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95-664: STS-78 was the fifth dedicated Life and Microgravity Spacelab mission for the Space Shuttle program , flown partly in preparation for the International Space Station project. The mission used the Space Shuttle Columbia , which lifted off successfully from Kennedy Space Center's Launch Pad 39B on June 20, 1996. This marked the 78th flight of the Space Shuttle and 20th mission for Columbia . During

190-608: A McDonnell Douglas C-9 , is based at Ellington Field (KEFD), near Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center . NASA's Microgravity University - Reduced Gravity Flight Opportunities Plan, also known as the Reduced Gravity Student Flight Opportunities Program, allows teams of undergraduates to submit a microgravity experiment proposal. If selected, the teams design and implement their experiment, and students are invited to fly on NASA's Vomit Comet. The European Space Agency (ESA) flies parabolic flights on

285-462: A shirt-sleeve environment and had space for equipment racks and related support equipment. When the habitable module was not used, some of the support equipment for the pallets could instead be housed in the smaller Igloo , a pressurized cylinder connected to the Space Shuttle orbiter crew area. Spacelab missions typically supported multiple experiments, and the Spacelab 1 mission had experiments in

380-413: A fulcrum, or by using a plate that oscillates on a vertical axis. The use of beta-2 adrenergic agonists to increase muscle mass, and the use of essential amino acids in conjunction with resistive exercises have been proposed as pharmacologic means of combating muscle atrophy in space. Next to the skeletal and muscular system, the cardiovascular system is less strained in weightlessness than on Earth and

475-531: A habitable module was not flown, but pallets were flown, a pressurized cylinder known as the Igloo carried the subsystems needed to operate the Spacelab equipment. The Igloo was 3 m (9.8 ft) tall, had a diameter of 1.5 m (4 ft 11 in), and weighed 1,100 kg (2,400 lb). Two Igloo units were manufactured, both by Belgium company SABCA , and both were used on spaceflights. An Igloo component

570-413: A large field of view, such as telescopes. The pallet has several hard points for mounting heavy equipment. The pallet can be used in single configuration or stacked end to end in double or triple configurations. Up to five pallets can be configured in the Space Shuttle cargo bay by using a double pallet plus triple pallet configurations. The Spacelab Pallet used to transport both Canadarm2 and Dextre to

665-437: A major investment on the order of one billion dollars from our European friends. But its completion marks something equally important: The commitment of a dogged, dedicated, and talented team drawn from ESA Governments, universities, and industries who stuck with it for a decade and saw the project through. We are proud of your perseverance and congratulate you on your success. Micro-g environment Microgravity environment

760-407: A nearly weightless environment in which to train astronauts, conduct research, and film motion pictures. Such aircraft are commonly referred by the nickname " Vomit Comet ". To create a weightless environment, the airplane flies in a 10 km (6 mi) parabolic arc, first climbing, then entering a powered dive. During the arc, the propulsion and steering of the aircraft are controlled to cancel

855-580: A new Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)–mandated adhesive and cleaning fluid. Due to the issue, STS-79 which was meant to dock with the Space Station Mir and return astronaut Shannon Lucid , was delayed. Options of returning Shannon on a Soyuz were considered, but never followed through as the Shuttle was considered safe and able to return Shannon. [REDACTED]  This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of

950-433: A pressurized "Igloo" containing the subsystems needed for the pallet-only flight configuration operation. Eight flight configurations were qualified, though more could be assembled if needed. The system had some unique features including an intended two-week turn-around time (for the original Space Shuttle launch turn-around time) and the roll-on-roll-off for loading in aircraft (Earth-transportation). Spacelab consisted of

1045-469: A space laboratory for the planned Space Shuttle. This would allow technologies for future space stations to be researched and harness the capabilities of the Space Shuttle for research. Spacelab was produced by European Space Research Organisation (ESRO), a consortium of ten European countries including: In addition to the laboratory module, the complete set also included five external pallets for experiments in vacuum built by British Aerospace (BAe) and

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1140-507: A specially modified Airbus A310-300 aircraft to perform research in microgravity. Along with the French CNES and the German DLR , they conduct campaigns of three flights over consecutive days, with each flight's about 30 parabolae totalling about 10 minutes of weightlessness. These campaigns are currently operated from Bordeaux - Mérignac Airport by Novespace , a subsidiary of CNES ;

1235-399: A subset of just one part of the Spacelab 1 (STS-9) mission, no less than eight different imaging systems were flown into space. Including those experiments, there was a total of 73 separate experiments across different disciplines on the Spacelab 1 flight alone. Spacelab missions conducted experiments in materials, life, solar, astrophysics, atmospheric, and Earth science. Spacelab represents

1330-399: A subsidiary of VFW-Fokker GmbH , after merger with Messerschmitt-Bölkow-Blohm (MBB) named MBB/ERNO, and merged into EADS SPACE Transportation in 2003. The first lab module, LM1 , was donated to NASA in exchange for flight opportunities for European astronauts. A second module, LM2 , was bought by NASA for its own use from ERNO. Construction on the Spacelab modules began in 1974 by what

1425-403: A variety of interchangeable components, with the major one being a crewed laboratory that could be flown in the Space Shuttle orbiter's bay and returned to Earth. However, the habitable module did not have to be flown to conduct a Spacelab-type mission and there was a variety of pallets and other hardware supporting space research. The habitable module expanded the volume for astronauts to work in

1520-736: A week after fertilization develop normally. A 2006 Space Shuttle experiment found that Salmonella typhimurium , a bacterium that can cause food poisoning, became more virulent when cultivated in space. On April 29, 2013, scientists in Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, funded by NASA, reported that, during spaceflight on the International Space Station, microbes seem to adapt to the space environment in ways "not observed on Earth" and in ways that "can lead to increases in growth and virulence ". Under certain test conditions, microbes have been observed to thrive in

1615-426: Is 105 m tall and provides a 4.6 s free fall under near- vacuum conditions. Other drop facilities worldwide include: Another ground-based approach to simulate weightlessness for biological sample is a "3D-clinostat," also called a random positioning machine . Unlike a regular clinostat , the random positioning machine rotates in two axes simultaneously and progressively establishes a microgravity-like condition via

1710-533: Is a selective alpha-1 adrenergic agonist. Midodrine produces arterial and venous constriction resulting in an increase in blood pressure by baroreceptor reflexes . Russian scientists have observed differences between cockroaches conceived in space and their terrestrial counterparts. The space-conceived cockroaches grew more quickly, and also grew up to be faster and tougher. Chicken eggs that are put in microgravity two days after fertilization appear not to develop properly, whereas eggs put in microgravity more than

1805-412: Is an elevator car where the cable has been cut and it plummets toward Earth, accelerating at a rate equal to the 9.81 meters per second per second. In this scenario, the gravitational force is mostly, but not entirely, diminished; anyone in the elevator would experience an absence of the usual gravitational pull, however the force is not exactly zero. Since gravity is a force directed towards the center of

1900-496: Is being pulled towards Earth at the same speed, but also moving forward as the Earth's surface "falls" away below. All these objects are in free fall , not zero gravity. Compare the gravitational potential at some of these locations . Following the advent of space stations that can be inhabited for long periods, exposure to weightlessness has been demonstrated to have some deleterious effects on human health. Humans are well-adapted to

1995-404: Is characterized by excessive drowsiness, lassitude, lethargy, mild depression, and reduced ability to focus on an assigned task." Together, these symptoms may pose a substantial threat (albeit temporary) to the astronaut who must remain attentive to life and death issues at all times. SMS is most commonly thought to be a disorder of the vestibular system that occurs when sensory information from

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2090-427: Is de-conditioned during longer periods spent in space. In a regular environment, gravity exerts a downward force, setting up a vertical hydrostatic gradient. When standing, some 'excess' fluid resides in vessels and tissues of the legs. In a micro-g environment, with the loss of a hydrostatic gradient , some fluid quickly redistributes toward the chest and upper body; sensed as 'overload' of circulating blood volume. In

2185-447: Is more or less synonymous in its effects, with the recognition that g-forces are never exactly zero. Weight is a measurement of the force on an object at rest in a relatively strong gravitational field (such as on the surface of the Earth). These weight-sensations originate from contact with supporting floors, seats, beds, scales, and the like. A sensation of weight is also produced, even when

2280-814: Is on display at the Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center at the Smithsonian Air and Space Museum behind the Space Shuttle Discovery . LM2 was on display in the Bremenhalle exhibition in the Bremen Airport of Bremen , Germany from 2000 to 2010. It resides in building 4c at the nearby Airbus Defence and Space plant since 2010 and can only be viewed during guided tours. The Spacelab Pallet is a U-shaped platform for mounting instrumentation, large instruments, experiments requiring exposure to space, and instruments requiring

2375-463: Is only slightly reduced. As an object orbits a body such as the Earth, gravity is still attracting objects towards the Earth and the object is accelerated downward at almost 1g. Because the objects are typically moving laterally with respect to the surface at such immense speeds, the object will not lose altitude because of the curvature of the Earth. When viewed from an orbiting observer, other close objects in space appear to be floating because everything

2470-534: Is the 2.2 Second Drop Tower, which has a drop distance of 24.1 m. Experiments are dropped in a drag shield in order to reduce the effects of air drag. The entire package is stopped in a 3.3 m tall air bag, at a peak deceleration rate of approximately 20 g . While the Zero Gravity Facility conducts one or two drops per day, the 2.2 Second Drop Tower can conduct up to twelve drops per day. NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center hosts another drop tube facility that

2565-429: Is thought to be a subtype of motion sickness that plagues nearly half of all astronauts who venture into space. SMS, along with facial stuffiness from headward shifts of fluids, headaches, and back pain, is part of a broader complex of symptoms that comprise space adaptation syndrome (SAS). SMS was first described in 1961 during the second orbit of the fourth crewed spaceflight when the cosmonaut Gherman Titov aboard

2660-493: The Earth's equator to allow the seven-member flight crew to maintain the same sleep rhythms they were accustomed to on Earth and to reduce vibrations and directional forces that could have affected on-board microgravity experiments. Once in orbit, the crew entered the 40 feet (12 m) long pressurized Spacelab module to commence over 40 science experiments to take place during the mission. Not only did these experiments make use of

2755-517: The European Space Agency . Orbital motion is a form of free fall. Objects in orbit are not perfectly weightless due to several effects: If an object were to travel to the center of a spherical planet unimpeded by the planet's materials, it would achieve a state of weightlessness upon arriving at the center of the planet's core . This is because the mass of the surrounding planet is exerting an equal gravitational pull in all directions from

2850-536: The Glenn Research Center in Cleveland, Ohio , is a 145 m vertical shaft, largely below the ground, with an integral vacuum drop chamber, in which an experiment vehicle can have a free fall for a duration of 5.18 seconds, falling a distance of 132 m. The experiment vehicle is stopped in approximately 4.5 m of pellets of expanded polystyrene , experiencing a peak deceleration rate of 65 g . Also at NASA Glenn

2945-511: The National Aeronautics and Space Administration . Spacelab Spacelab was a reusable laboratory developed by European Space Agency (ESA) and used on certain spaceflights flown by the Space Shuttle . The laboratory comprised multiple components, including a pressurized module, an unpressurized carrier, and other related hardware housed in the Shuttle's cargo bay. The components were arranged in various configurations to meet

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3040-508: The Pioneer program .) At the speed of light it would take roughly three and a half hours to reach this micro-gravity environment (a region of space where the acceleration due to gravity is one-millionth of that experienced on the Earth's surface). To reduce the gravity to one-thousandth of that on Earth's surface, however, one needs only to be at a distance of 200,000 km. At a distance relatively close to Earth (less than 3000 km), gravity

3135-505: The United States had had to fund it on its own. And finally, it provided Europe with the systems development and management experience they needed to move into the exclusive manned space flight arena. In the early 1970s NASA shifted its focus from the Lunar missions to the Space Shuttle, and also space research. The Administrator of NASA at the time moved the focus from a new space station to

3230-555: The Vostok 2 , described feeling disoriented with physical complaints mostly consistent with motion sickness. It is one of the most studied physiological problems of spaceflight but continues to pose a significant difficulty for many astronauts. In some instances, it can be so debilitating that astronauts must sit out from their scheduled occupational duties in space – including missing out on a spacewalk they have spent months training to perform. In most cases, however, astronauts will work through

3325-405: The drag (air resistance) on the plane out, leaving the plane to behave as if it were free-falling in a vacuum. Versions of such airplanes have been operated by NASA 's Reduced Gravity Research Program since 1973, where the unofficial nickname originated. NASA later adopted the official nickname 'Weightless Wonder' for publication. NASA's current Reduced Gravity Aircraft, "Weightless Wonder VI",

3420-441: The 16-day, 21-hour mission, the crew of Columbia assisted in the preparations for the International Space Station by studying the effects of long-duration spaceflight on the human body in readiness for ISS Expeditions, and also carried out experiments similar to those now being carried out on the orbital station. Following launch, Columbia climbed to an altitude of 278 kilometers (173 mi) with an orbital inclination of 39° to

3515-477: The Bubble, Drop and Particle Unit (BDPU), designed to study fluid physics. The mission also featured a test of a procedure that was later used during the second Hubble Space Telescope servicing mission to raise the telescope's altitude without damaging the satellite's solar arrays. During the test, Columbia's vernier Reaction Control System jets were gently pulsed to boost the Shuttle's altitude without jarring any of

3610-445: The Earth), but of there being no g-force that an astronaut can feel because of the free-fall condition, and also there being zero difference between the acceleration of the spacecraft and the acceleration of the astronaut. Space journalist James Oberg explains the phenomenon this way: The myth that satellites remain in orbit because they have "escaped Earth's gravity" is perpetuated further (and falsely) by almost universal misuse of

3705-456: The Earth, two balls a horizontal distance apart would be pulled in slightly different directions and would come closer together as the elevator dropped. Also, if they were some vertical distance apart the lower one would experience a higher gravitational force than the upper one since gravity diminishes according to the inverse square law . These two second-order effects are examples of micro gravity. Airplanes have been used since 1959 to provide

3800-460: The ISS was conducted to crystallize the monoclonal antibody therapeutic Pembrolizumab , where results showed more uniform and homogenous crystal particles compared to ground controls. Such uniform crystal particles can allow for the formulation of more concentrated, low-volume antibody therapies, something which can make them suitable for subcutaneous administration , a less invasive approach compared to

3895-572: The International Space Station is currently at the Canada Aviation and Space Museum , on loan from NASA through the Canadian Space Agency (CSA). A Spacelab Pallet was transferred to the Swiss Museum of Transport for permanent display on 5 March 2010. The Pallet, nicknamed Elvis , was used during the eight-day STS-46 mission, 31 July – 8 August 1992, when ESA astronaut Claude Nicollier

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3990-490: The Spacelab habitable module, missions running other Spacelab hardware experiments, and other Space Transportation System (STS) missions that used some component of Spacelab hardware. There is some variation in counts of Spacelab missions, in part because there were different types of Spacelab missions with a large range in the amount of Spacelab hardware flown and the nature of each mission. There were at least 22 major Spacelab missions between 1983 and 1998, and Spacelab hardware

4085-620: The aircraft is flown by test pilots from DGA Essais en Vol . As of May 2010 , the ESA has flown 52 scientific campaigns and also 9 student parabolic flight campaigns. Their first Zero-G flights were in 1984 using a NASA KC-135 aircraft in Houston , Texas. Other aircraft used include the Russian Ilyushin Il-76 MDK before founding Novespace, then a French Caravelle and an Airbus A300 Zero-G . Novespace created Air Zero G in 2012 to share

4180-517: The brain without the individual becoming dizzy. Heart rhythm disturbances have also been seen among astronauts, but it is unclear whether this was a result of pre-existing conditions or an effect of the micro-g environment. One current countermeasure includes drinking a salt solution, which increases the viscosity of blood and would subsequently increase blood pressure, which would mitigate post micro-g environment orthostatic intolerance. Another countermeasure includes administration of midodrine , which

4275-413: The cardiovascular system in a micro-g environment. Parabolic flight studies have increased the understanding of orthostatic intolerance and decreased peripheral blood flow suffered by astronauts returning to Earth. Due to the loss of blood to pump, the heart can atrophy in a micro-g environment. A weakened heart can result in low blood volume, low blood pressure and affect the body's ability to send oxygen to

4370-454: The case of the Earth, the effects are minor, especially on objects of relatively small dimensions (such as the human body or a spacecraft) and the overall sensation of weightlessness in these cases is preserved. This condition is known as microgravity, and it prevails in orbiting spacecraft. In Newtonian physics, the sensation of weightlessness experienced by astronauts is not the result of there being zero gravitational acceleration (as seen from

4465-399: The center, canceling out the pull of any one direction, establishing a space with no gravitational pull. A "stationary" micro-g environment would require travelling far enough into deep space so as to reduce the effect of gravity by attenuation to almost zero. This is simple in conception but requires travelling a very large distance, rendering it highly impractical. For example, to reduce

4560-472: The current prevalent method of intravenous administration. "Jake Garn was sick, was pretty sick. I don't know whether we should tell stories like that. But anyway, Jake Garn, he has made a mark in the Astronaut Corps because he represents the maximum level of space sickness that anyone can ever attain, and so the mark of being totally sick and totally incompetent is one Garn. Most guys will get maybe to

4655-577: The emesis, resulting in strong odors and liquid within the cabin which may affect other astronauts. Some changes to eye movement behaviors might also occur as a result of SMS. Symptoms typically last anywhere from one to three days upon entering weightlessness, but may recur upon reentry to Earth's gravity or even shortly after landing. SMS differs from terrestrial motion sickness in that sweating and pallor are typically minimal or absent and gastrointestinal findings usually demonstrate absent bowel sounds indicating reduced gastrointestinal motility . Even when

4750-450: The experience of weightlessness with 40 public passengers per flight, using the same A310 ZERO-G as for scientific experiences. These flights are sold by Avico , are mainly operated from Bordeaux-Merignac , France , and intend to promote European space research, allowing public passengers to feel weightlessness. Jean-François Clervoy , Chairman of Novespace and ESA astronaut, flies with these one-day astronauts on board A310 Zero-G. After

4845-414: The face. These effects begin to reverse quickly upon return to the Earth. In addition, after long space flight missions, astronauts may experience vision changes. Such eyesight problems may be a major concern for future deep space flight missions, including a crewed mission to the planet Mars . Exposure to high levels of radiation may influence the development of atherosclerosis . Clots in

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4940-449: The fields of space plasma physics, solar physics , atmospheric physics , astronomy , and Earth observation . The selection of appropriate modules was part of mission planning for Spacelab Shuttle missions, and for example, a mission might need less habitable space and more pallets, or vice versa. The habitable Spacelab laboratory module comprised a cylindrical environment in the rear of the Space Shuttle orbiter payload bay, connected to

5035-466: The first and only non-U.S. and non-European human space missions with complete German and Japanese control. The first West German mission Deutschland 1 (Spacelab-D1, DLR-1, NASA designation STS-61-A ) took place in 1985. A second similar mission, Deutschland 2 (Spacelab-D2, DLR-2, NASA designation STS-55 ), was first planned for 1988, but due to the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster ,

5130-419: The first two weeks that the muscles are unloaded from carrying the weight of the human frame during space flight, whole muscle atrophy begins. Postural muscles contain more slow fibers, and are more prone to atrophy than non-postural muscle groups. The loss of muscle mass occurs because of imbalances in protein synthesis and breakdown. The loss of muscle mass is also accompanied by a loss of muscle strength, which

5225-602: The flight, he explains the quest of space and talks about the 3 space travels he did along his career. The aircraft has also been used for cinema purposes, with Tom Cruise and Annabelle Wallis for the Mummy in 2017. The Zero Gravity Corporation operates a modified Boeing 727 which flies parabolic arcs to create 25–30 seconds of weightlessness. Ground-based facilities that produce weightless conditions for research purposes are typically referred to as drop tubes or drop towers. NASA's Zero Gravity Research Facility , located at

5320-445: The gravitational field is zero, when contact forces act upon and overcome a body's inertia by mechanical, non- gravitational forces- such as in a centrifuge , a rotating space station , or within an accelerating vehicle. When the gravitational field is non-uniform, a body in free fall experiences tidal forces and is not stress-free. Near a black hole , such tidal effects can be very strong, meeting to spaghettification . In

5415-495: The gravity of the Earth by a factor of one million, one needs to be at a distance of 6 million kilometres from the Earth, but to reduce the gravity of the Sun to this amount, one has to be at a distance of 3.7 billion kilometres. This is not impossible, but it has only been achieved thus far by four interstellar probes : ( Voyager 1 and 2 of the Voyager program , and Pioneer 10 and 11 of

5510-408: The horizon." The ground's curved withdrawal along the Earth's round surface offsets the satellites' fall toward the ground. Speed, not position or lack of gravity, keeps satellites in orbit around the Earth. From the perspective of an observer not moving with the object (i.e. in an inertial reference frame ) the force of gravity on an object in free fall is exactly the same as usual. A classic example

5605-484: The internal jugular vein have recently been detected inflight. On December 31, 2012, a NASA -supported study reported that human spaceflight may harm the brains of astronauts and accelerate the onset of Alzheimer's disease . In October 2015, the NASA Office of Inspector General issued a health hazards report related to human spaceflight , including a human mission to Mars . Space motion sickness (SMS)

5700-527: The leg bones and reduce osteopenia. Other significant effects include fluid redistribution (causing the "moon-face" appearance typical of pictures of astronauts in weightlessness), changes in the cardiovascular system as blood pressures and flow velocities change in response to a lack of gravity, a decreased production of red blood cells , balance disorders, and a weakening of the immune system . Lesser symptoms include loss of body mass, nasal congestion, sleep disturbance, excess flatulence , and puffiness of

5795-431: The legs and abdomen, resulting in increased stroke volume . These fluid shifts become more dangerous upon returning to a regular gravity environment as the body will attempt to adapt to the reintroduction of gravity. The reintroduction of gravity again will pull the fluid downward, but now there would be a deficit in both circulating fluid and red blood cells. The decrease in cardiac filling pressure and stroke volume during

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5890-656: The lower body causing fluids to shift toward the head from the rest of the body. These fluid shifts are thought to increase cerebrospinal fluid pressure (causing back aches), intracranial pressure (causing headaches), and inner ear fluid pressure (causing vestibular dysfunction). Despite a multitude of studies searching for a solution to the problem of SMS, it remains an ongoing problem for space travel. Most non-pharmacological countermeasures such as training and other physical maneuvers have offered minimal benefit. Thornton and Bonato noted, "Pre- and inflight adaptive efforts, some of them mandatory and most of them onerous, have been, for

5985-406: The micro-g environment, the newly sensed excess blood volume is adjusted by expelling excess fluid into tissues and cells (12-15% volume reduction) and red blood cells are adjusted downward to maintain a normal concentration (relative anemia ). In the absence of gravity, venous blood will rush to the right atrium because the force of gravity is no longer pulling the blood down into the vessels of

6080-454: The mission payloads. The test was successful, and was later employed by Discovery during STS-82 , and was used multiple times to boost the orbit of the ISS when docked with an orbiter. Although the launch went without any issue, an issue was discovered with the solid rocket boosters (SRBs) following their disassembly in June post-recovery. Analysis showed worrying damage to the field joints which

6175-534: The module's laboratory, but also employed lockers in the middeck section of the orbiter. Thirteen of the experiments were dedicated to studying the effects of microgravity on the human body, whilst another six studied the behaviour of fluids and metals in the almost weightless environment and the production of metallic alloys and protein crystals. The crew also carried out the first ever comprehensive study of sleep patterns in microgravity, research into bone and muscle loss in space, and in-flight fixes to problem hardware on

6270-417: The most part, operational failures." To date, the most common intervention is promethazine , an injectable antihistamine with antiemetic properties, but sedation can be a problematic side effect. Other common pharmacological options include metoclopramide , as well as oral and transdermal application of scopolamine , but drowsiness and sedation are common side effects for these medications as well. In

6365-426: The nausea and vomiting resolve, some central nervous system symptoms may persist which may degrade the astronaut's performance. Graybiel and Knepton proposed the term " sopite syndrome " to describe symptoms of lethargy and drowsiness associated with motion sickness in 1976. Since then, their definition has been revised to include "...a symptom complex that develops as a result of exposure to real or apparent motion and

6460-516: The near-weightlessness of space and to survive in the vacuum of outer space . While not yet a commercial application, there has been interest in growing crystals in micro-g, as in a space station or automated artificial satellite through Low-gravity process engineering , in an attempt to reduce crystal lattice defects. Such defect-free crystals may prove useful for certain microelectronic applications and also to produce crystals for subsequent X-ray crystallography . In 2017, an experiment on

6555-420: The needs of each spaceflight. Spacelab components flew on a total of about 32 Shuttle missions, depending on how such hardware and missions are tabulated. Spacelab allowed scientists to perform experiments in microgravity in geocentric orbit . There was a variety of Spacelab-associated hardware, so a distinction can be made between the major Spacelab program missions with European scientists running missions in

6650-430: The orbiter crew compartment by a tunnel. The laboratory had an outer diameter of 4.12 m (13.5 ft), and each segment a length of 2.7 m (8 ft 10 in). The laboratory module consisted at minimum of a core segment, which could be used alone in a short module configuration. The long module configuration included an additional experiment segment. It was also possible to operate Spacelab experiments from

6745-437: The orbiter's aft flight deck. The pressurized tunnel had its connection point at the orbiter's mid-deck. There were two different length tunnels depending on the location of the habitable module in the payload bay. When the laboratory module was not used, but additional space was needed for support equipment, another structure called the Igloo could be used. Two laboratory modules were built, identified as LM1 and LM2. LM1

6840-596: The orthostatic stress due to a decreased blood volume is what causes orthostatic intolerance . Orthostatic intolerance can result in temporary loss of consciousness and posture, due to the lack of pressure and stroke volume. Some animal species have evolved physiological and anatomical features (such as high hydrostatic blood pressure and closer heart place to head) which enable them to counteract orthostatic blood pressure. More chronic orthostatic intolerance can result in additional symptoms such as nausea, sleep problems , and other vasomotor symptoms as well. Many studies on

6935-508: The payload bay. IPS missions: The Spacelab 2 mission flew the Infrared Telescope (IRT), which was a 15.2 cm (6.0 in) aperture helium-cooled infrared telescope, observing light between wavelengths of 1.7 to 118 μm. IRT collected infrared data on 60% of the galactic plane. Examples of Spacelab components or hardware: The Extended Duration Orbiter (EDO) assembly was not Spacelab hardware, strictly speaking. However, it

7030-548: The physical conditions at the surface of the Earth. In response to an extended period of weightlessness, various physiological systems begin to change and atrophy. Though these changes are usually temporary, long-term health issues can result. The most common problem experienced by humans in the initial hours of weightlessness is known as space adaptation syndrome or SAS, commonly referred to as space sickness. Symptoms of SAS include nausea and vomiting , vertigo , headaches , lethargy , and overall malaise. The first case of SAS

7125-400: The physiological effects of weightlessness on the cardiovascular system are done in parabolic flights. It is one of the only feasible options to combine with human experiments, making parabolic flights the only way to investigate the true effects of the micro-g environment on a body without traveling into space. Parabolic flight studies have provided a broad range of results regarding changes in

7220-567: The principle of gravity-vector-averaging. On the International Space Station (ISS), there are small g-forces come from tidal effects, gravity from objects other than the Earth, such as astronauts, the spacecraft, and the Sun , air resistance , and astronaut movements that impart momentum to the space station). The symbol for microgravity, μg , was used on the insignias of Space Shuttle flights STS-87 and STS-107 , because these flights were devoted to microgravity research in low Earth orbit . Over

7315-635: The space (or microgravity) environment the effects of unloading varies significantly among individuals, with sex differences compounding the variability. Differences in mission duration, and the small sample size of astronauts participating in the same mission also adds to the variability to the musculoskeletal disorders that are seen in space. In addition to muscle loss, microgravity leads to increased bone resorption , decreased bone mineral density , and increased fracture risks. Bone resorption leads to increased urinary levels of calcium , which can subsequently lead to an increased risk of nephrolithiasis . In

7410-457: The symptoms even with degradation in their performance. Despite their experiences in some of the most rigorous and demanding physical maneuvers on earth, even the most seasoned astronauts may be affected by SMS, resulting in symptoms of severe nausea , projectile vomiting , fatigue , malaise (feeling sick), and headache . These symptoms may occur so abruptly and without any warning that space travelers may vomit suddenly without time to contain

7505-586: The systems derived from it. These systems include the ATV and Cygnus spacecraft used to transfer payloads to the International Space Station , and the Columbus , Harmony and Tranquility modules of the International Space Station . The Spacelab 2 mission surveyed 60% of the galactic plane in infrared in 1985. Spacelab was an extremely large program, and this was enhanced by different experiments and multiple payloads and configurations over two decades. For example, in

7600-557: The use of a penguin suit (contains sewn-in elastic bands to maintain a stretch load on antigravity muscles), centrifugation, and vibration. Centrifugation recreates Earth's gravitational force on the space station, in order to prevent muscle atrophy . Centrifugation can be performed with centrifuges or by cycling along the inner wall of the space station. Whole body vibration has been found to reduce bone resorption through mechanisms that are unclear. Vibration can be delivered using exercise devices that use vertical displacements juxtaposed to

7695-404: The visual system (sight) and the proprioceptive system (posture, position of the body) conflicts with misperceived information from the semicircular canals and the otoliths within the inner ear. This is known as the 'neural mismatch theory' and was first suggested in 1975 by Reason and Brand. Alternatively, the fluid shift hypothesis suggests that weightlessness reduces the hydrostatic pressure on

7790-501: The word "zero gravity" to describe the free-falling conditions aboard orbiting space vehicles. Of course, this isn't true; gravity still exists in space. It keeps satellites from flying straight off into interstellar emptiness. What's missing is "weight", the resistance of gravitational attraction by an anchored structure or a counterforce. Satellites stay in space because of their tremendous horizontal speed, which allows them—while being unavoidably pulled toward Earth by gravity—to fall "over

7885-542: The years, biomedical research on the implications of space flight has become more prominent in evaluating possible pathophysiological changes in humans. Sub-orbital flights seize the approximated weightlessness, or μg, in the low Earth orbit and represent a promising research model for short-term exposure. Examples of such approaches are the MASER , MAXUS , or TEXUS program run by the Swedish Space Corporation and

7980-504: Was delayed until 1993. It became the first German human space mission after German reunification . The only Japan mission, Spacelab-J (NASA designation STS-47 ), took place in 1992. Spacelab-4, Spacelab-5, and other planned Spacelab missions were cancelled due to the late development of the Shuttle and the Challenger disaster. The legacy of Spacelab lives on in the form of the MPLMs and

8075-544: Was flown on Spacelab 2 , ASTRO-1 , ATLAS-1, ATLAS-2, ATLAS-3, and ASTRO-2. A Spacelab Igloo is on display at the James S. McDonnell Space Hangar at the Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center in the US. The IPS was a gimbaled pointing device, capable of aiming telescopes, cameras, or other instruments. IPS was used on three different Space Shuttle missions between 1985 and 1995. IPS was manufactured by Dornier , and two units were made. The IPS

8170-452: Was likely caused by hot gases. Failure of booster seals on the lower sections of Space Shuttle Challenger 's right SRB ultimately caused the orbiter to break up mid-flight in 1986. This time the issue did not compromise astronaut safety because the hot gas path traveled through the engines' field joints but not their capture joint (containing the infamous "O-ring" seals). Despite there being no issue with safety, it did raise questions about

8265-476: Was observed after only 2–5 days of spaceflight during the Soyuz-3 and Soyuz-8 missions. Decreases in the generation of contractile forces and whole muscle power have also been found in response to microgravity. To counter the effects of microgravity on the musculoskeletal system, aerobic exercise is recommended. This often takes the form of in-flight cycling. A more effective regimen includes resistive exercises or

8360-490: Was on board Space Shuttle Atlantis to deploy ESA's European Retrievable Carrier (Eureca) scientific mission and the joint NASA/ASI ( Italian Space Agency ) Tethered Satellite System (TSS-1). The Pallet carried TSS-1 in the Shuttle's cargo bay. Another Spacelab Pallet is on display at the U.S. National Air and Space Museum in Washington, D.C. There was a total of ten space-flown Spacelab pallets. On spaceflights where

8455-483: Was primarily constructed out of aluminum, steel, and multi-layer insulation . IPS would be mounted inside the payload bay of the Space Shuttle Orbiter, and could provide gimbaled 3-axis pointing. It was designed for a pointing accuracy of less than 1 arcsecond (a unit of degree), and three pointing modes including Earth, Sun, and Stellar focused modes. The IPS was mounted on a pallet exposed to outer space in

8550-652: Was recommissioned in 2000 for flight on STS-99 . The "Spacelab Pallet – Deployable 1 (SLP-D1) with Canadian Dextre (Purpose Dexterous Manipulator)" was launched on STS-123 . The Spacelab components were used on 41 Shuttle missions in total. The habitable modules were flown on 16 Space Shuttle missions in the 1980s and 1990s. Spacelab Pallet missions were flown 6 times and Spacelab Pallets were flown on other missions 19 times. Mission name acronyms: Besides contributing to ESA missions, Germany and Japan each funded their own Space Shuttle and Spacelab missions. Although superficially similar to other flights, they were actually

8645-419: Was reported by cosmonaut Gherman Titov in 1961. Since then, roughly 45% of all people who have flown in space have suffered from this condition. The duration of space sickness varies, but in no case has it lasted for more than 72 hours, after which the body adjusts to the new environment. NASA jokingly measures SAS using the "Garn scale", named for United States Senator Jake Garn , whose SAS during STS-51-D

8740-567: Was the worst on record. Accordingly, one "Garn" is equivalent to the most severe possible case of SAS. The most significant adverse effects of long-term weightlessness are muscle atrophy (see Reduced muscle mass, strength and performance in space for more information) and deterioration of the skeleton , or spaceflight osteopenia . These effects can be minimized through a regimen of exercise, such as cycling for example. Astronauts subject to long periods of weightlessness wear pants with elastic bands attached between waistband and cuffs to compress

8835-474: Was then the company ERNO-VFW-Fokker. Spacelab is important to all of us for at least four good reasons. It expanded the Shuttle's ability to conduct science on-orbit manyfold. It provided a marvelous opportunity and example of a large international joint venture involving government, industry, and science with our European allies. The European effort provided the free world with a really versatile laboratory system several years before it would have been possible if

8930-577: Was used most often on Spacelab flights. Also, NASA later used it with the SpaceHab modules. Spacelab components flew on 22 Space Shuttle missions from November 1983 to April 1998. The Spacelab components were decommissioned in 1998, except the Pallets. Science work was moved to the International Space Station (ISS) and Spacehab module, a pressurized carrier similar to the Spacelab Module. A Spacelab Pallet

9025-403: Was used on a number of other missions, with some of the Spacelab pallets being flown as late as 2008. In August 1973, NASA and European Space Research Organisation (ESRO), now European Space Agency or ESA, signed a memorandum of understanding (MOU) to build a science laboratory for use on Space Shuttle flights. Construction of Spacelab was started in 1974 by Entwicklungsring Nord (ERNO),

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