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58-592: SS Cleveland was a German transatlantic ocean liner that was launched in 1908 and scrapped in 1933. Cleveland was built for the Hamburg America Line (HAPAG) as a sister ship for Cincinnati . In 1919 Cleveland became the troop ship USS Mobile (ID-4030) . In 1920 it returned to civilian service as the UK liner King Alexander . In 1923 United American Lines bought her and restored it original name Cleveland . In 1926 HAPAG bought Cleveland back. It

116-460: A quadruple expansion steam engine . They gave her a speed of 16 knots (30 km/h). Cleveland began her maiden voyage from Hamburg to New York on 27 March 1909. Late that August, HAPAG transferred Captain Christian Dempwolf from Moltke to be Master of Cleveland . Cleveland spent the next five years mostly in scheduled transatlantic service. She also made six cruises around

174-494: A Bauer-Wach exhaust turbine system was added to each of Cleveland ' s engines. Exhaust steam from the low-pressure cylinder drove a turbine, which via double-reduction gearing and a Föttinger fluid coupling drove the same shaft as the reciprocating engine. The two turbines increased Cleveland ' s total installed power to 2,046 NHP . Cleveland was laid up from 1931. In 1933 HAPAG sold her back to Blohm & Voss for scrap. Transatlantic crossing Prior to

232-495: A Reichsmark. Made entirely of zinc , the 10 ℛ︁₰ is an emergency issue type, similar to the zinc 1 ℛ︁₰ and 5 ℛ︁₰ , and the aluminium 50 ℛ︁₰ coins from the same period. Nazi Germany had a number of mints. Each mint location had its own identifiable letter. It is therefore possible to identify exactly which mint produced what coin by noting the mint mark on the coin. Not all mints were authorized to produce coins every year. The mints were also only authorized to produce

290-515: A dog) each way. Transatlantic flight surpassed ocean liners as the predominant mode of crossing the Atlantic in the mid 20th century. In 1919, the American NC-4 became the first airplane to cross the Atlantic (but in multiple stages). Later that year, a British Vickers Vimy piloted by Alcock and Brown made the first non-stop transatlantic flight from Newfoundland to Ireland . Also in 1919,

348-647: A failed attempt by the Reichskanzler Heinrich Brüning to reduce prices through use of 4 ℛ︁₰ pieces instead of 5 ℛ︁₰ coins. Known as the Brüningtaler or Armer Heinrich ('poor Heinrich'), they were demonetized the following year. See Brüningtaler (in German) . The quality of the Reichsmark coins decreased more and more towards the end of World War II and misprints happened more frequently. Since

406-404: A set number of coins with some mints allocated a greater production than others. Some of the coins with particular mint marks are therefore scarcer than others. With the silver 2 ℛ︁ℳ︁ and 5 ℛ︁ℳ︁ coins, the mint mark is found under the date on the left side of the coin. On the smaller denomination Reichspfennig coins, the mint mark is found on the bottom center of

464-581: A similar luxurious style to the ocean liners. However, the Hindenburg disaster in 1937 put an end to transatlantic Zeppelin flights. On 1 June 1944, two K-class blimps from Blimp Squadron ZP-14 of the United States Navy (USN) completed the first transatlantic crossing by non-rigid airships . The two K-ships (K-123 and K-130) left South Weymouth, MA on 28 May 1944 and flew approximately 16 hours to Naval Station Argentia , Newfoundland. From Argentia,

522-646: A similar maritime route between its ports in Brazil and the Portuguese mainland. Other colonial powers followed, such as Britain , France and the Netherlands , as they colonized the New World . Guinness Book of World Records has awarded world records to vessels of various classes such as luxury liners, sail boats, and rowing boats. Because of the shape of the continents and the assistance (or resistance) of ocean currents,

580-581: The Papiermark . This was necessary due to the 1920s German inflation which had reached its peak in 1923. The exchange rate between the old Papiermark and the Reichsmark was 1 ℛ︁ℳ︁ = 10   ℳ︁ (one trillion in American English and French, one billion in German and other European languages and British English of the time; see long and short scale ). To stabilize the economy and to smooth

638-513: The Boeing 767 , Boeing 777 and Airbus A330 have largely taken over on transatlantic routes from quad-engine jets, whilst the supersonic Concorde was ultimately doomed by its high running costs, leading to its retirement in 2003. Since the late 1990s, twin-engined, narrow-body jet airliners have been used for transatlantic service, meaning that city pairs between major North American hubs and secondary European cities can now be connected directly without

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696-793: The Canary Islands to the Caribbean . It now runs roughly once every two years. In 2006, the first West–East North Atlantic Rowing Race took place, running from New York City to Falmouth, Cornwall in the UK . In 1775, the 62-ton schooner Quero , sailed by John Derby from Salem, Massachusetts to the Isle of Wight in 28 days (April 28 to May 25). In 1866, the 26-foot (7.9 m) lifeboat Red, White and Blue sailed from New York City to Margate , England, in 38 days. In 1870 and 1871, The 20-ft yawl City of Ragusa sailed from Queenstown , Ireland, to New York and back, crewed by two men (and

754-592: The Cunard Line , with Cunard's dominance drawing the attention of the U.S. government, which had its own mail contract to offer to an American firm willing to compete. In 1850 the contract was awarded to the New York and Liverpool United States Steamship Company, which became the Collins Line , and which answered Cunard with its own four ships, which were newer, larger, faster, and more luxurious. Competition developed among

812-538: The SS ; United States . The United States is the current holder of the Hales Trophy. In July 1952 that ship made the crossing in 3 days, 10 hours, 40 minutes. Cunard Line's RMS Queen Mary 2 is the only ship currently making regular transatlantic crossings throughout the year, usually between Southampton and New York. For this reason it has been designed as a proper ocean liner, not as a cruise ship. During World War II

870-905: The U.S. Treasury Department authorized the air transfer of these to the USSR. Using a printing plant in occupied Leipzig , the Soviet authorities printed large runs of occupation marks to fill Soviet coffers with dollars causing inflation and financial instability. An investigation by the United States Congress (Occupation Currency Transactions Hearings before the Committee on Appropriations, Armed Services and Banking and Currency, U.S. Senate , 1947) found that about $ 380,000,000 "more currency than there were appropriations for" had been circulated. In 1947 Rhineland-Palatinate issued 5₰ and 10₰ notes with Geldschein on them. Coins and banknotes for circulation in

928-464: The United Kingdom or France . The introduction of various technologies facilitated progressively faster transatlantic crossings. The duration to travel westbound from Europe to North America when a new transport innovation was introduced for commercial use is listed below: Reichsmark The Reichsmark ( German: [ˈʁaɪçsˌmaʁk] ; sign : ℛ︁ℳ︁ ; abbreviation: RM )

986-511: The Vivaldi Atlantic 4 broke the previous rowing record of 55 days and setting a new record of 39 days. On 26 October 2010, Polish sexagenarian Aleksander Doba was the first recorded individual to complete a non-stop transatlantic crossing by kayak . He departed Dakar, Senegal and arrived in Brazil 99 days later. In 1997, the first East–West Atlantic Rowing Race took place, running from

1044-545: The Łódź Ghetto . Special issues of Reichsmark currency were issued for use by the Wehrmacht from 1942 to 1944. The first issue was denominated in 1 ℛ︁₰, 5 ℛ︁₰, 10 ℛ︁₰, and 50 ℛ︁₰ and 1 ℛ︁ℳ︁, but was valued at 1 military Reichspfennig = 10 civilian Reichspfennig. This series was printed on only one side. The second issue notes of 1 ℛ︁ℳ︁, 5 ℛ︁ℳ︁, 10 ℛ︁ℳ︁, and 50 ℛ︁ℳ︁ were equal in value to

1102-664: The 19th century, transatlantic crossings were undertaken in sailing ships , and the journeys were time-consuming and often perilous. The first trade route across the Atlantic was inaugurated by Spain a few decades after the European Discovery of the Americas , with the establishment of the West Indies fleets in 1566, a convoy system that regularly linked its territories in the Americas with Spain for over two centuries. Portugal created

1160-413: The 4 ℛ︁₰ coin was only slightly larger than the 1 ℳ︁ coin and the imperial eagle looked similar, an attempt was made to pass it off as a 1-reichsmark coin by silvering the 4 ℛ︁₰ coin. The zinc 10 Reichspfennig coin was minted by Nazi Germany between 1940 and 1945 during World War II, replacing the aluminium-bronze version, which had a distinct golden colour. It is worth 1 ⁄ 10 or .10 of

1218-485: The Atlantic (east–west–east). The first aerial crossing of the South Atlantic was made by the Portuguese naval aviators Gago Coutinho and Sacadura Cabral in 1922. Coutinho and Cabral flew from Lisbon, Portugal , to Rio de Janeiro , Brazil in stages, using three different Fairey III biplanes, and they covered a distance of 8,383 kilometres (5,209 mi) between 30 March and 17 June. The first night-time crossing of

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1276-450: The Atlantic from East to West, journeying 113 days in a Zodiac , L'Hérétique . In 1956, Henri Beaudout crossed the Atlantic from West to East, from Halifax to Falmouth , on a raft of wood and rope, L'Égaré II , in 88 days. In 1970, Thor Heyerdahl crossed the Atlantic in Ra II , a papyrus raft built to an Ancient Egyptian design. This voyage followed an unsuccessful attempt

1334-553: The Atlantic was accomplished during 16–17 April 1927 by the Portuguese aviators Sarmento de Beires , Jorge de Castilho and Manuel Gouveia, flying from the Bijagós Archipelago , Portuguese Guinea , to Fernando de Noronha , Brazil in the Argos , a Dornier Wal flying boat. In May 1927, Charles Lindbergh made the first solo non-stop transatlantic flight in an airplane (between New York City and Paris ). The second solo piloting, and

1392-606: The Atlantic. This record became so critical to international prestige that the RMS ; Mauretania was commissioned by the British government specifically to take the Blue Riband back from the Germans and their SS Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse , which it did in 1907. The government also required it be convertible into a troop carrier if needed. In 1935 shipping magnate Harold Hales formalized

1450-519: The British were the first to cross the Atlantic in an airship when the R34 captained by Major George Herbert Scott of the Royal Air Force with his crew and passengers flew from East Fortune, Scotland to Mineola, Long Island, covering a distance of about 3,000 statute miles (4,800 km) in about four and a half days; he then made a return trip to England, thus also completing the first double crossing of

1508-561: The Eastbound crossing is quicker than the Westbound crossing. Transatlantic passenger crossings became faster, safer, and more reliable with the advent of steamships in the 19th century. The wooden-hulled, paddle-wheel SS  Great Western built in 1838 is recognized as the first purpose-built transatlantic steamship, on a scheduled run back and forth from Bristol to New York City. The design by British civil engineer Isambard Kingdom Brunel

1566-675: The Reichsmark and the currencies of the occupied and allied countries , often set so as to give economic benefits to German soldiers and civilian contractors, who were paid their wages in local currency. The rates were as follows: After the Second World War , the Reichsmark continued to circulate in Germany, but with new banknotes ( Allied Occupation Marks ) printed in the US and in the Soviet Zone , as well as with coins (without swastikas ). Inflation in

1624-613: The Reichsmark in order to finance state projects. Nominally exchangeable at a 1:1 rate for Reichsmarks but then discounted by the Reichsbank this created secret monetary expansion without formally renouncing the gold standard of the Reichsmark. With the annexation of the Federal State of Austria by Germany in 1938, the Reichsmark replaced the Austrian schilling . During the Second World War , Germany established fixed exchange rates between

1682-712: The Soviet Occupation Zone (colloquially also "Ostmark", since 1968 officially " Mark der DDR "). The 1948 currency reform under the direction of Ludwig Erhard is considered the beginning of the West German economic recovery ; however, the secret plan to introduce the Deutsche Mark in the Trizone was formulated by economist Edward A. Tenenbaum of the US military government , and was executed abruptly on 21 June 1948. Three days later,

1740-732: The USA, repatriating a total of 21,073 US troops. In November 1919 she was decommissioned and relinquished to the United States Shipping Board . White Star Line briefly chartered Mobile , and then the Byron Steamship Company bought her and renamed her King Alexander after Alexander of Greece . The company was a UK-based subsidiary of the National Greek Line. Hence King Alexander was registered in London but her new route

1798-542: The World. On 24 January 1912 she was being moved in Honolulu Harbor when her pilot , Milton P Sanders, died of a heart attack . As a result, control of Cleveland was lost, and her bow collided with the stern of the cruiser USS  Colorado . By 1913 Cleveland was equipped for wireless telegraphy . Her call sign was DDV. HAPAG had scheduled further World cruises for Cleveland and her sister for 1915. Cleveland

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1856-551: The blimps flew approximately 22 hours to Lajes Field on Terceira Island in the Azores. The final leg of the first transatlantic crossing was about a 20-hour flight from the Azores to Craw Field in Port Lyautey ( Kenitra ), French Morocco . Beginning in the 1950s, the predominance of ocean liners began to wane when larger, jet -powered airplanes began carrying passengers across the ocean in less and less time. The speed of crossing

1914-1194: The coin. The first Reichsmark banknotes were introduced by the Reichsbank and state banks such as those of Bavaria , Saxony and Baden . The first Reichsbank issue of 1924 came in denominations of 10 ℛ︁ℳ︁, 20 ℛ︁ℳ︁, 50 ℛ︁ℳ︁, 100 ℛ︁ℳ︁, and 1,000 ℛ︁ℳ︁. This was followed by a second issue in the same denominations, dated between 1929 and 1936. The second issue commemorated persons who made contributions to German agriculture, industry, economy, science, and architecture: 10 ℛ︁ℳ︁ issued in 1929 commemorated agronomist Albrecht Thaer ; 20 ℛ︁ℳ︁ issued in 1929 commemorated engineer, inventor, and industrialist Werner von Siemens ; 50 ℛ︁ℳ︁ issued in 1933 commemorated Prussian politician and banker David Hansemann ; 100 ℛ︁ℳ︁ issued in 1935 commemorated chemist and "father of fertilizer industry" Justus von Liebig ; 1,000 ℛ︁ℳ︁ issued in 1936 commemorated Prussian architect Karl Friedrich Schinkel . A newer version of 20 ℛ︁ℳ︁ note

1972-448: The currency of the occupied countries. The coins were originally planned in great numbers of 100 million and 250 million each of the 5 ℛ︁₰ and 10 ℛ︁₰ coins respectively. The first embossing order, which was issued in April 1940, was about 40 million × 5 ℛ︁₰ and 100 million × 10 ℛ︁₰. The total amount was divided between each of the seven German mints after the embossing key of 1939. The contract

2030-605: The final months of the war had reduced the value of the Reichsmark from 2.50 ℛ︁ℳ︁ = $ 1US to 10 ℛ︁ℳ︁ = $ 1US and a barter economy had emerged due to the rapid depreciation. The Reichsmark was replaced by the Deutsche Mark at a rate of 10:1 (1:1 for cash and current accounts) in June 1948 in the Trizone and later in the same year by the East German mark in

2088-414: The first to carry a passenger, was Clarence Duncan Chamberlin on 6 June 1927. Edward R. Armstrong proposed a string of anchored "seadromes" to refuel planes in a crossing. The first serious attempt to take a share of the transatlantic passenger market away from the ocean liners was undertaken by Germany . In the 1930s, Germany crossed the Atlantic with Zeppelins that could carry about 60 passengers in

2146-573: The industrial powers of the time—the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Italy, and the United States—to competitively build grand ocean liners as symbols of national technical skill and expressions of power, not just transport businesses. The competition was for speed. An award called the Blue Riband has been tracked since 1838, for the fastest average speed of a steamship in regular service across

2204-421: The need for larger widebody jets, which were uneconomic on routes with lower passenger demand. The Boeing 757 started this trend when it became ETOPS certified, although the most recent versions of both the Boeing 737 and Airbus A320 now have transatlantic capability. Transatlantic cables are cables that have been laid along the ocean floor to connect North America and Europe. Before the advent of radio ,

2262-622: The new currency also replaced the Reichsmark in the three Western sectors of Berlin . In November 1945, the Reichsmark was superseded by the Second Austrian schilling in Austria. In 1947, the Saar mark , later replaced with the Saar franc , was introduced in the Saar . In 1924, coins were introduced in denominations of 1 ℛ︁₰ , 2 ℛ︁₰, 5 ℛ︁₰ , 10 ℛ︁₰, and 50 ℛ︁₰ , and 1 ℳ︁ and 3 ℳ︁. 4   Reichspfennig coins were issued in 1932 as part of

2320-474: The occupied territories during the war were issued by the Reichskreditkassen . Holed, zinc coins in 5 ℛ︁₰ and 10 ℛ︁₰ denominations were struck in 1940 and 1941. Banknotes were issued between 1939 and 1945 in denominations of 50 ℛ︁₰, 1 ℛ︁ℳ︁, 2 ℛ︁ℳ︁, 5 ℛ︁ℳ︁, 20 ℛ︁ℳ︁, and 50 ℛ︁ℳ︁. These served as legal tender alongside

2378-427: The ocean therefore became more important than the style of crossing it. The maturing passenger Jet Age starting with the Boeing 707 reduced the typical crossing time between London and New York City to between 6.5 and 8 hours, depending on weather conditions. By the 1970s, supersonic Concorde airplanes could connect the two cities in less than 4 hours, and only one ocean liner, Queen Elizabeth 2 remained on

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2436-528: The only means of communication across the Atlantic Ocean was to physically connect the continents with a transatlantic telegraph cable , the first of which was installed from Valentia , Ireland to Heart's Content , Newfoundland in 1858. It worked for a month. The first pair of eastbound and westbound transatlantic telephone cables, TAT-1 , were laid in 1955 and 1956 by the cable ship HMTS Monarch . The first transatlantic fiber optic cable, TAT-8 ,

2494-588: The previous year in his first raft, Ra I . In 1988, the junk raft , Son of Town Hall , crossed the North Atlantic Ocean. In 2011, Anthony Smith and the Antiki crossed the Atlantic. On 13 June 2003, French rower Maud Fontenoy started an eastward crossing of the Atlantic from Saint-Pierre-et-Miquelon . She reached A Coruña in Spain on 10 October, becoming the first woman to accomplish this feat. In 2005,

2552-441: The prize by commissioning and donating the four-foot, solid silver Hales Trophy. Examples of other famous transatlantic liners are RMS  Lusitania , RMS  Olympic , RMS  Titanic , SS  Île de France , RMS  Aquitania , SS  Rex , SS  Normandie , RMS  Queen Mary , SS  America , RMS  Queen Elizabeth , SS  France , Queen Elizabeth 2 , RMS  Queen Mary 2 , and

2610-463: The transatlantic crossing was very important for the United Kingdom as much of Europe had been taken over by Germany and its allies preventing trade and supplies; the struggle is known as the Battle of the Atlantic . In 2009, two brothers, Ralph and Robert Brown, crossed the Atlantic Ocean in a 21 ft (6.4 m) flats boat – a special boat designed to operate in extremely shallow water. This flats boat

2668-443: The transatlantic route for those who favored the slower style of travel. The economics of commercial transatlantic flying have evolved markedly since the 1950s; the introduction of widebody airliners (such as the Boeing 747 and Douglas DC-10 ) in the early 1970s made affordable transatlantic travel to the masses a reality. Since the 1990s, the high reliability of modern jet engines has meant that twin-engine jet aircraft such as

2726-687: The transition, the Papiermark was not directly replaced by the Reichsmark, but by the Rentenmark , an interim currency backed by the Deutsche Rentenbank , owning industrial and agricultural real estate assets. The Reichsmark was put on the gold standard at the rate previously used by the German mark , with the U.S. dollar worth 4.20 ℛ︁ℳ︁. During this period a number of shell companies were created and authorized to issue bonds outside

2784-453: Was a breakthrough in its size, unprecedented passenger capacity, and for Brunel leveraging the fuel efficiency of a larger ship. It became the prototype for a generation of similar ships. The British & North American Royal Mail Steam Packet Company started its year-round Liverpool-Halifax-Boston service in 1840, using four new Britannia -class steamships and a mail contract from the British government. The company later evolved into

2842-625: Was between Greece and the USA. In 1923 United American Lines bought King Alexander and restored her original name Cleveland . Prohibition in the United States had begun in 1920, so UAL registered her in Panama to enable her to serve liquor aboard. UAL had Cleveland refitted in Hamburg and restored to her Hamburg – New York route. In 1926 HAPAG bought back Cleveland and two other former HAPAG passenger liners from UAL for ℛℳ 10 million. In 1929

2900-630: Was designed and built by Ralph Brown. The voyage was called the "I Am Second Wounded Hero Voyage" in honor of the men who were killed in Operation Eagle Claw ; Ralph Brown had been in the USMC at the time of the Operation and was told he was going to participate in the mission. Though he ultimately did not go, other servicemen who did perished in the failed military operation. In 1952, Alain Bombard crossed

2958-453: Was due to leave Hamburg on 14 January 1915 and return on 4 June. Instead, in the First World War HAPAG suspended its passenger services and Cleveland was laid up in Hamburg. In 1919 the United States Government seized Cincinnati as World War I reparations . She was converted at Liverpool , England into a troop ship with berths for 4,620 troops, and commissioned as USS Mobile . Mobile made nine transatlantic crossings from France to

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3016-412: Was installed in 1988. The exchange rate between the United States dollar and British pound is still colloquially known as "cable" by financial marketeers, from the early use of the transatlantic cable for this purpose. A transatlantic tunnel is a theoretical structure proposed several times since the late 19th century. It would be a tunnel spanning the Atlantic Ocean between New York City and

3074-637: Was introduced in 1939, using a design taken from an unissued Austrian S 100 banknote type. 5 ℛ︁ℳ︁ notes were issued in 1942. Throughout this period, the Rentenbank also issued banknotes denominated in Rentenmark, mostly in RM 1 and RM 2 denominations. In preparation for the occupation of Germany, the United States issued occupation banknotes dated 1944, printed by the Forbes Lithograph Printing Company of Boston. These were printed in similar colours with different sizes for groups of denominations. Notes were issued for 1 ⁄ 2  ℳ︁, 1 ℳ︁, 5 ℳ︁, 10 ℳ︁, 20 ℳ︁, 50 ℳ︁, 100 ℳ︁, and 1,000 ℳ︁. The issuer

3132-667: Was laid up from 1931 and scrapped in 1933. Blohm & Voss built Cleveland at Hamburg . She was launched on 26 September 1908, two months after her sister Cincinnati . Cleveland ' s registered length was 588.9 ft (179.5 m), her beam was 65.3 ft (19.9 m) and her depth was 46.6 ft (14.2 m). Her tonnages were 16,970  GRT and 10,145  NRT . As built, she had berths for 2,827 passengers: 246 first class, 332 second class, 448 third class and 1,801 steerage class. She also had 29,577 cubic feet (838 m) of refrigerated hold space for perishable cargo. Cleveland had twin screws , each driven by

3190-416: Was replaced by the East German mark . The Reichsmark was subdivided into 100 Reichspfennig (Rpf or ℛ︁₰). The Mark is an ancient Germanic weight measure, traditionally a half pound, later used for several coins; Reich ( realm in English) comes from the official name for the German state from 1871 to 1945, Deutsches Reich . The Reichsmark was introduced in 1924 as a permanent replacement for

3248-674: Was stopped in August 1940 as the Wehrmacht, which had requested the coins for Belgium and France, had no more need of it. When the embossing stopped, only Berlin ("A") and Munich ("D") produced significant quantities, but they still came to only a small extent of original production plans. The majority were melted down due to the limited supply of metal and thus, most mint marks are now quite rare (except for 1940 5 A and D, and 1940 10 A). Various special issues of Reichsmark currency were issued for use in concentration and prisoner of war (POW) camps ( Stalag ). None were legal tender in Germany itself. From 1942 to 1943 tokens were struck for use within

3306-465: Was the Alliierte Militärbehörde ('Allied military authorities') with In Umlauf gesetzt in Deutschland ('in legal circulation in Germany') printed on the obverse. These notes were convertible to US dollars at a rate of 10:1. Seeing an opportunity to procure foreign hard currency, the Soviet Union demanded copies of the engraving plates, ink, and associated equipment in early 1944, and on 14 April 1944 Henry Morgenthau and Harry Dexter White of

3364-420: Was the currency of Germany from 1924 until the fall of Nazi Germany in 1945, and in the American, British and French occupied zones of Germany , until 20 June 1948. The Reichsmark was then replaced by the Deutsche Mark , to become the currency of West Germany and then all of Germany after the 1990 reunification. The Reichsmark was used in the Soviet occupation zone of Germany until 23 June 1948, where it

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