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123-554: The SP-1200 is associated with the golden age of hip hop . It enabled musicians to construct the bulk of a song within one piece of portable gear, a first for the industry, reducing production costs and increasing creative control for hip-hop artists. According to the Village Voice , "The machine rose to such prominence that its strengths and weaknesses sculpted an entire era of music: the crunchy digitized drums, choppy segmented samples , and murky filtered basslines that characterize

246-435: A drum machine to follow-up Drumulator , which would eventually become SP-12 and SP-1200. Design was led by Dave Rossum's electronic engineering, with functional design contributions from Marco Alpert (who would together go on to co-found Rossum Electro-Music, also known as "Rossum.") Work began with modifications to existing Drumulator microcode by new engineer Donna Murray allowing pitch shifting (tuning) of sounds. Though

369-420: A tape machine , another sampler , or, most famously, a vinyl turntable with multiple and/or variable playback speeds , sounds can be pitched up (sped up) , allowing them to be sampled with SP-1200 using less sampling time (RAM) . SP-1200 can shift the pitch of the sounds down to the original pitch (and beyond) when they are played back. The prevalent technique compresses samples of longer durations into

492-511: A "Turbo" option expanding the total available sample time to 5 seconds before it was eventually replaced in the product line when SP-1200 was released in August 1987. Combined with 10 seconds of user sampling time, SP-1200's $ 2995 price provided artists with a practical entrypoint to sample-based music production. The SP-1200 retained the capabilities, inputs and outputs of its predecessor, the SP-12 , minus

615-478: A 5,000-note maximum memory for sequences. The sequencer enables musicians to create patterns using both step programming and real-time recording using the touch-sensitive front panel buttons (and via external MIDI note input). Patterns can be organized into songs, and swing, quantization , and tempo and mix changes can be applied. SP-1200 can both generate SMPTE , MIDI, and analog clock signals and synchronize its tempo and sequencer to them. Users can also tap

738-513: A Black Man)") and anti- crack messages ("Megablast"). The album was a critical and commercial success, particularly in Europe, unusually so for a hip hop album at that time. Bum Rush the Show had been recorded on the heels of Run-DMC's Raising Hell , but was held back by Def Jam in order for them to concentrate on releasing and promoting Beastie Boys' Licensed to Ill . Chuck D of Public Enemy felt that by

861-445: A Black Planet ( Def Jam , April 10, 1990) A Tribe Called Quest - The Low End Theory ( Jive , September 24, 1991) Gang Starr - "Take it Personal" ( Chrysalis , March 30, 1992) Pete Rock & CL Smooth - " They Reminisce Over You (T.R.O.Y.) " ( Elektra , April 2, 1992) Miles Davis - Doo-Bop ( Rhino , Jun 30, 1992) A Tribe Called Quest - Midnight Marauders ( Jive , November 9, 1993) Wu-Tang Clan - Enter

984-488: A Nation of Millions to Hold Us Back ( Def Jam , June 28, 1988) N.W.A . - Straight Outta Compton ( Ruthless , August 8, 1988) Ultramagnetic MCs - Critical Beatdown ( Next Plateau , October 4, 1988) Big Daddy Kane - It's a Big Daddy Thing ( Cold Chillin' , September 19, 1989) A Tribe Called Quest - People's Instinctive Travels and the Paths of Rhythm ( Jive , April 10, 1990) Public Enemy - Fear of

1107-602: A PCB had holes drilled for each wire of each component. The component leads were then inserted through the holes and soldered to the copper PCB traces. This method of assembly is called through-hole construction . In 1949, Moe Abramson and Stanislaus F. Danko of the United States Army Signal Corps developed the Auto-Sembly process in which component leads were inserted into a copper foil interconnection pattern and dip soldered . The patent they obtained in 1956

1230-426: A PCB may have a coating that protects the copper from corrosion and reduces the chances of solder shorts between traces or undesired electrical contact with stray bare wires. For its function in helping to prevent solder shorts, the coating is called solder resist or solder mask . The pattern to be etched into each copper layer of a PCB is called the "artwork". The etching is usually done using photoresist which

1353-552: A better rapper than everyone else." Robert Christgau in the Village Voice in 1990 wrote of Rakim's style as "calm, confident, clear. On their third album, as on their phase-shifting 1986 debut," he continues, "Eric B.'s samples truly are beats, designed to accentuate the natural music of an idealized black man's voice." Looking back at the late eighties in Rolling Stone in 1997, Ed Moralez describes Rakim as "the new-school MC of

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1476-451: A brighter sound due to imaging (sounds above the Nyquist frequency ). SP-12 , and SP-1200 instead feature three pairs of analog lowpass filters at successively higher frequencies, including two dynamic SSM2044 filters on channels 1 and 2, while channels 7 and 8 are unfiltered entirely. SP-1200 uses drop-sample pitch-shifting (simply dropping or replaying sample data in order to pitch/speed

1599-461: A drug dealer then cheerfully sings "la la la la la la". Songs like these presaged the rise of an underground that matched violent lyrics to the hardcore drum machine tracks of the new-school. The cover of Criminal Minded was a further reflection of a move towards this sort of radical image, depicting the group in a half-light, holding firearms. The next album By All Means Necessary (1988) left that element behind for political radicalism following

1722-577: A feeling that the early innovators like Run-DMC and LL Cool J were by 1986 tainted by commercial success and out of touch with the streets. Boogie Down's first album Criminal Minded (1987) admitted a reggae influence and had KRS-One imitating the Beatles' " Hey Jude " on the title track. It also contained two tales of grim street life, yet played for callous laughs: "The P Is Free", in which KRS speaks of throwing out his girl who wants crack cocaine in exchange for sex, and "9mm Goes Bang", in which he shoots

1845-460: A flat, narrow part of the copper foil that remains after etching. Its resistance , determined by its width, thickness, and length, must be sufficiently low for the current the conductor will carry. Power and ground traces may need to be wider than signal traces . In a multi-layer board one entire layer may be mostly solid copper to act as a ground plane for shielding and power return. For microwave circuits, transmission lines can be laid out in

1968-418: A general estimate of the board complexity. Using more layers allow for more routing options and better control of signal integrity, but are also time-consuming and costly to manufacture. Likewise, selection of the vias for the board also allow fine tuning of the board size, escaping of signals off complex ICs, routing, and long term reliability, but are tightly coupled with production complexity and cost. One of

2091-783: A liquid ink that contains electronic functionalities. HDI (High Density Interconnect) technology allows for a denser design on the PCB and thus potentially smaller PCBs with more traces and components in a given area. As a result, the paths between components can be shorter. HDIs use blind/buried vias, or a combination that includes microvias. With multi-layer HDI PCBs the interconnection of several vias stacked on top of each other (stacked vías, instead of one deep buried via) can be made stronger, thus enhancing reliability in all conditions. The most common applications for HDI technology are computer and mobile phone components as well as medical equipment and military communication equipment. A 4-layer HDI microvia PCB

2214-474: A marketing strategist," the Village Voice referred to the golden age's "eclecticism", and Ben Duinker and Denis Martin of Empirical Musicology Review wrote that "The constant flow of new, boundary-pushing Golden Age album releases exemplifies this era's unprecedented stylistic fluidity." The specific time period that the golden age covers varies among different sources and may overlap with other subcurrents in hip hop. AllMusic writes, "Hip-hop's golden age

2337-617: A new SP-1200 product. Rossum announced an extremely limited 35th Anniversary edition of rebuilt SP-1200 units in 2020. In November 2021, Rossum announced a reissue of the SP-1200. The Rossum SP-1200 provides 20 seconds total sampling time, equal to twice the original SP-1200's 10 seconds. A new SD card interface replaces the 3.5" disk drive. The chassis is made entirely from metal to comply with modern emissions standards. The unavailable SSM2044 filters are replaced with functionally identical SSM2144 filter chips (IC) . Public Enemy - It Takes

2460-483: A new company, Rossum Electro-Music ("Rossum") that soon began receiving requests for SP-1200. Sound Semiconductor's announcement of SSI2144, an analog filter chip (IC) using a modern manufacturing process with the same internal circuit and sonic character as the SSM2044 (also designed by Dave Rossum), and Rossum's announcement of Assimil8or, a new hardware sampler in eurorack format in 2017, further fueled speculation of

2583-446: A planar form such as stripline or microstrip with carefully controlled dimensions to assure a consistent impedance . In radio-frequency and fast switching circuits the inductance and capacitance of the printed circuit board conductors become significant circuit elements, usually undesired; conversely, they can be used as a deliberate part of the circuit design, as in distributed-element filters , antennae , and fuses , obviating

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2706-636: A print-and- etch method in the UK, and in the United States Max Schoop obtained a patent to flame-spray metal onto a board through a patterned mask. Charles Ducas in 1925 patented a method of electroplating circuit patterns. Predating the printed circuit invention, and similar in spirit, was John Sargrove 's 1936–1947 Electronic Circuit Making Equipment (ECME) that sprayed metal onto a Bakelite plastic board. The ECME could produce three radio boards per minute. The Austrian engineer Paul Eisler invented

2829-595: A proposal which met the requirements: a ceramic plate would be screenprinted with metallic paint for conductors and carbon material for resistors , with ceramic disc capacitors and subminiature vacuum tubes soldered in place. The technique proved viable, and the resulting patent on the process, which was classified by the U.S. Army, was assigned to Globe Union. It was not until 1984 that the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) awarded Harry W. Rubinstein its Cledo Brunetti Award for early key contributions to

2952-535: A shared memory, resulting in Drumulator , the first programmable digital drum machine priced under $ 1000, significantly below the LM-1 and Linndrum . As a compromise between bandwidth and sampling time, the low 26.04 kHz sample rate was chosen early on. A major success, Drumulator sold over 10,000 units from 1983 to 1985 and saw E-mu grow to a medium-sized company. After Emulator II in 1984, E-mu decided to pursue

3075-540: A wack radio station, and as for Scott La Rock, you should be ashamed, when T La Rock said "It's Yours", he didn't mean his name". Boogie Down Productions had manufactured a disagreement with the Juice Crew's MC Shan , releasing "South Bronx" and "The Bridge is Over" in reply to his "The Bridge" and "Kill That Noise" respectively. KRS-One considered Run-DMC the epitome of rap music in 1984 and had begun to rap following their lead. He has also said that BDP's approach reflected

3198-428: A wide variety of sources gave birth to a new breed of producers and DJs who did not necessarily need formal musical training or instruments, just a good ear for sound collages. These samples were derived from a number of genres, ranging from jazz , funk and soul to rock and roll . For example, Paul's Boutique , Beastie Boys ' second studio album, drew from over 200 individual samples, 24 of which were featured on

3321-440: Is cotton paper impregnated with phenolic resin , often tan or brown. When a PCB has no components installed, it is less ambiguously called a printed wiring board ( PWB ) or etched wiring board . However, the term "printed wiring board" has fallen into disuse. A PCB populated with electronic components is called a printed circuit assembly ( PCA ), printed circuit board assembly or PCB assembly ( PCBA ). In informal usage,

3444-451: Is fire retardant , the dielectric constant (e r ), the loss tangent (tan δ), the tensile strength , the shear strength , the glass transition temperature (T g ), and the Z-axis expansion coefficient (how much the thickness changes with temperature). There are quite a few different dielectrics that can be chosen to provide different insulating values depending on the requirements of

3567-437: Is a common engineering error in high-frequency digital design; it increases the cost of the boards without a corresponding benefit. Signal degradation by loss tangent and dielectric constant can be easily assessed by an eye pattern . Moisture absorption occurs when the material is exposed to high humidity or water. Both the resin and the reinforcement may absorb water; water also may be soaked by capillary forces through voids in

3690-477: Is about 73, compared to about 4 for common circuit board materials. Absorbed moisture can also vaporize on heating, as during soldering , and cause cracking and delamination , the same effect responsible for "popcorning" damage on wet packaging of electronic parts. Careful baking of the substrates may be required to dry them prior to soldering. Often encountered materials: Less-often encountered materials: Copper thickness of PCBs can be specified directly or as

3813-468: Is an important consideration especially with ball grid array (BGA) and naked die technologies, and glass fiber offers the best dimensional stability. FR-4 is by far the most common material used today. The board stock with unetched copper on it is called "copper-clad laminate". With decreasing size of board features and increasing frequencies, small nonhomogeneities like uneven distribution of fiberglass or other filler, thickness variations, and bubbles in

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3936-655: Is available to do much of the work of layout. Mass-producing circuits with PCBs is cheaper and faster than with other wiring methods, as components are mounted and wired in one operation. Large numbers of PCBs can be fabricated at the same time, and the layout has to be done only once. PCBs can also be made manually in small quantities, with reduced benefits. PCBs can be single-sided (one copper layer), double-sided (two copper layers on both sides of one substrate layer), or multi-layer (outer and inner layers of copper, alternating with layers of substrate). Multi-layer PCBs allow for much higher component density, because circuit traces on

4059-553: Is bookended by the commercial breakthrough of Run-D.M.C. in 1986 and the explosion of predominantly West Coast gangsta rap with N.W.A in the late 80s and Dr. Dre and Snoop Doggy Dogg in 1993." The New York Times described hip-hop's golden age as the "late 1980s and early 90s". Ed Simons of the Chemical Brothers said, "there was that golden age of hip-hop in the early 90s when the Jungle Brothers made Straight Out

4182-418: Is characterized by its diversity, quality, innovation and influence on overall hip hop after the genre's emergence and establishment in the old-school era , and is associated with the development and eventual mainstream success of hip hop. There were various types of subject matter, while the music was experimental and the sampling from old records was eclectic. The artists most often associated with

4305-451: Is coated onto the PCB, then exposed to light projected in the pattern of the artwork. The resist material protects the copper from dissolution into the etching solution. The etched board is then cleaned. A PCB design can be mass-reproduced in a way similar to the way photographs can be mass-duplicated from film negatives using a photographic printer . FR-4 glass epoxy is the most common insulating substrate. Another substrate material

4428-413: Is described by scholar Mickey Hess as "circa 1986-1994." Carl Stoffers of New York Daily News describes the golden age as "spanning from approximately 1986 to 1997." Brad Callas of Medium.com writes that "Hip-Hop's Golden Age is loosely bookended by the genre's commercial breakthrough in the late 1980s and the back-to-back deaths of 2Pac and Biggie in the late 1990s." In their article "In Search of

4551-418: Is equivalent in quality to an 8-layer through-hole PCB, so HDI technology can reduce costs. HDI PCBs are often made using build-up film such as ajinomoto build-up film, which is also used in the production of flip chip packages. Some PCBs have optical waveguides, similar to optical fibers built on the PCB. A basic PCB consists of a flat sheet of insulating material and a layer of copper foil , laminated to

4674-632: Is estimated to reach $ 79 billion by 2024. Before the development of printed circuit boards, electrical and electronic circuits were wired point-to-point on a chassis. Typically, the chassis was a sheet metal frame or pan, sometimes with a wooden bottom. Components were attached to the chassis, usually by insulators when the connecting point on the chassis was metal, and then their leads were connected directly or with jumper wires by soldering , or sometimes using crimp connectors, wire connector lugs on screw terminals, or other methods. Circuits were large, bulky, heavy, and relatively fragile (even discounting

4797-446: Is often described as "warm," "dirty," and "gritty." The sound is attributed to SP-1200's low 26.04 kHz sampling rate and 12-bit linear sampling resolution . SP-1200 is known for the character of its drop-sample pitch-shifting . The analog SSM2044 filter chips (ICs) contribute to the timbre of E-mu's drum machines . The characteristic sound has sustained demand for the SP-1200 more than thirty-five years after its debut, despite

4920-685: Is sometimes referred to as "mid-school" or a "middle school" in hip hop, the phrase covering acts such as Gang Starr , the UMC's , Main Source , Lord Finesse , EPMD , Just Ice , Stetsasonic , True Mathematics, and Mantronix . The innovations of Run-DMC , LL Cool J , and new-school hip hop producers such as Larry Smith, and Rick Rubin of Def Jam Recordings , were quickly advanced on by Beastie Boys , Marley Marl and his Juice Crew MCs, Boogie Down Productions, Public Enemy, and Eric B. & Rakim. Hip hop production became denser, rhymes and beats faster, as

5043-399: Is that nothing was contrived. Everything was still being discovered and everything was still innovative and new". Writer William Jelani Cobb said, "what made the era they inaugurated worthy of the term golden was the sheer number of stylistic innovations that came into existence... in these golden years, a critical mass of mic prodigies were literally creating themselves and their art form at

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5166-468: Is the most common thickness; 2 oz (70 μm) and 0.5 oz (17.5 μm) thickness is often an option. Less common are 12 and 105 μm, 9 μm is sometimes available on some substrates. Flexible substrates typically have thinner metalization. Metal-core boards for high power devices commonly use thicker copper; 35 μm is usual but also 140 and 400 μm can be encountered. In the US, copper foil thickness

5289-643: The NAMM Winter Music & Sound Market and Musikmesse Frankfurt in February of 1985 before its official launch that summer at the NAMM International Music & Sound Expo . “SP” is an initialism for “Sampling Percussion,” and 12 is a reference to its 12-bit linear data format. At $ 2745, SP-12 remained a more attainable sampling drum machine as compared to the Linn 9000 , which started at $ 5000 (not including

5412-543: The Zilog Z80 microprocessor in the 4060 Programmable Polyphonic Keyboard and Sequencer released in 1977 and continued to use Z80 processors in many of its designs through SP1200 in 1987. Roger Linn hired Dave Rossum to review the electrical design of Linn LM-1 , the first digital drum machine. Precipitated by Sequential redesigning the Prophet 5 Rev 3 to use Curtis (CEM) chips (ICs) and no longer paying royalties to E-mu (for

5535-436: The cassette output and connectivity for the 1541 Commodore Computer 5.25" floppy disk drive. In their place, the SP-1200 uses an integrated disk drive for storing and loading sounds and sequences, making it particularly attractive to producers. Unlike the SP-12 and Drumulator , the SP-1200 does not use any ROM -based samples; all samples are stored in volatile RAM and loaded from 3.5" disk . Maximum sampling time

5658-450: The drum machine was augmented with the sampler technology. Rakim took lyrics about the art of rapping to new heights, while KRS-One and Chuck D pushed "message rap" towards black activism. Native Tongues artists' inclusive, sample-crowded music accompanied their positivity, Afrocentricity and playful energy. During the golden age of hip hop, samples were heavily used. The ability to sample different beats, riffs and patterns from

5781-449: The glass transition temperature the resin in the composite softens and significantly increases thermal expansion; exceeding T g then exerts mechanical overload on the board components - e.g. the joints and the vias. Below T g the thermal expansion of the resin roughly matches copper and glass, above it gets significantly higher. As the reinforcement and copper confine the board along the plane, virtually all volume expansion projects to

5904-590: The sex raps of 2 Live Crew and Too Short , and party-oriented music by acts such as the Fat Boys , MC Hammer , and Vanilla Ice . The golden age is noted for its innovation – a time "when it seemed that every new single reinvented the genre", according to Rolling Stone . Referring to "hip-hop in its golden age", Spin 's editor-in-chief Sia Michel said, "there were so many important, groundbreaking albums coming out right about that time", and MTV 's Sway Calloway added: "The thing that made that era so great

6027-399: The signal propagation speed , frequency dependence introduces phase distortion in wideband applications; as flat a dielectric constant vs frequency characteristics as is achievable is important here. The impedance of transmission lines decreases with frequency, therefore faster edges of signals reflect more than slower ones. Dielectric breakdown voltage determines the maximum voltage gradient

6150-610: The vintage New York sound are all mechanisms of the machine." E-mu Systems began as a manufacturer of analog modular synthesizers 1971 and pioneered applications of digital technology in electronic musical instruments including a digital sequencer and the first digital polyphonic keyboard. E-mu supplemented income from modular synthesizers with royalties from the first ever analog chips (ICs) for analog synthesizers, created by Dave Rossum with Ron Dow and manufactured by Solid State Music (SSM), and by licensing and consulting for Linn , Oberheim , and Sequential . E-mu first used

6273-453: The "golden age" era of hip hop, with advances in lyrical technique, distinctive personalities of emerging artists like Biz Markie and Big Daddy Kane, and attaining crossover commercial success for hip hop music. Marley Marl's first production was an "answer record" to "Sucker MCs" in 1983 entitled "Sucker DJs" by Dimples D. Soon after came 14-year-old Roxanne Shanté's answer to UTFO 's "Roxanne Roxanne", "Roxanne's Revenge" (1985), sparking off

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6396-545: The Golden Age Hip-Hop Sound", music theorists Ben Duinker and Denis Martin of Empirical Musicology Review use "the 11 years between and including 1986 and 1996 as chronological boundaries" to define the golden age, bookended by the releases of Raising Hell and License to Ill [ sic ] and the deaths of Tupac Shakur and the Notorious B.I.G. Will Lavin of uDiscover Music states "It's generally accepted that

6519-720: The Golden Age occurred from the mid '80s and mid '90s; it was then that all the elements of the culture – breaking, graffiti art and DJing – broke cover to enter the mainstream." Music critic Tony Green, in the book Classic Material , refers to the two-year period 1993–1994 as "a second Golden Age" that saw influential, high-quality albums using elements of past classicism – drum machines ( Roland TR-808 ), drum samplers ( Akai MPC60 , E-mu SP-1200 ), turntable scratches, references to old-school hip hop hits, and "tongue-twisting triplet verbalisms" – while making clear that new directions were being taken. Green lists as examples

6642-576: The Jungle and De La Soul made Three Feet High and Rising " (though these records were in fact made in 1988 and 1989 respectively). MSNBC called the 1980s the "Golden Age" of hip-hop music. The Guardian states, "The golden age of hip-hop, from 1986 to 1993, gave the world an amazing number of great records," and also describes the period in November 1993, when A Tribe Called Quest and Wu-Tang Clan released albums, as "The Next Golden age." The golden age

6765-558: The PCB surface, instead of wire leads to pass through holes. Components became much smaller and component placement on both sides of the board became more common than with through-hole mounting, allowing much smaller PCB assemblies with much higher circuit densities. Surface mounting lends itself well to a high degree of automation, reducing labor costs and greatly increasing production rates compared with through-hole circuit boards. Components can be supplied mounted on carrier tapes. Surface mount components can be about one-quarter to one-tenth of

6888-496: The SP-12 sampling drum machine with more sampling time and an integrated disk drive, with E-mu reusing the sample playback engine used in SP-12 and in Drumulator since 1983. SP-1200 would become both the last E-mu sampler to not integrate custom E-mu chips (ICs) and the last to include analog SSM chips, using SSM2044 in its dynamic filters until they became unavailable in 1998. E-mu Systems updated SP-12 with improvements and

7011-510: The SP1200 (Tru Soul, April 13, 2019) Pete Rock - Return of the SP1200 V.2 (Tru Soul, Apr 23, 2022) Golden age hip hop Golden age hip hop refers to hip hop music created from the mid or mid-late 1980s to the early or early-mid 1990s, particularly by artists and musicians originating from the New York metropolitan area . A precursor to the new-school hip hop movement, it

7134-1030: The Wu-Tang (36 Chambers) (Loud, November 9, 1993) Craig Mack - " Flava in Ya Ear " ( Bad Boy , July 26, 1994) The Notorious B.I.G. - Ready to Die ( Bad Boy , September 13, 1994) 2Pac - Me Against the World ( Interscope , March 14, 1995) The Pharcyde - Labcabincalifornia ( Delicious Vinyl , November 14, 1995) Lord Finesse - The Awakening ( Penalty , February 20, 1996) Daft Punk - Homework (Virgin, January 20, 1997) Juvenile - "Ha" ( Cash Money , October 17, 1998) Daft Punk - Discovery ( Virgin , March 12 2001) Jel - 10 Seconds ( Mush , October 22, 2002) Alicia Keys - " The Diary of Alicia Keys " ( J , December 2, 2003) Kid Koala - 12 Bit Blues ( Ninja Tune , September 17, 2012) Lord Finesse - The SP1200 Project: A Re-Awakening (Slice of Spice, July 28, 2014) Pete Rock - Return of

7257-515: The Wu-Tang Clan's Enter the Wu-Tang (36 Chambers) , Nas 's Illmatic , De La Soul's 1993 release Buhloone Mindstate , Snoop Doggy Dogg's Doggystyle , A Tribe Called Quest's third album Midnight Marauders and Outkast 's Southernplayalisticadillacmuzik . Dart Adams of Festival Peak described this "2nd Golden Era" as spanning 1992 to 1996, and cites the release of Puff Daddy and Mase 's " Can't Nobody Hold Me Down " in 1997 as being

7380-489: The availability of digital audio workstations and samplers / sequencers with superior technical specifications. SP-1200 uses a 12-bit linear data format and the same 26.04kHz sample rate E-mu previously used in Drumulator and SP-12 . The sample rate was chosen early on in Drumulator’s development as a compromise between bandwidth and sampling time. A reconstruction filter was deliberately omitted, resulting in

7503-515: The available memory , while reducing their fidelity and introducing notably more audible artifacts . SP-1200 enabled musicians to construct the bulk of a song within one piece of portable gear, a first for the industry. This reduced production costs while increasing creative control for hip-hop artists. The SP-1200 became associated with the golden age of hip hop . According to the Village Voice , "The machine rose to such prominence that its strengths and weaknesses sculpted an entire era of music:

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7626-453: The back of the board in opposite directions to improve the part's mechanical strength), soldering the leads, and trimming off the ends. Leads may be soldered either manually or by a wave soldering machine. Surface-mount technology emerged in the 1960s, gained momentum in the early 1980s, and became widely used by the mid-1990s. Components were mechanically redesigned to have small metal tabs or end caps that could be soldered directly onto

7749-471: The biggest rappers in the genre's history... overwhelmingly based in New York City , golden age rap is characterized by skeletal beats , samples cribbed from hard rock or soul tracks, and tough dis raps... rhymers like PE's Chuck D, Big Daddy Kane, KRS-One, Rakim, and LL Cool J basically invented the complex wordplay and lyrical kung-fu of later hip-hop". In addition to lyrical self-glorification, hip hop

7872-437: The board and soldered onto copper traces on the other side. Boards may be single-sided, with an unplated component side, or more compact double-sided boards, with components soldered on both sides. Horizontal installation of through-hole parts with two axial leads (such as resistors, capacitors, and diodes) is done by bending the leads 90 degrees in the same direction, inserting the part in the board (often bending leads located on

7995-519: The breakable glass envelopes of the vacuum tubes that were often included in the circuits), and production was labor-intensive, so the products were expensive. Development of the methods used in modern printed circuit boards started early in the 20th century. In 1903, a German inventor, Albert Hanson, described flat foil conductors laminated to an insulating board, in multiple layers. Thomas Edison experimented with chemical methods of plating conductors onto linen paper in 1904. Arthur Berry in 1913 patented

8118-410: The button's impact. SP-12 was the first sampling drum machine released. The main changes from Drumulator to SP-12 were the introduction of integrated 12-bit linear user sampling allowing users to record their own sounds and improvements to the user interface, while the playback electronics remained mostly unchanged. E-mu SP-12 was initially advertised as “ Drumulator II” by E-mu Systems at

8241-512: The ceramic substrate. In 1948, the US released the invention for commercial use. Printed circuits did not become commonplace in consumer electronics until the mid-1950s, after the Auto-Sembly process was developed by the United States Army. At around the same time in the UK work along similar lines was carried out by Geoffrey Dummer , then at the RRDE . Motorola was an early leader in bringing

8364-539: The circuit. Some of these dielectrics are polytetrafluoroethylene (Teflon), FR-4, FR-1, CEM-1 or CEM-3. Well known pre-preg materials used in the PCB industry are FR-2 (phenolic cotton paper), FR-3 (cotton paper and epoxy), FR-4 (woven glass and epoxy), FR-5 (woven glass and epoxy), FR-6 (matte glass and polyester), G-10 (woven glass and epoxy), CEM-1 (cotton paper and epoxy), CEM-2 (cotton paper and epoxy), CEM-3 (non-woven glass and epoxy), CEM-4 (woven glass and epoxy), CEM-5 (woven glass and polyester). Thermal expansion

8487-488: The components to the board. Another manufacturing process adds vias , drilled holes that allow electrical interconnections between conductive layers. Printed circuit boards are used in nearly all electronic products. Alternatives to PCBs include wire wrap and point-to-point construction , both once popular but now rarely used. PCBs require additional design effort to lay out the circuit, but manufacturing and assembly can be automated. Electronic design automation software

8610-431: The components, test points , or identifying text. Originally, silkscreen printing was used for this purpose, but today other, finer quality printing methods are usually used. Normally the legend does not affect the function of a PCBA. A printed circuit board can have multiple layers of copper which almost always are arranged in pairs. The number of layers and the interconnection designed between them (vias, PTHs) provide

8733-412: The conductive layers is designed with a pattern of traces, planes and other features (similar to wires on a flat surface) etched from one or more sheet layers of copper laminated onto or between sheet layers of a non-conductive substrate. Electrical components may be fixed to conductive pads on the outer layers, generally by means of soldering , which both electrically connects and mechanically fastens

8856-425: The crunchy digitized drums, choppy segmented samples , and murky filtered basslines that characterize the vintage New York sound are all mechanisms of the machine." E-mu Systems's sampling drum machines had earned a strong following, especially from hip hop music producers seeking out its characteristic sound , by the time of SP-1200's initial discontinuation in 1990. Owing to unending demand, SP-1200

8979-464: The desired final thickness and dielectric characteristics. Available standard laminate thickness are listed in ANSI/IPC-D-275. The cloth or fiber material used, resin material, and the cloth to resin ratio determine the laminate's type designation (FR-4, CEM -1, G-10 , etc.) and therefore the characteristics of the laminate produced. Important characteristics are the level to which the laminate

9102-492: The development of printed components and conductors on a common insulating substrate. Rubinstein was honored in 1984 by his alma mater, the University of Wisconsin-Madison , for his innovations in the technology of printed electronic circuits and the fabrication of capacitors. This invention also represents a step in the development of integrated circuit technology, as not only wiring but also passive components were fabricated on

9225-403: The dielectric constant). The reinforcement type defines two major classes of materials: woven and non-woven. Woven reinforcements are cheaper, but the high dielectric constant of glass may not be favorable for many higher-frequency applications. The spatially nonhomogeneous structure also introduces local variations in electrical parameters, due to different resin/glass ratio at different areas of

9348-401: The drop-sample interpolation introduced a lot of distortion, musicians at E-mu thought it musically useful. E-mu especially sought to apply their Emulator experience to add a drum machine with user sampling features to the successful Drumulator product line. Scott Wedge invented a technology enabling dynamics to be performed using a piezo sensor on the circuit board listening for

9471-550: The earlier design using SSM chips), E-mu pivoted in 1980 from designing analog synthesizers to digital sampling technology and released the original Emulator sampling synthesizer in 1981. Just as engineering a digital sampler to operate using one shared memory had allowed Emulator to be made more attainable than systems including the Fairlight CMI , E-mu Systems co-founders Scott Wedge and Dave Rossum realized that an affordable digital drum machine could be invented using

9594-755: The effect was almost one of scientific rigour. The group followed Paid in Full with Follow the Leader (1988), Let the Rhythm Hit 'Em (1990) and Don't Sweat the Technique (1992). Rakim is generally regarded as the most cutting-edge of the MCs of the new-school era. Jess Harvell in Pitchfork in 2005 wrote that "Rakim's innovation was applying a patina of intellectual detachment to rap's most sacred cause: talking shit about how you're

9717-418: The end of the golden age of hip hop and its sampling practices. Notable hip hop producer and innovator, Marley Marl , formed the Juice Crew hip hop collective. Marl also founded Cold Chillin' Records and assembled various hip hop acts, including MC Shan , Big Daddy Kane, Biz Markie , Roxanne Shanté , Kool G Rap & DJ Polo , and Masta Ace . His Juice Crew collective was an important force in ushering

9840-405: The finished multilayer board) are plated-through, before the layers are laminated together. Only the outer layers need be coated; the inner copper layers are protected by the adjacent substrate layers. "Through hole" components are mounted by their wire leads passing through the board and soldered to traces on the other side. "Surface mount" components are attached by their leads to copper traces on

9963-417: The front panel Tap / Repeat button or an external footswitch to program the tempo . Selecting between banks A, B, C, and D gives access to each of the 32 sounds. Eight sliders are used to set sounds' pitch and volume parameters. Large buttons below each slider are used to select or play sounds with dynamics using a piezo sensor mounted on the circuit board. The distinctive character of SP-1200's sound

10086-420: The greatest advances in rapping technique. Kool G Rap , referring to the golden age in the book How to Rap said, "that era bred rappers like a Big Daddy Kane , a KRS-One, a Rakim, a Chuck D... their rapping capability and ability – these dudes were phenomenal". Many of hip hop's biggest artists were also at their creative peak. AllMusic said the golden age "witnessed the best recordings from some of

10209-593: The huge wave of answer records known as the Roxanne Wars . More disses (insults intended to show disrespect) from Shanté followed: "Bite This" (1985), "Queen of Rox" (1985), introducing Biz Markie on "Def Fresh Crew" (1986), "Payback" (1987), and "Have a Nice Day" (1987). Shante's "Have a Nice Day" had aimed some barbs at the principal two members of a new group from the Bronx called Boogie Down Productions (BDP): "Now KRS-ONE you should go on vacation with that name soundin' like

10332-624: The hugely successful Straight Outta Compton in 1988. Developments in the New York new-school continuum in this climate were represented by the Native Tongues groups—Jungle Brothers, De La Soul, A Tribe Called Quest, Queen Latifah , Chi-Ali , and Monie Love —along with fellow travellers like Leaders of the New School , KMD and Brand Nubian . They moved away from aggressive, macho posturing, towards ambiguity, fun and Afrocentricity. Their music

10455-447: The inner layers would otherwise take up surface space between components. The rise in popularity of multilayer PCBs with more than two, and especially with more than four, copper planes was concurrent with the adoption of surface mount technology . However, multilayer PCBs make repair, analysis, and field modification of circuits much more difficult and usually impractical. The world market for bare PCBs exceeded $ 60.2 billion in 2014 and

10578-471: The institution policing of the popular terrain are complex and in constant motion. Even though hip hop was used as a mechanism for different social issues it was still very complex with issues within the movement itself. There was also often an emphasis on black nationalism . Hip hop scholar Michael Eric Dyson stated, "during the golden age of hip hop, from 1987 to 1993, Afrocentric and black nationalist rap were prominent", and critic Scott Thill described

10701-427: The internal layers is used as ground plane or power plane, to achieve better signal integrity, higher signaling frequencies, lower EMI, and better power supply decoupling. In multi-layer boards, the layers of material are laminated together in an alternating sandwich: copper, substrate, copper, substrate, copper, etc.; each plane of copper is etched, and any internal vias (that will not extend to both outer surfaces of

10824-479: The last track of the album. Samples and sound bites were not limited to just music. RZA of the Wu-Tang Clan , a hip hop collective formed in the 1990s, sampled sound clips from his own collection of 1970s kung-fu films to bolster and frame the group's gritty lyrical content . Many of the sample-laden albums released during this time would not be able to receive legal clearance today. The era also provided some of

10947-498: The material can be subjected to before suffering a breakdown (conduction, or arcing, through the dielectric). Tracking resistance determines how the material resists high voltage electrical discharges creeping over the board surface. Loss tangent determines how much of the electromagnetic energy from the signals in the conductors is absorbed in the board material. This factor is important for high frequencies. Low-loss materials are more expensive. Choosing unnecessarily low-loss material

11070-491: The materials and along the reinforcement. Epoxies of the FR-4 materials are not too susceptible, with absorption of only 0.15%. Teflon has very low absorption of 0.01%. Polyimides and cyanate esters, on the other side, suffer from high water absorption. Absorbed water can lead to significant degradation of key parameters; it impairs tracking resistance, breakdown voltage, and dielectric parameters. Relative dielectric constant of water

11193-488: The moment, using a smooth baritone to become the jazz soloist of mystic Afrocentric rap." Public Enemy, having been reluctantly convinced to sign to a record label, released Yo! Bum Rush the Show on Def Jam in 1987. It debuted the Public Enemy logo, a circle of hatted b-boy in a sniper's cross-hairs, was replete with battle rhymes ("Miuzi Weighs a Ton", "Public Enemy #1"), social-political fare ("Rightstarter (Message to

11316-653: The murder of Scott La Rock , with its title and cover alluding to Malcolm X . KRS-One became involved with the Stop the Violence Movement at this time. Boogie Down Productions, along with Run-DMC and Public Enemy, associated the new-school as rap music with a strong message. Eric B. & Rakim appeared with the Marley Marl produced "Eric B. Is President" and "My Melody" on Zakia Records in 1986. Both tracks appeared on Paid in Full (1987). Just as Boogie Down Productions had,

11439-498: The need for additional discrete components. High density interconnects (HDI) PCBs have tracks or vias with a width or diameter of under 152 micrometers. Laminates are manufactured by curing layers of cloth or paper with thermoset resin under pressure and heat to form an integral final piece of uniform thickness. They can be up to 4 by 8 feet (1.2 by 2.4 m) in width and length. Varying cloth weaves (threads per inch or cm), cloth thickness, and resin percentage are used to achieve

11562-459: The new-school of hip hop. Philadelphia's Schoolly D self-released "Gangsta Boogie" in 1984, and "P.S.K. What Does It Mean?"/"Gucci Time" in 1985, leading to Saturday Night (Schoolly D, 1986, Jive , 1987). The West Coast, which became the home of gangsta rap, had Toddy Tee's influential Batteram mixtape in 1985, and Ice-T 's "Six in the Morning" in 1986 before N.W.A's first records, leading to

11685-488: The pair reflected changes in street life on their debut's cover, which depicted the two wearing large gold chains and surrounded by money. Like Criminal Minded , the sampling prevalent in the album cemented James Brown's status as a hip hop source, while Rakim's allusions showed the growing influence of mystic Islam-offshoot The Nation of Gods and Earths in hip-hop. The music was minimalist, austerely so, with many writers noting that coupled with Rakim's precise, logical style,

11808-583: The period are LL Cool J , Slick Rick , Ultramagnetic MC's , the Jungle Brothers , Run-DMC , Public Enemy , Beastie Boys , KRS-One , DJ Jazzy Jeff & the Fresh Prince , Eric B. & Rakim , De La Soul , Big Daddy Kane , EPMD , Biz Markie , Salt-N-Pepa , Queen Latifah , Gang Starr , and A Tribe Called Quest . Releases by these acts co-existed in this period with early gangsta rap artists such as Schoolly D , Ice-T , Geto Boys , N.W.A ,

11931-970: The playback up or down ), producing significant additional (unfiltered) audible artifacts and distortion which proved to be musical useful. More advanced pitch-shifting algorithms like linear and higher-order interpolation reproduce high frequency data more accurately, but consequently may not sound as "warm" in comparison to simpler techniques. Upon its release, hip-hop producers embraced sampling loops and musical phrases such as breaks in addition to individual drum sounds with SP-1200. Early adopters soon innovated with techniques beyond looping by combining SP-1200's truncation and sequencing features to slice (or "chop") samples of drums and other instruments into shorter pieces and re-compose them to create original productions . Music producers discovered and shared techniques using SP-1200's tuning (pitch) features to enable samples longer than 2.5 seconds, and more than 10 seconds total sampling time, to be used. Using

12054-471: The point-to-point chassis construction method remained in common use in industry (such as TV and hi-fi sets) into at least the late 1960s. Printed circuit boards were introduced to reduce the size, weight, and cost of parts of the circuitry. In 1960, a small consumer radio receiver might be built with all its circuitry on one circuit board, but a TV set would probably contain one or more circuit boards. Originally, every electronic component had wire leads , and

12177-629: The printed circuit as part of a radio set while working in the UK around 1936. In 1941 a multi-layer printed circuit was used in German magnetic influence naval mines . Around 1943 the United States began to use the technology on a large scale to make proximity fuzes for use in World War II. Such fuzes required an electronic circuit that could withstand being fired from a gun, and could be produced in quantity. The Centralab Division of Globe Union submitted

12300-425: The process into consumer electronics, announcing in August 1952 the adoption of "plated circuits" in home radios after six years of research and a $ 1M investment. Motorola soon began using its trademarked term for the process, PLAcir, in its consumer radio advertisements. Hallicrafters released its first "foto-etch" printed circuit product, a clock-radio, on November 1, 1952. Even as circuit boards became available,

12423-403: The protruding wires are cut off and discarded. From the 1980s onward, small surface mount parts have been used increasingly instead of through-hole components; this has led to smaller boards for a given functionality and lower production costs, but with some additional difficulty in servicing faulty boards. In the 1990s the use of multilayer surface boards became more frequent. As a result, size

12546-441: The resin matrix, and the associated local variations in the dielectric constant, are gaining importance. The circuit-board substrates are usually dielectric composite materials. The composites contain a matrix (usually an epoxy resin ) and a reinforcement (usually a woven, sometimes nonwoven, glass fibers, sometimes even paper), and in some cases a filler is added to the resin (e.g. ceramics; titanate ceramics can be used to increase

12669-478: The same side of the board. A board may use both methods for mounting components. PCBs with only through-hole mounted components are now uncommon. Surface mounting is used for transistors , diodes , IC chips , resistors , and capacitors. Through-hole mounting may be used for some large components such as electrolytic capacitors and connectors. The first PCBs used through-hole technology , mounting electronic components by lead inserted through holes on one side of

12792-505: The same time". The term golden age hip hop frames the late 1980s in mainstream hip hop, said to be characterized by its diversity, quality, innovation and influence, and associated with Public Enemy , KRS-One and his Boogie Down Productions , Eric B. & Rakim , Ultramagnetic MCs , De La Soul , A Tribe Called Quest , and the Jungle Brothers due to their themes of Afrocentricity and political militancy, their experimental music, and their eclectic sampling . This same period

12915-585: The sampling add-in-card released later), and the Studio 440 from Sequential when it was released in 1986, also priced at $ 5000. In contrast to implementing unique sound engines for each of its other samplers so far, beginning with Emulator and Emulator II , and growing in ambition and scope with purpose-built ICs designed by Dave Rossum, including E-chip powering Emax (1986) and F-chips used in Emulator III (1987), SP-1200's short and low-risk development updated

13038-408: The simplest boards to produce is the two-layer board. It has copper on both sides that are referred to as external layers; multi layer boards sandwich additional internal layers of copper and insulation. After two-layer PCBs, the next step up is the four-layer. The four layer board adds significantly more routing options in the internal layers as compared to the two layer board, and often some portion of

13161-414: The size and weight of through-hole components, and passive components much cheaper. However, prices of semiconductor surface mount devices (SMDs) are determined more by the chip itself than the package, with little price advantage over larger packages, and some wire-ended components, such as 1N4148 small-signal switch diodes, are actually significantly cheaper than SMD equivalents. Each trace consists of

13284-511: The start of mainstream rap's "Jiggy Era". According to copyright, music and pop culture scholars Kembrew Mcleod and Peter DiCola, the golden age of hip-hop sampling spans from 1987 to 1992. Artists and record labels were not yet aware of the permanence of hip-hop culture in mainstream media, and did not yet accept it as a legitimate institution. They believe the ruling made in Grand Upright Music, Ltd. v. Warner Bros. Records Inc. marked

13407-422: The substrate. Chemical etching divides the copper into separate conducting lines called tracks or circuit traces , pads for connections, vias to pass connections between layers of copper, and features such as solid conductive areas for electromagnetic shielding or other purposes. The tracks function as wires fixed in place, and are insulated from each other by air and the board substrate material. The surface of

13530-402: The term "printed circuit board" most commonly means "printed circuit assembly" (with components). The IPC preferred term for an assembled board is circuit card assembly ( CCA ), and for an assembled backplane it is backplane assembly . "Card" is another widely used informal term for a "printed circuit assembly". For example, expansion card . A PCB may be printed with a legend identifying

13653-419: The thickness and stresses the plated-through holes. Repeated soldering or other exposition to higher temperatures can cause failure of the plating, especially with thicker boards; thick boards therefore require a matrix with a high T g . The materials used determine the substrate's dielectric constant . This constant is also dependent on frequency, usually decreasing with frequency. As this constant determines

13776-413: The time as "the golden age of hip hop, the late '80s and early '90s when the form most capably fused the militancy of its Black Panther and Watts Prophets forebears with the wide-open cultural experimentalism of De La Soul and others". Stylistic variety was also prominent; MSNBC said that in the golden age, "rappers had an individual sound that was dictated by their region and their communities, not by

13899-479: The time their first record was released, Boogie Down Productions and Rakim had already changed the landscape for how an MC could rap. Public Enemy were already recording their second album It Takes a Nation of Millions to Hold Us Back (1988) when Bum Rush hit stores. The underground sound, centered on urban violence, that was to become gangsta rap , existed on the East Coast soon after Run-DMC had inaugurated

14022-533: The use of the original in Biz Markie 's song "Alone Again." No copyright case precedents were cited in the ruling of the final verdict, and the presiding judge's opinion was prefaced with the words "Thou Shalt not Steal." The sixties pop band the Turtles filed a lawsuit in 1989 against hip hop group De La Soul for the uncleared use of a sampled element derived from their original 1968 track " You Showed Me ." The lawsuit

14145-511: The weave pattern. Nonwoven reinforcements, or materials with low or no reinforcement, are more expensive but more suitable for some RF/analog applications. The substrates are characterized by several key parameters, chiefly thermomechanical ( glass transition temperature , tensile strength , shear strength , thermal expansion ), electrical ( dielectric constant , loss tangent , dielectric breakdown voltage , leakage current , tracking resistance ...), and others (e.g. moisture absorption ). At

14268-440: The weight of copper per area (in ounce per square foot) which is easier to measure. One ounce per square foot is 1.344 mils or 34 micrometers thickness. Heavy copper is a layer exceeding three ounces of copper per ft , or approximately 0.0042 inches (4.2 mils, 105 μm) thick. Heavy copper layers are used for high current or to help dissipate heat. On the common FR-4 substrates, 1 oz copper per ft (35 μm)

14391-648: Was also used as a form of social protest. Lyrical content from the era often drew attention to a variety of social issues including Afrocentric living, drug use, crime and violence, religion, culture, the state of the American economy, and the modern man's struggle. Conscious and political hip hop tracks of the time were a response to the effects of American capitalism and former President Reagan's conservative political economy. According to Tricia Rose, "In rap, relationships between black cultural practice, social and economic conditions, technology, sexual and racial politics, and

14514-433: Was assigned to the U.S. Army. With the development of board lamination and etching techniques, this concept evolved into the standard printed circuit board fabrication process in use today. Soldering could be done automatically by passing the board over a ripple, or wave, of molten solder in a wave-soldering machine. However, the wires and holes are inefficient since drilling holes is expensive and consumes drill bits and

14637-499: Was doubled from the upgraded SP-12 Turbo, to 10 seconds, though the maximum duration of an individual sound remained limited to 2.5 seconds. SP-1200 provides additional unfiltered versions of the signals from its first six channels (not available on SP-12 ) using TRS connections for each individual output, providing the option to use unfiltered signals from all eight channels / voices alternatively to their analog filters . The SP-1200 can store up to 100 patterns, 100 songs, and has

14760-426: Was further minimized and both flexible and rigid PCBs were incorporated in different devices. In 1995 PCB manufacturers began using microvia technology to produce High-Density Interconnect (HDI) PCBs. Recent advances in 3D printing have meant that there are several new techniques in PCB creation. 3D printed electronics (PEs) can be utilized to print items layer by layer and subsequently the item can be printed with

14883-570: Was reissued by E-mu in 1993 with a cooler-running power supply and black chassis that complied with contemporaneous electrical regulations, and became E-mu's longest-lived product in 1996. E-mu continued to build SP-1200 units until the unavailability of aging parts including the analog SSM2044 filter chips (ICs) , forced the instrument's second discontinuation, marked by a "Final Edition" of SP-1200 units, in 1998. In 2015, E-mu Systems co-founder and original SP-12 and SP-1200 designer Dave Rossum returned to designing synthesizers , co-founding

15006-453: Was sample-crowded, more open and accessible than their new-school predecessors. De La Soul's debut sampled everyone from the Turtles to Steely Dan , while A Tribe Called Quest matched tough beats to mellow jazz samples and playful, thoughtful raps. This lawsuit was known for effectively ending the "Wild West" period for sampling during the golden age of hip hop. In 1991, Gilbert O'Sullivan 's song publisher sued Warner Brothers Records over

15129-447: Was settled out of court for a reported $ 1.7 million, though group members later claimed that the actual payout was significantly less. Printed circuit board A printed circuit board ( PCB ), also called printed wiring board ( PWB ), is a medium used to connect or "wire" components to one another in a circuit . It takes the form of a laminated sandwich structure of conductive and insulating layers: each of

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