating system (DOS) was stored in erasable ROM on the controller board. The Radio magazine published only
1548-425: The titles on book covers. Short strings of words in capital letters appear bolder and "louder" than mixed case, and this is sometimes referred to as "screaming" or "shouting". All caps can also be used to indicate that a given word is an acronym . Studies have been conducted on the readability and legibility of all caps text. Scientific testing from the 20th century onward has generally indicated that all caps text
1591-574: The use of all caps when posting messages online. While all caps can be used as an alternative to rich-text "bolding" for a single word or phrase, to express emphasis, repeated use of all caps can be considered "shouting" or irritating. Some aspects of Microsoft's Metro design language involve the use of all caps headings and titles. This has received particular attention when menu and ribbon titles appeared in all caps in Visual Studio 2012 and Office 2013 , respectively. Critics have compared this to
1634-491: The user after turning on the computer is a monitor contained in ROM. The monitor supports basic debugging functions, it allows viewing and modifying memory cells, loading and saving memory contents to the tape, entering and running programs in binary code. The monitor is also HAL : programs that access the hardware only by calling the monitor library support both 16Kb and 32 Kb RAM versions and often also Micro-80 predecessor. Initially,
1677-632: Was common on teletype machines, such as those used by police departments, news, and the United States' then-called Weather Bureau , as well as early computers, such as certain early Apple II models and the ZX81 , which had a limited support for lower-case text. This changed as full support of ASCII became standard, allowing lower-case characters. Some Soviet computers , such as Radio-86RK , Vector-06C , Agat-7 , use 7-bit encoding called KOI-7N2, where capital Cyrillic letters replace lower-case Latin letters in
1720-492: Was estimated to save the Navy $ 20 million a year and is compliant with current Internet protocol. An antiquated practice that still remains in use, especially by older American lawyers who grew up before the arrival of computers, is to use all caps text for text that is legally required to be emphasised and clearly readable. The practice dates to the period of typewriters, which generally did not offer bold text, small capitals, or
1763-427: Was read somewhat faster than similar material printed in all capitals." Another study in 1928 showed that "all-capital text was read 11.8 percent slower than lower case, or approximately 38 words per minute slower", and that "nine-tenths of adult readers consider lower case more legible than all capitals". A 1955 study by Miles Tinker showed that "all-capital text retarded speed of reading from 9.5 to 19.0 percent for
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1806-530: Was the tape exchange among Radio-86RK owners. In 1988, the law on cooperation in the USSR came into force, which made legal to produce software for profit by individuals and cooperatives. From that moment it became possible to buy software for the Radio-86RK. In 1989 the RAMDOS operating system was developed for the computer. It uses part of computer's RAM as a RAM drive . The contents of RAM drive can be loaded and saved to
1849-455: Was to find the necessary electronic components. The editorial board published an appeal to the Soviet electronics industry, proposing they begin producing Radio-86RK kits commercially. By the end of the 1980s manufacturing of computer cases, keyboards and main boards for the Radio-86RK, as well as selling electronic components were carried out by numerous cooperatives. The only software available to
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