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67-511: Originally named the Penang International Sports Arena (PISA), the complex initially consisted of an indoor arena and a swimming centre. Since its completion in 2000, PISA has hosted national and international sports events, including the 2000 Sukma Games , the 2001 Southeast Asian Games and the 2013 Women's World Open Squash Championship . Between 2011 and 2017, PISA underwent major renovation works conducted by S P Setia ,

134-413: A solar tracker to follow the sun across the sky. Photovoltaic technology helps to mitigate climate change because it emits much less carbon dioxide than fossil fuels . Solar PV has specific advantages as an energy source: once installed, its operation does not generate any pollution or any greenhouse gas emissions ; it shows scalability in respect of power needs and silicon has large availability in

201-752: A DC clamp meter or shunt and logged, graphed, or charted with a chart recorder or data logger. For optimum performance, a solar panel needs to be made of similar modules oriented in the same direction perpendicular to direct sunlight. Bypass diodes are used to circumvent broken or shaded panels and optimize output. These bypass diodes are usually placed along groups of solar cells to create a continuous flow. Electrical characteristics include nominal power (P MAX , measured in W ), open-circuit voltage (V OC ), short-circuit current (I SC , measured in amperes ), maximum power voltage (V MPP ), maximum power current (I MPP ), peak power ( watt-peak , W p ), and module efficiency (%). Open-circuit voltage or V OC

268-591: A diving pool and a water them park for children, as well as badminton courts and squash courts. The centre also comes with function rooms, a cafe, a sports clinic and a swimming school. The solar farm on the rooftop of the SPICE Aquatic Centre and the SPICE Canopy is the largest commercial solar photovoltaic farm in Penang , capable of generating up to 980 MW hour of electricity in a single year. The SPICE Canopy

335-538: A factor of 4 between 2004 and 2011. Module prices dropped by about 90% over the 2010s. In 2022, worldwide installed PV capacity increased to more than 1 terawatt (TW) covering nearly two percent of global electricity demand . After hydro and wind powers , PV is the third renewable energy source in terms of global capacity. In 2022, the International Energy Agency expected a growth by over 1 TW from 2022 to 2027. In some instances, PV has offered

402-906: A fraction of the emissions caused by fossil fuels . Photovoltaic systems have long been used in specialized applications as stand-alone installations and grid-connected PV systems have been in use since the 1990s. Photovoltaic modules were first mass-produced in 2000, when the German government funded a one hundred thousand roof program. Decreasing costs has allowed PV to grow as an energy source. This has been partially driven by massive Chinese government investment in developing solar production capacity since 2000, and achieving economies of scale . Improvements in manufacturing technology and efficiency have also led to decreasing costs. Net metering and financial incentives, such as preferential feed-in tariffs for solar-generated electricity, have supported solar PV installations in many countries. Panel prices dropped by

469-506: A major Malaysian property developer. The refurbished indoor arena, renamed as the SPICE Arena, is now supplemented in its role as a MICE venue by the new RM 284 million SPICE Convention & Exhibition Centre. In addition, the renovation project included the upgrading of the swimming centre, now known as the SPICE Aquatic Centre, which was completed in 2016. The Penang International Sports Arena (PISA), along with its adjacent aquatics centre,

536-449: A number of solar cells containing a semiconductor material. Copper solar cables connect modules (module cable), arrays (array cable), and sub-fields. Because of the growing demand for renewable energy sources, the manufacturing of solar cells and photovoltaic arrays has advanced considerably in recent years. Cells require protection from the environment and are usually packaged tightly in solar modules. Photovoltaic module power

603-873: A panel can be expected to produce 400  kWh of energy per year. However, in Michigan, which receives only 1400 kWh/m /year, annual energy yield will drop to 280 kWh for the same panel. At more northerly European latitudes, yields are significantly lower: 175 kWh annual energy yield in southern England under the same conditions. Several factors affect a cell's conversion efficiency, including its reflectance , thermodynamic efficiency , charge carrier separation efficiency, charge carrier collection efficiency and conduction efficiency values. Because these parameters can be difficult to measure directly, other parameters are measured instead, including quantum efficiency , open-circuit voltage (V OC ) ratio, and § Fill factor . Reflectance losses are accounted for by

670-578: A rather large amount of uncertainty. The values of human labor and water consumption, for example, are not precisely assessed due to the lack of systematic and accurate analyses in the scientific literature. One difficulty in determining effects due to PV is to determine if the wastes are released to the air, water, or soil during the manufacturing phase. Life-cycle assessments , which look at all different environment effects ranging from global warming potential , pollution, water depletion and others, are unavailable for PV. Instead, studies have tried to estimate

737-520: A similar program with 539 residential PV systems installed. Since, many countries have continued to produce and finance PV systems in an exponential speed. Photovoltaics are best known as a method for generating electric power by using solar cells to convert energy from the sun into a flow of electrons by the photovoltaic effect . Solar cells produce direct current electricity from sunlight which can be used to power equipment or to recharge batteries . The first practical application of photovoltaics

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804-570: A simple rooftop system, some 90% of the energy cost is from silicon, with the remainder coming from the inverters and module frame. In an analysis by Alsema et al . from 1998, the energy payback time was higher than 10 years for the former system in 1997, while for a standard rooftop system the EPBT was calculated as between 3.5 and 8 years. The EPBT relates closely to the concepts of net energy gain (NEG) and energy returned on energy invested (EROI). They are both used in energy economics and refer to

871-670: A structure of front electrode, anti-reflection film, n-layer, p-layer, and back electrode, with the sun hitting the front electrode. EPBT ranges from 1.7 to 2.7 years. The cradle to gate of CO 2 -eq/kWh ranges from 37.3 to 72.2 grams when installed in Southern Europe. Techniques to produce multi-crystalline silicon (multi-si) photovoltaic cells are simpler and cheaper than mono-si, however tend to make less efficient cells, an average of 13.2%. EPBT ranges from 1.5 to 2.6 years. The cradle to gate of CO 2 -eq/kWh ranges from 28.5 to 69 grams when installed in Southern Europe. Assuming that

938-720: Is a multi-sport event held for Malaysian athletes with disabilities. The games were previously known as the National Games of Malaysia For the Orthopaedically Handicapped ( Malay : Sukan Kebangsaan Bagi Orang Cacat Anggota Malaysia ) from 1982 until 1998 and the Paralimpiad Malaysia Games ( Malay : Sukan Paralimpiad Malaysia ) from 1998 until 2018 and held separately from the Sukma Games until 2010 . Photovoltaics Photovoltaics ( PV )

1005-401: Is around 18 grams (cradle to gate). CdTe has the fastest EPBT of all commercial PV technologies, which varies between 0.3 and 1.2 years. Third-generation PVs are designed to combine the advantages of both the first and second generation devices and they do not have Shockley-Queisser limit , a theoretical limit for first and second generation PV cells. The thickness of a third generation device

1072-435: Is due to its exposure to solar radiation as well as other external conditions. The degradation index, which is defined as the annual percentage of output power loss, is a key factor in determining the long-term production of a photovoltaic plant. To estimate this degradation, the percentage of decrease associated with each of the electrical parameters. The individual degradation of a photovoltaic module can significantly influence

1139-468: Is less than 1 μm. Two new promising thin film technologies are copper zinc tin sulfide (Cu 2 ZnSnS 4 or CZTS), zinc phosphide (Zn 3 P 2 ) and single-walled carbon nano-tubes (SWCNT). These thin films are currently only produced in the lab but may be commercialized in the future. The manufacturing of CZTS and (Zn 3 P 2 ) processes are expected to be similar to those of current thin film technologies of CIGS and CdTe, respectively. While

1206-456: Is measured under standard test conditions (STC) in "W p " ( watts peak ). The actual power output at a particular place may be less than or greater than this rated value, depending on geographical location, time of day, weather conditions, and other factors. Solar photovoltaic array capacity factors are typically under 25% when not coupled with storage, which is lower than many other industrial sources of electricity. Solar-cell efficiency

1273-459: Is observed (which can last several months and up to two years), followed by a later stage in which the degradation stabilizes, being then comparable to that of crystalline silicon. Strong seasonal variations are also observed in such thin-film technologies because the influence of the solar spectrum is much greater. For example, for modules of amorphous silicon, micromorphic silicon or cadmium telluride, we are talking about annual degradation rates for

1340-402: Is processed from mined quartz until it is very pure (semi-conductor grade). This is melted down when small amounts of boron , a group III element, are added to make a p-type semiconductor rich in electron holes. Typically using a seed crystal, an ingot of this solution is grown from the liquid polycrystalline. The ingot may also be cast in a mold. Wafers of this semiconductor material are cut from

1407-500: Is scheduled for completion by 2019. The SPICE Arena, with an internal space of 33,000 sq ft (3,100 m), can accommodate 10,000 guests in a terrace-style seating arrangement, or 180 exhibition booths. The arena's capacity is further boosted by the 42,000 sq ft (3,900 m) Concourse at Level 3, which can sit a further 250 booths. The new SPICE Convention & Exhibition Centre, which can accommodate up to 400 banquet tables or 8,000 theatre-style seats, complements

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1474-532: Is the conversion of light into electricity using semiconducting materials that exhibit the photovoltaic effect , a phenomenon studied in physics , photochemistry , and electrochemistry . The photovoltaic effect is commercially used for electricity generation and as photosensors . A photovoltaic system employs solar modules , each comprising a number of solar cells , which generate electrical power. PV installations may be ground-mounted, rooftop-mounted, wall-mounted or floating. The mount may be fixed or use

1541-535: Is the maximum voltage the module can produce when not connected to an electrical circuit or system. V OC can be measured with a voltmeter directly on an illuminated module's terminals or on its disconnected cable. The peak power rating, W p , is the maximum output under standard test conditions (not the maximum possible output). Typical modules, which could measure approximately 1 by 2 metres (3 ft × 7 ft), will be rated from as low as 75 W to as high as 600 W, depending on their efficiency. At

1608-433: Is the portion of energy in the form of sunlight that can be converted via photovoltaics into electricity by the solar cell . The efficiency of the solar cells used in a photovoltaic system , in combination with latitude and climate, determines the annual energy output of the system. For example, a solar panel with 20% efficiency and an area of 1 m will produce 200 kWh/yr at Standard Test Conditions if exposed to

1675-516: Is the retail component of the renovation project by SP Setia. Launched in 2015, it consists of 59 leasable retail spaces. The Penang International Science Fair is held at the arena every November. [REDACTED] Media related to Spice Arena at Wikimedia Commons Sukma Games The Sukma Games ( Malay : Sukan Malaysia , lit.: Malaysian Games) is a biennial national multi-sport event involving young athletes from Malaysia's 13 states and 3 Federal Territories. The games are regulated by

1742-787: The Greek φῶς ( phōs ) meaning "light", and from "volt", the unit of electromotive force, the volt , which in turn comes from the last name of the Italian physicist Alessandro Volta , inventor of the battery ( electrochemical cell ). The term "photovoltaic" has been in use in English since 1849. In 1989, the German Research Ministry initiated the first ever program to finance PV roofs (2200 roofs). A program led by Walter Sandtner in Bonn, Germany. In 1994, Japan followed in their footsteps and conducted

1809-1286: The National Sports Council of Malaysia , the state sports council of the respective member states, the Olympic Council of Malaysia and the National Sports association of the games respective sporting event. The logo was designed by Anuar bin Dan in 1986. Notes: Notes: The list below shows the sports that are played at all the Sukma Games since 1986. Below shows the all time medal table of Sukma Games from 1986 to 2018. Defunct teams are highlighted in italics .   *    Host nation ( Kuala Lumpur )   *    Host nation ( Kuala Lumpur )   *    Host nation ( Sarawak )   *    Host nation ( Johor )   *    Host nation ( Perak )   *    Host nation ( Pahang *)   *    Host nation ( Selangor )   *    Host nation (Host state (Penang)) Para Sukma Games ( Malay : Para Sukan Malaysia ),

1876-675: The Earth's crust, although other materials required in PV system manufacture such as silver may constrain further growth in the technology. Other major constraints identified include competition for land use. The use of PV as a main source requires energy storage systems or global distribution by high-voltage direct current power lines causing additional costs, and also has a number of other specific disadvantages such as variable power generation which have to be balanced. Production and installation does cause some pollution and greenhouse gas emissions , though only

1943-508: The SPICE Aquatic Centre. The building incorporates energy conservation practices as well, with 654 energy-efficient light bulbs illuminating its roof. Moreover, the building houses the largest urban spice farm in Malaysia, which is sited at its rooftop along with a playground for special needs children. The upgraded SPICE Aquatic Centre, which was opened in 2016, contains a wide variety of sports amenities, including an Olympic-sized swimming pool,

2010-511: The Standard Test Condition solar irradiance value of 1000 W/m for 2.74 hours a day. Usually solar panels are exposed to sunlight for longer than this in a given day, but the solar irradiance is less than 1000 W/m for most of the day. A solar panel can produce more when the Sun is high in Earth's sky and will produce less in cloudy conditions or when the Sun is low in the sky; usually

2077-476: The Sun is lower in the sky in the winter. Two location dependant factors that affect solar PV yield are the dispersion and intensity of solar radiation. These two variables can vary greatly between each country. The global regions that have high radiation levels throughout the year are the middle east, Northern Chile, Australia, China, and Southwestern USA. In a high-yield solar area like central Colorado, which receives annual insolation of 2000 kWh/m /year,

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2144-479: The U.S. market are UL listed, meaning they have gone through testing to withstand hail. Potential-induced degradation (also called PID) is a potential-induced performance degradation in crystalline photovoltaic modules, caused by so-called stray currents. This effect may cause power loss of up to 30%. The largest challenge for photovoltaic technology is the purchase price per watt of electricity produced. Advancements in photovoltaic technologies have brought about

2211-877: The absorber layer of SWCNT PV is expected to be synthesized with CoMoCAT method. by Contrary to established thin films such as CIGS and CdTe, CZTS, Zn 3 P 2 , and SWCNT PVs are made from earth abundant, nontoxic materials and have the potential to produce more electricity annually than the current worldwide consumption. While CZTS and Zn 3 P 2 offer good promise for these reasons, the specific environmental implications of their commercial production are not yet known. Global warming potential of CZTS and Zn 3 P 2 were found 38 and 30 grams CO 2 -eq/kWh while their corresponding EPBT were found 1.85 and 0.78 years, respectively. Overall, CdTe and Zn 3 P 2 have similar environmental effects but can slightly outperform CIGS and CZTS. A study on environmental impacts of SWCNT PVs by Celik et al., including an existing 1% efficient device and

2278-409: The activation energy to decrease twenty-fold from 1.12 eV to 0.05 eV. Since the potential difference (E B ) is so low, the boron is able to thermally ionize at room temperatures. This allows for free energy carriers in the conduction and valence bands thereby allowing greater conversion of photons to electrons. The power output of a photovoltaic (PV) device decreases over time. This decrease

2345-419: The amount of sunlight available and the efficiency of the electrical grid) and on the type of system, namely the system's components. A 2015 review of EPBT estimates of first and second-generation PV suggested that there was greater variation in embedded energy than in efficiency of the cells implying that it was mainly the embedded energy that needs to reduce to have a greater reduction in EPBT. In general,

2412-464: The bulk material with wire saws, and then go through surface etching before being cleaned. Next, the wafers are placed into a phosphorus vapor deposition furnace which lays a very thin layer of phosphorus, a group V element, which creates an n-type semiconducting surface. To reduce energy losses, an anti-reflective coating is added to the surface, along with electrical contacts. After finishing the cell, cells are connected via electrical circuit according to

2479-460: The cheapest source of electrical power in regions with a high solar potential, with a bid for pricing as low as 0.015 US$ / kWh in Qatar in 2023. In 2023, the International Energy Agency stated in its World Energy Outlook that '[f]or projects with low cost financing that tap high quality resources, solar PV is now the cheapest source of electricity in history. The term "photovoltaic" comes from

2546-534: The cost of each device by both reducing material and energy consumption during manufacturing. The global market share of CdTe was 4.7% in 2008. This technology's highest power conversion efficiency is 21%. The cell structure includes glass substrate (around 2 mm), transparent conductor layer, CdS buffer layer (50–150 nm), CdTe absorber and a metal contact layer. CdTe PV systems require less energy input in their production than other commercial PV systems per unit electricity production. The average CO 2 -eq/kWh

2613-448: The difference between the energy expended to harvest an energy source and the amount of energy gained from that harvest. The NEG and EROI also take the operating lifetime of a PV system into account and a working life of 25 to 30 years is typically assumed. From these metrics, the Energy payback Time can be derived by calculation. PV systems using crystalline silicon, by far the majority of

2680-439: The electrical output of a PV system, the manufacturer must simply add more photovoltaic components. Because of this, economies of scale are important for manufacturers as costs decrease with increasing output. While there are many types of PV systems known to be effective, crystalline silicon PV accounted for around 90% of the worldwide production of PV in 2013. Manufacturing silicon PV systems has several steps. First, polysilicon

2747-409: The environmental impact of PV have focused on carbon dioxide equivalents per kWh or energy pay-back time (EPBT). The EPBT describes the timespan a PV system needs to operate in order to generate the same amount of energy that was used for its manufacture. Another study includes transport energy costs in the EPBT. The EPBT has also been defined completely differently as "the time needed to compensate for

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2814-526: The estimated RM 300 million cost for the project, and would be given a 30-year concession to manage and maintain SPICE prior to its eventual handover to the Penang Island City Council. A total of RM22 million was spent on the renovation of PISA, which was subsequently renamed the SPICE Arena. Renovation works had to be carried out intermittently, as the venue remained open for MICE events. Meanwhile,

2881-475: The existing SPICE Arena in its role as a MICE venue. Its 1,858 m (20,000 sq ft) grand foyer adds to its capacity by another 150 round tables. It also has 13 function rooms of varying sizes. Notably, the GBI -certified SPICE Convention & Exhibition Centre is the world's first hybrid solar-powered convention centre, with electricity being generated from a 4,546 m (48,930 sq ft) solar farm on

2948-432: The first years of between 3% and 4%. However, other technologies, such as CIGS, show much lower degradation rates, even in those early years. Overall the manufacturing process of creating solar photovoltaics is simple in that it does not require the culmination of many complex or moving parts. Because of the solid-state nature of PV systems, they often have relatively long lifetimes, anywhere from 10 to 30 years. To increase

3015-727: The following countries had a high-quality grid infrastructure as in Europe, in 2020 it was calculated it would take 1.28 years in Ottawa , Canada, for a rooftop photovoltaic system to produce the same amount of energy as required to manufacture the silicon in the modules in it (excluding the silver, glass, mounts and other components), 0.97 years in Catania , Italy , and 0.4 years in Jaipur , India. Outside of Europe, where net grid efficiencies are lower, it would take longer. This ' energy payback time ' can be seen as

3082-444: The impact and potential impact of various types of PV, but these estimates are usually restricted to simply assessing energy costs of the manufacture and/or transport , because these are new technologies and the total environmental impact of their components and disposal methods are unknown, even for commercially available first generation solar cells , let alone experimental prototypes with no commercial viability. Thus, estimates of

3149-411: The junction temperature. The values of these parameters, which can be found in any data sheet of the photovoltaic module, are the following: Techniques for estimating these coefficients from experimental data can be found in the literature. The ability of solar modules to withstand damage by rain, hail , heavy snow load, and cycles of heat and cold varies by manufacturer, although most solar panels on

3216-437: The module changes as lighting, temperature and load conditions change, so there is never one specific voltage at which the module operates. Performance varies depending on geographic location, time of day, the day of the year, amount of solar irradiance , direction and tilt of modules, cloud cover, shading, soiling , state of charge, and temperature. Performance of a module or panel can be measured at different time intervals with

3283-419: The most important component of solar panels, which accounts for much of the energy use and greenhouse gas emissions, is the refining of the polysilicon. As to how much percentage of the EPBT this silicon depends on the type of system. A fully autarkic system requires additional components ('Balance of System', the power inverters , storage, etc.) which significantly increase the energy cost of manufacture, but in

3350-486: The newly-refurbished SPICE Aquatic Centre was opened to the public in 2016. In 2017, the SPICE Convention & Exhibition Centre, which has an internal capacity of 4,500 m (48,000 sq ft), was launched. Aside from these facilities, SPICE Canopy, the retail component of the project, was also completed in 2015. A four-star hotel situated adjacent to these facilities is currently under construction. The hotel

3417-458: The overall performance of the plant. There are several studies dealing with the power degradation analysis of modules based on different photovoltaic technologies available in the literature. According to a recent study, the degradation of crystalline silicon modules is very regular, oscillating between 0.8% and 1.0% per year. On the other hand, if we analyze the performance of thin-film photovoltaic modules, an initial period of strong degradation

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3484-462: The performance of a complete string. Furthermore, not all modules in the same installation decrease their performance at exactly the same rate. Given a set of modules exposed to long-term outdoor conditions, the individual degradation of the main electrical parameters and the increase in their dispersion must be considered. As each module tends to degrade differently, the behavior of the modules will be increasingly different over time, negatively affecting

3551-566: The portion of time during the useful lifetime of the module in which the energy production is polluting. At best, this means that a 30-year old panel has produced clean energy for 97% of its lifetime, or that the silicon in the modules in a solar panel produce 97% less greenhouse gas emissions than a coal-fired plant for the same amount of energy (assuming and ignoring many things). Some studies have looked beyond EPBT and GWP to other environmental effects. In one such study, conventional energy mix in Greece

3618-443: The power output of a solar cell and the working temperature of its junction depends on the semiconductor material, and is due to the influence of T on the concentration, lifetime, and mobility of the intrinsic carriers, i.e., electrons and gaps. inside the photovoltaic cell. Temperature sensitivity is usually described by temperature coefficients, each of which expresses the derivative of the parameter to which it refers with respect to

3685-406: The process of "doping" the silicon substrate to lower the activation energy thereby making the panel more efficient in converting photons to retrievable electrons. Chemicals such as boron (p-type) are applied into the semiconductor crystal in order to create donor and acceptor energy levels substantially closer to the valence and conductor bands. In doing so, the addition of boron impurity allows

3752-483: The production process itself will not become more efficient in the future. Nonetheless, the energy payback time has shortened significantly over the last years, as crystalline silicon cells became ever more efficient in converting sunlight, while the thickness of the wafer material was constantly reduced and therefore required less silicon for its manufacture. Within the last ten years, the amount of silicon used for solar cells declined from 16 to 6 grams per watt-peak . In

3819-476: The p–n junction also influences the main electrical parameters: the short circuit current ISC, the open circuit voltage VOC and the maximum power Pmax. In general, it is known that VOC shows a significant inverse correlation with T, while for ISC this correlation is direct, but weaker, so that this increase does not compensate for the decrease in VOC. As a consequence, Pmax decreases when T increases. This correlation between

3886-544: The quantum efficiency value, as they affect "external quantum efficiency". Recombination losses are accounted for by the quantum efficiency, V OC ratio, and fill factor values. Resistive losses are predominantly accounted for by the fill factor value, but also contribute to the quantum efficiency and V OC ratio values. Module performance is generally rated under standard test conditions (STC): irradiance of 1,000 W/m , solar spectrum of AM 1.5 and module temperature at 25 °C. The actual voltage and current output of

3953-539: The same period, the thickness of a c-Si wafer was reduced from 300 μm, or microns , to about 160–190 μm. The sawing techniques that slice crystalline silicon ingots into wafers have also improved by reducing the kerf loss and making it easier to recycle the silicon sawdust. Crystalline silicon modules are the most extensively studied PV type in terms of LCA since they are the most commonly used. Mono-crystalline silicon photovoltaic systems (mono-si) have an average efficiency of 14.0%. The cells tend to follow

4020-460: The specific application and prepared for shipping and installation. Solar photovoltaic power is not entirely "clean energy": production produces greenhouse gas emissions, materials used to build the cells are potentially unsustainable and will run out eventually, the technology uses toxic substances which cause pollution, and there are no viable technologies for recycling solar waste. Data required to investigate their impact are sometimes affected by

4087-470: The systems in practical use, have such a high EPBT because silicon is produced by the reduction of high-grade quartz sand in electric furnaces . This coke-fired smelting process occurs at high temperatures of more than 1000 °C and is very energy intensive, using about 11 kilowatt-hours (kWh) per produced kilogram of silicon. The energy requirements of this process makes the energy cost per unit of silicon produced relatively inelastic, which means that

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4154-407: The time of testing, the test modules are binned according to their test results, and a typical manufacturer might rate their modules in 5 W increments, and either rate them at +/- 3%, +/-5%, +3/-0% or +5/-0%. The performance of a photovoltaic (PV) module depends on the environmental conditions, mainly on the global incident irradiance G in the plane of the module. However, the temperature T of

4221-411: The total renewable- and non-renewable primary energy required during the life cycle of a PV system" in another study, which also included installation costs. This energy amortization, given in years, is also referred to as break-even energy payback time . The lower the EPBT, the lower the environmental cost of solar power . The EPBT depends vastly on the location where the PV system is installed (e.g.

4288-467: Was compared to multi-si PV and found a 95% overall reduction in effects including carcinogens, eco-toxicity, acidification, eutrophication, and eleven others. Cadmium telluride (CdTe) is one of the fastest-growing thin film based solar cells which are collectively known as second-generation devices. This new thin-film device also shares similar performance restrictions ( Shockley-Queisser efficiency limit ) as conventional Si devices but promises to lower

4355-591: Was completed in 2000 in time for the Sukma Games , a biannual national-level multi-sports tournament. At the time, PISA served as the venue for basketball and swimming events. In the following year, PISA became the venue for the wushu and judo events of the 2001 Southeast Asian Games (SEA Games) . PISA was one of the three SEA Games venues within Penang , while the majority of the other sporting events were held in Kuala Lumpur . Another international sports event that

4422-627: Was held within PISA is the 2013 Women's World Open Squash Championship , which included among its participants Nicol David , the Penang-born squash player (and world number 1 at that point). In 2011, a public-private partnership project was undertaken between the Penang Island Municipal Council (now Penang Island City Council ) and SP Setia, a major Malaysian property firm, for the renovation and upgrading of PISA. SP Setia would bear most of

4489-564: Was to power orbiting satellites and other spacecraft , but today the majority of photovoltaic modules are used for grid-connected systems for power generation. In this case an inverter is required to convert the DC to AC . There is also a smaller market for stand alone systems for remote dwellings, boats , recreational vehicles , electric cars , roadside emergency telephones, remote sensing , and cathodic protection of pipelines . Photovoltaic power generation employs solar modules composed of

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