136-689: The Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity Expression ( SOGIE , / ˈ s oʊ dʒ iː / Tagalog: [ˈsɔdʒi] ) Equality Bill , also known as the Anti-Discrimination Bill ( ADB ), is a series of House and Senate bills that were introduced in the 17th, 18th, and 19th Congress of the Philippines , which aims to set into law measures to prevent various economic and public accommodation-related acts of discrimination against people based on their sexual orientation, gender identity, or expression. The first anti-discrimination bill based on SOGIE
272-508: A Senate was established. The legislative system was changed again in 1935. The 1935 Constitution , aside from instituting the Commonwealth which gave the Filipinos more role in government, established a unicameral National Assembly . But in 1940, through an amendment to the 1935 Constitution , a bicameral Congress of the Philippines consisting of a House of Representatives and a Senate
408-575: A constitutional commission that drafted a new constitution. The Constitution was approved in a plebiscite the next year; it restored the presidential system of government together with a bicameral Congress of the Philippines. The restored Congress first convened in 1987. The two houses of Congress meet at different places in Metro Manila , the seat of government: the Senate meets at the GSIS Building ,
544-577: A " prisoner in the Vatican ". This stand-off, which was spoken of as the Roman Question , was resolved by the 1929 Lateran Treaties , whereby the Holy See acknowledged Italian sovereignty over the former Papal States in return for payment and Italy's recognition of papal sovereignty over Vatican City as a new sovereign and independent state. Catholic missionaries generally supported, and sought to facilitate,
680-624: A constitutional convention to revise the 1935 Constitution; in 1973, the Constitution was approved. It abolished the bicameral Congress and created a unicameral National Assembly, which would ultimately be known as the Batasang Pambansa in a semi-presidential system of government. The Batasang Pambansa first convened in 1978, and elected a prime minister . Marcos was overthrown after the 1986 People Power Revolution ; President Corazon Aquino then ruled by decree. Later that year she appointed
816-511: A new building that they would own in Fort Bonifacio , Taguig . The powers of the Congress of the Philippines may be classified as: In the diagrams below, Congress is divided into blocs, with the colors referring to the political party of the person leading that bloc. The blocs are determined by the votes of the members in speakership or Senate presidential elections. The Senate is composed of
952-429: A particular congressional district of the country. All provinces in the country are composed of at least one congressional district. Several cities also have their own congressional districts, with some having two or more representatives. From 200 districts in 1987, the number of districts have increased to 253. Every new Congress has seen an increase in the number of districts. The party-list congressmen represent
1088-592: A small group of Christians protested at the Senate against the SOGIE bill by calling the proposed legislation an "abomination", adding that homosexuality is a "sin" according to the Bible and that identifying as part of the LGBT community is a lifestyle. The group also claimed that the bill relates to same-sex marriage, which is not found anywhere within the bill. Senators Villanueva, Gatchalian, and Villar spoke against same-sex marriage after
1224-565: A variety of historical circumstances. In the 16th century, the Reformation led to the formation of separate, Protestant groups. From the late 20th century, the Catholic Church has been criticized for its teachings on sexuality , its doctrine against ordaining women , and its handling of sexual abuse cases involving clergy. Catholic (from Greek : καθολικός , romanized : katholikos , lit. 'universal')
1360-939: Is "too complicated". Another similar bill was filed by Senator Sonny Angara . Senators Bong Go , Migz Zubiri , Ralph Recto , and Franklin Drilon announced their support for the SOGIE Bill. In the House of Representatives, various representatives also filed their versions of the bill, notably, Sol Aragones of Laguna, Geraldine Roman of Bataan, Loren Legarda of Antique, Maria Lourdes Alba of Bukidnon, Joy Belmonte of Quezon City, Bayan Muna representatives Eufemia Cullamat , Carlos Zarate, and Ferdinand Gaite, Kristine Singson of Ilocos Sur, Bagong Henerasyon representative Bernadette Dy, Eric Olivarez of Parañaque, and Francis Abaya of Cavite. Representatives Sy-Alvarado, De Venecia , Reyes, Taduran, Bordado, Olivarez, and Violago have also signed as co-author of
1496-474: Is confident the bill will pass in the next Congress. The bill was archived, and the bill must be refiled in the 18th Congress, restarting the one to three-year process of enactment. Versions of the SOGIE Equality Bill were refiled in the 18th Congress by Senators Risa Hontiveros , Leila de Lima , Francis Pangilinan , and Imee Marcos although she is against divorce and same sex marriage stating that it
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#17328686816671632-488: Is determined by the size of the bloc; only members of the majority and minority blocs are given committee memberships. In the Philippines, political parties are liquid, and it is not uncommon for party-mates to find themselves in different blocs. Each chamber is headed by a presiding officer, both elected from their respective membership; in the Senate, it is the Senate President , while in the House of Representatives, it
1768-523: Is generally regarded as an institution that has its origin in the Medieval Christian setting. The massive Islamic invasions of the mid-7th century began a long struggle between Christianity and Islam throughout the Mediterranean Basin. The Byzantine Empire soon lost the lands of the eastern patriarchates of Jerusalem , Alexandria and Antioch and was reduced to that of Constantinople,
1904-456: Is needed. A new session of Congress starts after every House of Representatives election. Under the 1935 Constitution as amended in 1940, mid-term elections for the Senate caused its membership to be changed mid-session. From 1945 to 1972, there were two Commonwealth congresses and seven congresses of the Republic, with the 2nd Commonwealth Congress becoming the 1st Congress of the Republic . Under
2040-496: Is the Speaker . The Senate also has a Senate president pro tempore , and the House of Representatives has deputy speakers . Each chamber has its own floor leaders. The vote requirements in the Congress of the Philippines are as follows: In most cases, such as the approval of bills, only a majority of members present is needed; on some cases such as the election of presiding officers, a majority of all members, including vacant seats,
2176-676: Is the bishop of Rome , known as the pope ( Latin : papa , lit. 'father'), whose jurisdiction is called the Holy See ( Sancta Sedes in Latin). In parallel to the diocesan structure are a variety of religious institutes that function autonomously, often subject only to the authority of the pope, though sometimes subject to the local bishop. Most religious institutes only have male or female members but some have both. Additionally, lay members aid many liturgical functions during worship services. The Catholic Church has been described as
2312-482: Is the universal [katholike] Church." In the Catechetical Lectures ( c. 350 ) of Saint Cyril of Jerusalem , the name "Catholic Church" was used to distinguish it from other groups that also called themselves "the church". The "Catholic" notion was further stressed in the edict De fide Catolica issued 380 by Theodosius I , the last emperor to rule over both the eastern and the western halves of
2448-639: The Pax Romana made travelling safe. The empire encouraged the spread of a common culture with Greek roots, which allowed ideas to be more easily expressed and understood. Unlike most religions in the Roman Empire, however, Christianity required its adherents to renounce all other gods, a practice adopted from Judaism (see Idolatry ). The Christians' refusal to join pagan celebrations meant they were unable to participate in much of public life, which caused non-Christians—including government authorities—to fear that
2584-783: The Byzantine–Seljuk Wars , which caused Urban to launch the First Crusade aimed at aiding the Byzantine Empire and returning the Holy Land to Christian control. In the 11th century , strained relations between the primarily Greek church and the Latin Church separated them in the East–West Schism, partially due to conflicts over papal authority. The Fourth Crusade and the sacking of Constantinople by renegade crusaders proved
2720-734: The Church of the East also shared in this communion, as did the Oriental Orthodox Churches before the Council of Chalcedon in AD 451; all separated primarily over differences in Christology . The Eastern Catholic Churches, who have a combined membership of approximately 18 million, represent a body of Eastern Christians who returned or remained in communion with the pope during or following these schisms for
2856-686: The Code of Canon Law (1983). "Catholic Church" is also used in the documents of the Second Vatican Council (1962–1965), the First Vatican Council (1869–1870), the Council of Trent (1545–1563), and numerous other official documents. The New Testament , in particular the Gospels , records Jesus' activities and teaching, his appointment of the Twelve Apostles and his Great Commission of
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#17328686816672992-648: The Council of Nicaea declared heretical . The resulting religious discord between Germanic rulers and Catholic subjects was avoided when, in 497, Clovis I , the Frankish ruler, converted to orthodox Catholicism, allying himself with the papacy and the monasteries. The Visigoths in Spain followed his lead in 589, and the Lombards in Italy in the course of the 7th century. Western Christianity , particularly through its monasteries ,
3128-710: The Edict of Thessalonica made Nicene Christianity the state church of the Roman Empire , a position that within the diminishing territory of the Byzantine Empire would persist until the empire itself ended in the fall of Constantinople in 1453, while elsewhere the church was independent of the empire, as became particularly clear with the East–West Schism . During the period of the Seven Ecumenical Councils , five primary sees emerged, an arrangement formalized in
3264-725: The English Reformation and the eventual development of Anglicanism . The Reformation contributed to clashes between the Protestant Schmalkaldic League and the Catholic Emperor Charles V and his allies. The first nine-year war ended in 1555 with the Peace of Augsburg but continued tensions produced a far graver conflict—the Thirty Years' War —which broke out in 1618. In France, a series of conflicts termed
3400-586: The French Wars of Religion was fought from 1562 to 1598 between the Huguenots (French Calvinists ) and the forces of the French Catholic League , which were backed and funded by a series of popes. This ended under Pope Clement VIII , who hesitantly accepted King Henry IV's 1598 Edict of Nantes granting civil and religious toleration to French Protestants. The Council of Trent (1545–1563) became
3536-531: The GSIS Building in Pasay , while the House of Representatives meets at the Batasang Pambansa in Quezon City , which also hosts joint sessions . The Senate is composed of 24 senators half of which are elected every three years. Each senator, therefore, serves a total of six years. The senators are elected at-large and do not represent any geographical district. In the current 19th Congress , there are 316 seats in
3672-525: The Immaculate Conception as a dogma in the Catholic Church . In 1870, the First Vatican Council affirmed the doctrine of papal infallibility when exercised in specifically defined pronouncements, striking a blow to the rival position of conciliarism . Controversy over this and other issues resulted in a breakaway movement called the Old Catholic Church , The Italian unification of
3808-682: The Italian Peninsula , imprisoning Pope Pius VI , who died in captivity. Napoleon later re-established the Catholic Church in France through the Concordat of 1801 . The end of the Napoleonic Wars brought Catholic revival and the return of the Papal States . In 1854, Pope Pius IX , with the support of the overwhelming majority of Catholic bishops, whom he had consulted from 1851 to 1853, proclaimed
3944-728: The Manila Municipal Council qualified to elect a representative, it was tasked to select a delegate. Three of its representatives, the governor-general and the Archbishop of Manila selected Ventura de los Reyes as Manila's delegate to the Cortes. De los Reyes arrived in Cadiz in December 1811. However, with Napoleon I 's defeat at the Battle of Waterloo , his brother Joseph Bonaparte was removed from
4080-629: The National Council of Churches in the Philippines , and Pastor Kakay Pamaran of the Union Theological Seminary . In contrast, representative Eddie Villanueva claimed that the SOGIE Bill is 'imported' and not part of Filipino culture. Senate president Tito Sotto expressed dissent against the bill again, adding that the bill "will not pass" in the Senate as long as he is the Senate president. Senator Joel Villanueva also expressed dissent. Various personalities announced their support for
4216-456: The Nicene Creed . The Catholic Church teaches that it is the one, holy, catholic and apostolic church founded by Jesus Christ in his Great Commission , that its bishops are the successors of Christ's apostles , and that the pope is the successor to Saint Peter , upon whom primacy was conferred by Jesus Christ. It maintains that it practises the original Christian faith taught by
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4352-743: The People Power Revolution , the bicameral Congress was restored. The House of Representatives inherited the Batasang Pambansa Complex, while the Senate returned to the Congress Building. In May 1997, the Senate moved to the newly constructed building owned by the GSIS on land reclaimed from Manila Bay in Pasay ; the Congress Building was eventually transformed into the National Museum of Fine Arts . The Senate will eventually move into
4488-741: The Philippine Revolution that aimed to overthrow Spanish rule. Proclaiming independence on June 12, 1898, President Emilio Aguinaldo then ordered the convening of a revolutionary congress at Malolos . The Malolos Congress , among other things, approved the Malolos Constitution . With the approval of the Treaty of Paris , the Spanish ceded the Philippines to the United States. The revolutionaries, attempting to prevent American conquest, launched
4624-648: The Philippine–American War , but were defeated when Aguinaldo was captured in 1901. When the Philippines was under American colonial rule, the legislative body was the Philippine Commission which existed from 1900 to 1907. The President of the United States appointed the members of the Philippine Commission . Furthermore, two Filipinos served as Resident Commissioners to the House of Representatives of
4760-541: The Polish People's Republic , became the first non-Italian pope in 455 years. His 26 1/2-year pontificate was one of the longest in history, and was credited with hastening the fall of communism in Europe. John Paul II sought to evangelize an increasingly secular world . He travelled more than any other pope, visiting 129 countries, and used television and radio as means of spreading the church's teachings. He also emphasized
4896-422: The Protestant Reformation of the 16th century, when those who ceased to be in communion became known as Protestants. While the Roman Church has been used to describe the pope's Diocese of Rome since the Fall of the Western Roman Empire and into the Early Middle Ages (6th–10th century), Roman Catholic Church has been applied to the whole church in the English language since the Protestant Reformation in
5032-484: The Roman Catholic Church , is the largest Christian church , with 1.28 to 1.39 billion baptized Catholics worldwide as of 2024. It is among the world's oldest and largest international institutions and has played a prominent role in the history and development of Western civilization . The church consists of 24 sui iuris churches , including the Latin Church and 23 Eastern Catholic Churches , which comprise almost 3,500 dioceses and eparchies around
5168-409: The Roman Empire , when establishing the state church of the Roman Empire . Since the East–West Schism of 1054, the Eastern Orthodox Church has taken the adjective Orthodox as its distinctive epithet; its official name continues to be the Orthodox Catholic Church. The Latin Church was described as Catholic , with that description also denominating those in communion with the Holy See after
5304-419: The Tridentine Mass as found in the Roman Missal of 1962, which he titled the "Extraordinary Form". Citing the frailties of advanced age, Benedict resigned in 2013, becoming the first pope to do so in nearly 600 years. Pope Francis, the current pope of the Catholic Church, became in 2013 the first pope from the Americas, the first from the Southern Hemisphere , and the first Pope from outside Europe since
5440-418: The University of Oxford , University of Paris , and University of Bologna . Higher education before then had been the domain of Christian cathedral schools or monastic schools, led by monks and nuns . Evidence of such schools dates back to the 6th century CE. These new universities expanded the curriculum to include academic programs for clerics, lawyers, civil servants, and physicians. The university
5576-444: The dignity of work and natural rights of labourers to have fair wages and safe conditions in Laborem exercens . He emphasized several church teachings, including moral exhortations against abortion, euthanasia , and against widespread use of the death penalty, in Evangelium Vitae . Pope Benedict XVI , elected in 2005, was known for upholding traditional Christian values against secularization , and for increasing use of
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5712-422: The 14th century. To escape instability in Rome, Clement V in 1309 became the first of seven popes to reside in the fortified city of Avignon in southern France during a period known as the Avignon Papacy . The Avignon Papacy ended in 1376 when the pope returned to Rome, but was followed in 1378 by the 38-year-long Western schism , with claimants to the papacy in Rome, Avignon and (after 1409) Pisa. The matter
5848-414: The 1860s incorporated the Papal States, including Rome itself from 1870, into the Kingdom of Italy , thus ending the papacy's temporal power . In response, Pope Pius IX excommunicated King Victor Emmanuel II , refused payment for the land, and rejected the Italian Law of Guarantees , which granted him special privileges. To avoid placing himself in visible subjection to the Italian authorities, he remained
5984-522: The 1960s, Pope John XXIII convened the Second Vatican Council , which ushered in radical change to church ritual and practice, and in the later 20th century, the long reign of Pope John Paul II contributed to the fall of communism in Europe, and a new public and international role for the papacy. From the late 20th century, the Catholic Church has been criticized for its doctrines on sexuality , its inability to ordain women , and its handling of sexual abuse cases . Pope Pius X (1903–1914) renewed
6120-523: The 1973 Constitution, the Batasang Pambansa was the legislature, with it having two elections. Under the 1987 constitution, each Senate election was synchronized with the House elections, with the first congress under that constitution being counted as the " 8th Congress ", picking up from the last congress of the 1935 Constitution. Catholic God Schools Relations with: The Catholic Church , also known as
6256-445: The 1:4 ratio has to be respected. The Constitution provides that Congress shall convene for its regular session every year beginning on the 4th Monday of July. A regular session can last until thirty days before the opening of its next regular session in the succeeding year. The president may, however, call special sessions which are usually held between regular legislative sessions to handle emergencies or urgent matters. During
6392-408: The 21st century. Pope Gregory VII further initiated the Gregorian Reforms regarding the independence of the clergy from secular authority. This led to the Investiture Controversy between the church and the Holy Roman Emperors , over which had the authority to appoint bishops and popes. In 1095, Byzantine emperor Alexius I appealed to Pope Urban II for help against renewed Muslim invasions in
6528-416: The Americas, Asia and Oceania by explorers, conquistadors, and missionaries, as well as by the transformation of societies through the socio-political mechanisms of colonial rule. Pope Alexander VI had awarded colonial rights over most of the newly discovered lands to Spain and Portugal and the ensuing patronato system allowed state authorities, not the Vatican, to control all clerical appointments in
6664-402: The Byzantine Empire lost to the Lombards the city of Ravenna from which it governed the small fragments of Italy, including Rome, that acknowledged its sovereignty. The fall of Ravenna meant that confirmation by a no longer existent exarch was not asked for during the election in 752 of Pope Stephen II and that the papacy was forced to look elsewhere for a civil power to protect it. In 754, at
6800-405: The Catholic and Orthodox churches. Several eastern churches reunited, forming the majority of the Eastern Catholic Churches . The Age of Discovery beginning in the 15th century saw the expansion of Western Europe's political and cultural influence worldwide. Because of the prominent role the strongly Catholic nations of Spain and Portugal played in Western colonialism, Catholicism was spread to
6936-422: The Christians were angering the gods and thereby threatening the peace and prosperity of the Empire. The resulting persecutions were a defining feature of Christian self-understanding until Christianity was legalized in the 4th century. In 313, Emperor Constantine I 's Edict of Milan legalized Christianity, and in 330 Constantine moved the imperial capital to Constantinople , modern Istanbul, Turkey . In 380
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#17328686816677072-399: The Commonwealth Congress convened at the Old Japanese Schoolhouse in Sampaloc . Congress met at the school auditorium, with the Senate convening on evenings and the House of Representatives meeting every morning. The Senate subsequently moved to the Manila City Hall , with the House staying in the schoolhouse. The two chambers of Congress returned to the reconstructed Legislative Building, now
7208-415: The Congress Building in 1950. In 1973, when President Marcos ruled by decree, Congress was padlocked. Marcos built a new seat of a unicameral parliament in Quezon City , which would eventually be the Batasang Pambansa Complex . The parliament that will eventually be named as the Batasang Pambansa (National Legislature), first met at the Batasang Pambansa Complex in 1978. With the overthrow of Marcos after
7344-402: The Cortes. While colonies such as the Philippines were selecting their delegates, substitutes were named so that the Cortes could convene. The substitutes, and first delegates for the Philippines were Pedro Pérez de Tagle and José Manuel Couto. Neither had any connection to the colony. By July 1810, Governor General Manuel González de Aguilar received the instruction to hold an election. As only
7480-457: The Edict of Nantes by King Louis XIV of France , which ended a century-long policy of religious toleration of Protestant Huguenots. As the papacy resisted pushes for Gallicanism , the French Revolution of 1789 shifted power to the state, caused the destruction of churches, the establishment of a Cult of Reason , and the martyrdom of nuns during the Reign of Terror . In 1798, Napoleon Bonaparte 's General Louis-Alexandre Berthier invaded
7616-401: The European imperial powers' conquest of Africa during the late nineteenth century. According to the historian of religion Adrian Hastings , Catholic missionaries were generally unwilling to defend African rights or encourage Africans to see themselves as equals to Europeans, in contrast to Protestant missionaries, who were more willing to oppose colonial injustices. During the 20th century,
7752-447: The Holy See, or the Apostolic See (meaning the see of the apostle Peter). Directly serving the pope is the Roman Curia, the central governing body that administers the day-to-day business of the Catholic Church. The pope is also sovereign of Vatican City, a small city-state entirely enclaved within the city of Rome, which is an entity distinct from the Holy See. It is as head of the Holy See, not as head of Vatican City State, that
7888-531: The House of Representatives in opposition, becoming the first Anti-Discrimination Bill that was approved in the House of Representatives. The counterpart bill in the Senate, filed by Senator Risa Hontiveros (the first Akbayan senator), was in the period of interpolations by May 2018. It was backed by Senators Loren Legarda , Grace Poe , Nancy Binay , Franklin Drilon , Bam Aquino , Chiz Escudero , Ralph Recto , Sonny Angara , JV Ejercito , Francis Pangilinan , Migz Zubiri , and Leila de Lima , although de Lima
8024-462: The House of Representatives. The Constitution states that the House "shall be composed of not more than 250 members, unless otherwise fixed by law", and that at least 20% of it shall be sectoral representatives. There are two types of congressmen: the district and party-list representatives . At the time of the ratification of the constitution, there were 200 districts, leaving 50 seats for party-list representatives. The district congressmen represent
8160-413: The Philippines on July 4, 1946, Republic Act No. 6 was enacted providing that on the date of the proclamation of the Republic of the Philippines , the existing Congress would be known as the First Congress of the Republic . Successive Congresses were elected until President Ferdinand Marcos declared martial law on September 23, 1972. Marcos then ruled by decree. As early as 1970, Marcos had convened
8296-405: The Philippines , Senator Defensor-Santiago filed the Employment Non-Discrimination bill which aims to prohibit employment discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation. Similar bills were refiled by her on the 14th (Anti-Discrimination bill of 2007) and 15th congress (Anti-Sexual Orientation Discrimination bill). In the House of Representatives, counterpart house bills were filed continuously by
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#17328686816678432-402: The Pope's insistence on public neutrality and diplomatic language has become a source of much criticism and debate. Nevertheless, in every country under German occupation, priests played a major part in rescuing Jews. Israeli historian Pinchas Lapide estimated that Catholic rescue of Jews amounted to somewhere between 700,000 and 860,000 people. The Nazi persecution of the Catholic Church
8568-410: The Reformation, which gave birth to the great majority of Protestant denominations and also crypto-Protestantism within the Catholic Church. Meanwhile, Henry VIII petitioned Pope Clement VII for a declaration of nullity concerning his marriage to Catherine of Aragon . When this was denied, he had the Acts of Supremacy passed to make himself Supreme Head of the Church of England , spurring
8704-524: The SOGIE Bill, namely: Anne Curtis , Heart Evangelista , Catriona Gray , Pia Wurtzbach , Judy Taguiwalo , Iza Calzado , Nadine Lustre , Janine Gutierrez , BJ Pascual, Mari Jasmine, and Samantha Lee. Vice President Leni Robredo also supported the SOGIE Bill, while President Rodrigo Duterte supported "an anti-discrimination law patterned like the one approved in Davao". The government has stated that they will not certify an anti-discrimination bill as "urgent". In September 2020, groups again called to pass
8840-495: The SOGIE bill after President Duterte gave an absolute pardon to a former US Marine who has been convicted of homicide in relation to the killing of trans Filipina Jennifer Laude . The SOGIE Equality bill was refiled in the 19th Congress by Senators Risa Hontiveros, Loren Legarda, and Mark Villar in September 2022 with Senator Robin Padilla showing support for the bill. The bill passed the Senate committee on women, children, family relations, and gender equality in December 2022 with
8976-499: The Second World War, also because they had powerful supporters from the Vatican. The judgment of Pius XII is made more difficult by the sources, because the church archives for his tenure as nuncio, cardinal secretary of state and pope are in part closed or not yet processed. The Second Vatican Council (1962–65) introduced the most significant changes to Catholic practices since the Council of Trent, four centuries before. Initiated by Pope John XXIII, this ecumenical council modernized
9112-405: The Spanish colonization of the Philippines, municipal governments, or Cabildos were established. One such example was the Cabildo in Manila, established in 1571. While the Philippines was under colonial rule as part of the Spanish East Indies , the colony had no representation in the Spanish Cortes . Only in 1809, when the colony was made an integral part of Spain, did it gain representation in
9248-399: The Spanish throne, and the Cádiz Constitution was replaced by the Cortes on May 24, 1816, with a more conservative constitution that removed Philippine representation on the Cortes, among other things. Restoration of Philippine representation to the Cortes was one of the grievances by the Ilustrados , the educated class during the late 19th century. The Illustrados' campaign transformed into
9384-399: The US-instituted Philippine Legislature convened at the Ayuntamiento in Intramuros, Manila from 1907 until 1926, when it transferred to the Legislative Building just outside Intramuros. In the Legislative Building, the Senate occupied the upper floors while the House of Representatives used the lower floors. With the Legislative Building destroyed during the Battle of Manila of 1945 ,
9520-433: The United Nations outright rejected several recommendations, including the passage of the Sexual Orientation, Gender Identity and Expression (SOGIE) Equality Bill. The Commission on Human Rights expressed support for the bill and stated that its passage complies with the Philippines' obligations to international human rights. Musician and former National Youth Commission chair Ice Seguerra has also expressed support for
9656-429: The United States from 1907 to 1935, then only one from 1935 to 1946. The Resident Commissioners had a voice in the House, but did not have voting rights. The Philippine Bill of 1902 mandated the creation of a bicameral or a two-chamber Philippine Legislature with the Philippine Commission as the Upper House and the Philippine Assembly as the Lower House. This bicameral legislature was inaugurated in 1907. Through
9792-579: The War, and established aid networks to help victims, but he secretly assisted the anti-Hitler resistance and shared intelligence with the Allies. His first encyclical Summi Pontificatus (1939) expressed dismay at the 1939 Invasion of Poland and reiterated Catholic teaching against racism. He expressed concern against race killings on Vatican Radio , and intervened diplomatically to attempt to block Nazi deportations of Jews in various countries from 1942 to 1944. But
9928-564: The apostles, instructing them to continue his work. The book Acts of Apostles , tells of the founding of the Christian church and the spread of its message to the Roman Empire. The Catholic Church teaches that its public ministry began on Pentecost , occurring fifty days following the date Christ is believed to have resurrected . At Pentecost, the apostles are believed to have received the Holy Spirit, preparing them for their mission in leading
10064-458: The apostles, preserving the faith infallibly through scripture and sacred tradition as authentically interpreted through the magisterium of the church. The Roman Rite and others of the Latin Church, the Eastern Catholic liturgies , and institutes such as mendicant orders , enclosed monastic orders and third orders reflect a variety of theological and spiritual emphases in
10200-564: The areas under his control definitively established a form of caesaropapism , in which "he had the right and duty of regulating by his laws the minutest details of worship and discipline, and also of dictating the theological opinions to be held in the Church", re-established imperial power over Rome and other parts of the West, initiating the period termed the Byzantine Papacy (537–752), during which
10336-401: The bill can be open for amendments and voting. In June 2019, with the end of the session of the 17th Congress, the SOGIE Equality Bill died after the lawmakers failed to tackle the bill in this session of the Senate of the Philippines. The Senate version of the bill was first filed on August 11, 2016. It was sponsored by Risa Hontiveros on December 14 of the same year. The bill has become one of
10472-501: The bill ever since it was first filed, as well as known celebrities and icons such as Heart Evangelista , Nadine Lustre , Bianca Gonzalez , Iza Calzado , Charo Santos-Concio , Dingdong Dantes , Joey Mead King , Divine Lee, Karen Davila , Chot Reyes , Tootsy Angara, BJ Pascual, Samantha Lee, Christine Bersola-Babao , Rajo Laurel, Tim Yap, Anne Curtis , Mari Jasmine, Laureen Uy, Pia Wurtzbach , Lorenzo Tañada III , Vice Ganda , Arnold Van Opstal , and Chel Diokno . In March 2018,
10608-639: The bill filed by representative Roman, while Gabriela Women's Party representative Arlene Brosas has signed as co-author of the bill filed by Bayan Muna. Religious leaders also gave their support for the SOGIE Bill, such as Koko Alviar of the Iglesia Filipina Independiente (Aglipayan Church), Sister Mary John Mananzan , OSB, executive director of the Institute of Women's Studies of the Catholic St. Scholastica's College , Bishop Solito Toquiero of
10744-652: The bill. In February 2023, Rappler published an investigative report about an anti-SOGIE disinformation network wherein the online network had been spreading disinformation about the bill since 2019. Despite this, two pride month events were held in June 2023 with the one held in Quezon City claimed to have been attended by over 110,000 people and dubbed by the organizers as the "Largest Pride March in Southeast Asia". Various pride marches also occurred in key cities throughout
10880-609: The bishops of Rome, or popes, required approval from the emperor in Constantinople or from his representative in Ravenna for consecration, and most were selected by the emperor from his Greek-speaking subjects, resulting in a "melting pot" of Western and Eastern Christian traditions in art as well as liturgy. Most of the Germanic tribes who in the following centuries invaded the Roman Empire had adopted Christianity in its Arian form, which
11016-496: The church's approach to ecumenism , and a call to improved relations with non-Christian religions, especially Judaism, in its document Nostra aetate . The council, however, generated significant controversy in implementing its reforms: proponents of the " Spirit of Vatican II " such as Swiss theologian Hans Küng said that Vatican II had "not gone far enough" to change church policies. Traditionalist Catholics , such as Archbishop Marcel Lefebvre , however, strongly criticized
11152-460: The church's global reach continued to grow, despite the rise of anti-Catholic authoritarian regimes and the collapse of European Empires, accompanied by a general decline in religious observance in the West. Under Popes Benedict XV , and Pius XII , the Holy See sought to maintain public neutrality through the World Wars, acting as peace broker and delivering aid to the victims of the conflicts. In
11288-666: The church. Of its seven sacraments , the Eucharist is the principal one, celebrated liturgically in the Mass . The church teaches that through consecration by a priest , the sacrificial bread and wine become the body and blood of Christ . The Virgin Mary is venerated as the Perpetual Virgin , Mother of God , and Queen of Heaven ; she is honoured in dogmas and devotions . Catholic social teaching emphasizes voluntary support for
11424-577: The church. The Catholic Church teaches that the college of bishops , led by the bishop of Rome are the successors to the Apostles. In the account of the Confession of Peter found in the Gospel of Matthew , Christ designates Peter as the "rock" upon which Christ's church will be built. The Catholic Church considers the bishop of Rome, the pope, to be the successor to Saint Peter . Some scholars state Peter
11560-422: The church. There are three levels of clergy: the episcopate, composed of bishops who hold jurisdiction over a geographic area called a diocese or eparchy ; the presbyterate, composed of priests ordained by bishops and who work in local dioceses or religious orders; and the diaconate, composed of deacons who assist bishops and priests in a variety of ministerial roles. Ultimately leading the entire Catholic Church
11696-842: The conflict. Catholic clergy played a leading role in the government of the fascist Slovak State , which collaborated with the Nazis, copied their anti-Semitic policies, and helped them carry out the Holocaust in Slovakia. Jozef Tiso , the President of the Slovak State and a Catholic priest, supported his government's deportation of Slovakian Jews to extermination camps. The Vatican protested against these Jewish deportations in Slovakia and in other Nazi puppet regimes including Vichy France , Croatia, Bulgaria , Italy and Hungary. Around 1943, Adolf Hitler planned
11832-511: The council, arguing that its liturgical reforms led "to the destruction of the Holy Sacrifice of the Mass and the sacraments", among other issues. The teaching on the morality of contraception also came under scrutiny; after a series of disagreements, Humanae vitae upheld the church's prohibition of all forms of contraception. In 1978, Pope John Paul II , formerly Archbishop of Kraków in
11968-534: The country's regions. Congress of the Philippines The Congress of the Philippines ( Filipino : Kongreso ng Pilipinas ) is the legislature of the national government of the Philippines . It is bicameral , composed of an upper body, the Senate , and a lower body, the House of Representatives , although colloquially, the term "Congress" commonly refers to just the latter . The Senate meets at
12104-489: The development of the role of the papacy in the subsequent church". These roles, Brown says, "contributed enormously to seeing the bishop of Rome, the bishop of the city where Peter died and where Paul witnessed the truth of Christ, as the successor of Peter in care for the church universal". Conditions in the Roman Empire facilitated the spread of new ideas. The empire's network of roads and waterways facilitated travel, and
12240-539: The driving force behind the Counter-Reformation in response to the Protestant movement. Doctrinally, it reaffirmed central Catholic teachings such as transubstantiation and the requirement for love and hope as well as faith to attain salvation. In subsequent centuries, Catholicism spread widely across the world, in part through missionaries and imperialism , although its hold on European populations declined due to
12376-699: The eighth-century Gregory III . Francis has made efforts to further close Catholicism's estrangement with the Eastern churches. His installation was attended by Patriarch Bartholomew I of Constantinople of the Eastern Orthodox Church, the first time since the Great Schism of 1054 that the Eastern Orthodox Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople has attended a papal installation, while he also met Patriarch Kirill of Moscow , head of
12512-668: The empire's capital. As a result of Islamic domination of the Mediterranean , the Frankish state, centred away from that sea, was able to evolve as the dominant power that shaped the Western Europe of the Middle Ages. The battles of Toulouse and Poitiers halted the Islamic advance in the West and the failed siege of Constantinople halted it in the East. Two or three decades later, in 751,
12648-455: The final breach. In this age great gothic cathedrals in France were an expression of popular pride in the Christian faith. In the early 13th century mendicant orders were founded by Francis of Assisi and Dominic de Guzmán . The studia conventualia and studia generalia of the mendicant orders played a large role in the transformation of church-sponsored cathedral schools and palace schools, such as that of Charlemagne at Aachen , into
12784-442: The first SOGIE house bill of the 17th Congress was filed by Dinagat Islands Representative Arlene Bag-ao under House Bill 51. Similar bills were filed by Bataan Representative Geraldine Roman (HB 267), Akbayan Representative Tomas Villarin (HB 3555), and other representatives. These bills were consolidated and substituted by House Bill 4982. HB 4982 made history when it was approved on the third and final reading with no members of
12920-515: The growth of religious scepticism during and after the Enlightenment. From the 17th century onward, the Enlightenment questioned the power and influence of the Catholic Church over Western society. In the 18th century, writers such as Voltaire and the Encyclopédistes wrote biting critiques of both religion and the Catholic Church. One target of their criticism was the 1685 revocation of
13056-474: The height of the bill's postponed debates, various discrimination incidents against the Filipino LGBT community surfaced, causing public calling for the passage of the SOGIE Equality Bill in the Senate. Numerous influential personalities, including political allies of the three senators who oppose the bill, sided with the calls to pass the landmark proposal. In May 2019, the SOGIE Equality Bill officially became
13192-517: The independence of papal office by abolishing the veto of Catholic powers in papal elections, and his successors Benedict XV (1914–1922) and Pius XI (1922–1939) concluded the modern independence of the Vatican State within Italy. Benedict XV was elected at the outbreak of the First World War . He attempted to mediate between the powers and established a Vatican relief office, to assist victims of
13328-588: The kidnapping of the Pope and his internment in Germany. He gave SS General Wolff a corresponding order to prepare for the action. While Pope Pius XII has been credited with helping to save hundreds of thousands of Jews during the Holocaust , the church has also been accused of having encouraged centuries of antisemitism by its teachings and not doing enough to stop Nazi atrocities. Many Nazi criminals escaped overseas after
13464-577: The largest Eastern Orthodox church, in 2016; this was reported as the first such high-level meeting between the two churches since the Great Schism of 1054. In 2017 during a visit in Egypt , Pope Francis reestablished mutual recognition of baptism with the Coptic Orthodox Church . The Catholic Church follows an episcopal polity , led by bishops who have received the sacrament of Holy Orders who are given formal jurisdictions of governance within
13600-537: The late 16th century. Further, some will refer to the Latin Church as Roman Catholic in distinction from the Eastern Catholic churches. "Roman Catholic" has occasionally appeared also in documents produced both by the Holy See, and notably used by certain national episcopal conferences and local dioceses. The name Catholic Church for the whole church is used in the Catechism of the Catholic Church (1990) and
13736-574: The leadership of then- Speaker Sergio Osmeña and then-Majority Floor Leader Manuel L. Quezon , the Rules of the 59th United States Congress were substantially adopted as the Rules of the Philippine Legislature. In 1916, the Jones Law changed the legislative system. The Philippine Commission was abolished, and a new bicameral Philippine Legislature consisting of a House of Representatives and
13872-464: The longest-running bill under the Senate interpellation period in Philippine history. Supporters of the bill have remarked that the prolonged interpellation was intended by the dissenters to block the passage of the historic anti-discrimination bill. The bill's principal author and sponsor in the Senate, Senator Risa Hontiveros , called on her Senate colleagues to formally close the question period so that
14008-535: The lower house of Congress, were accused of using underhanded tactics to delay or block discussions on the bill. In the House of Representatives, the consolidated Sexual Orientation, Gender Identity, Gender Expression, or Sex Characteristics bill passed the committee on women and gender equality in May 2023. In November 2022, the Philippine delegation to the country's 4th cycle of the Universal Periodic Review at
14144-779: The main office of the Government Service Insurance System (GSIS) in Pasay , while the House of Representatives sits at the Batasang Pambansa Complex in Quezon City . The two are around 25 kilometers (16 mi) apart. The Barasoain Church in Malolos , Bulacan served as a meeting place of unicameral congress of the First Philippine Republic . After the Americans defeated the First Republic,
14280-577: The mid-6th century by Emperor Justinian I as the pentarchy of Rome, Constantinople , Antioch , Jerusalem and Alexandria . In 451 the Council of Chalcedon , in a canon of disputed validity, elevated the see of Constantinople to a position "second in eminence and power to the bishop of Rome". From c. 350 – c. 500 , the bishops, or popes, of Rome, steadily increased in authority through their consistent intervening in support of orthodox leaders in theological disputes, which encouraged appeals to them. Emperor Justinian , who in
14416-399: The minority sectors of the population. This enables these minority groups to be represented in the Congress, when they would otherwise not be represented properly through district representation. Party-list representatives represent labor unions , rights groups, and other organizations. With the increase of districts also means that the seats for party-list representatives increase as well, as
14552-707: The new colonies. In 1521 the Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan made the first Catholic converts in the Philippines . Elsewhere, Portuguese missionaries under the Spanish Jesuit Francis Xavier evangelized in India, China, and Japan. The French colonization of the Americas beginning in the 16th century established a Catholic francophone population and forbade non-Catholics to settle in Quebec . In 1415, Jan Hus
14688-458: The numerous visual artists sponsored by the church. Historian Paul Legutko of Stanford University said the Catholic Church is "at the center of the development of the values, ideas, science, laws, and institutions which constitute what we call Western civilization ". In Western Christendom , the first universities in Europe were established by monks. Beginning in the 11th century, several older cathedral schools became universities, such as
14824-406: The oldest multinational organization in the world. The hierarchy of the Catholic Church is headed by the pope, currently Pope Francis , who was elected on 13 March 2013 by a papal conclave . The office of the pope is known as the papacy . The Catholic Church holds that Christ instituted the papacy upon giving the keys of Heaven to Saint Peter . His ecclesiastical jurisdiction is called
14960-660: The pope receives ambassadors of states and sends them his own diplomatic representatives. The Holy See also confers orders, decorations and medals , such as the orders of chivalry originating from the Middle Ages . While the famous Saint Peter's Basilica is located in Vatican City, above the traditional site of Saint Peter's tomb , the papal cathedral for the Diocese of Rome is the Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran , located within
15096-412: The practices of the Catholic Church, allowing the Mass to be said in the vernacular (local language) and encouraging "fully conscious, and active participation in liturgical celebrations". It intended to engage the church more closely with the present world ( aggiornamento ), which was described by its advocates as an "opening of the windows". In addition to changes in the liturgy, it led to changes to
15232-683: The preservation and transmission of ancient culture. During this period, monastic Ireland became a centre of learning and early Irish missionaries such as Columbanus and Columba spread Christianity and established monasteries across continental Europe. The Catholic Church was the dominant influence on Western civilization from Late Antiquity to the dawn of the modern age. It was the primary sponsor of Romanesque, Gothic, Renaissance, Mannerist and Baroque styles in art, architecture and music. Renaissance figures such as Raphael , Michelangelo , Leonardo da Vinci , Botticelli , Fra Angelico , Tintoretto , Titian , Bernini and Caravaggio are examples of
15368-401: The presidential cabinet. Out of the existing 24 Senate seats: 12 seats could vote and were in support of the bill, 1 seat was in support but could not vote on the bill, 4 seats could vote and were in opposition to the bill, 5 seats could vote on the bill but have not yet given their positions on it, and 2 seats were de facto vacated. For a bill to have passed the Senate, it needed more than half
15504-457: The prominent universities of Europe. Scholastic theologians and philosophers such as the Dominican priest Thomas Aquinas studied and taught at these studia. Aquinas' Summa Theologica was an intellectual milestone in its synthesis of the legacy of ancient Greek philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle with the content of Christian revelation. A growing sense of church-state conflicts marked
15640-438: The protest. In May 2018, Senator Tito Sotto , who opposes the SOGIE bill, became the new Senate President. In an interview, Sotto was asked on the bill's passage, to which he responded, "Not in this congress." In July 2018, various high-profile celebrities rallied for the passage of the SOGIE bill. They also called out senators Sotto, Pacquiao, and Villanueva to end the debates and pass the proposed legislation. In August 2018, at
15776-427: The representatives of Akbayan party-list starting with House Bill 634 filed during the 13th Congress of the Philippines on July 1, 2004, by then party-list Representative Etta Rosales . Similar measures continued to be filed by other senators during the 13th to 16th Congress but none have been successful. Example provided below are the first anti-discrimination senate bills from their respective congress: In 2017,
15912-580: The schism was reconciled, unresolved issues would lead to further division. In the 11th century, the efforts of Hildebrand of Sovana led to the creation of the College of Cardinals to elect new popes, starting with Pope Alexander II in the papal election of 1061 . When Alexander II died, Hildebrand was elected to succeed him, as Pope Gregory VII . The basic election system of the College of Cardinals which Gregory VII helped establish has continued to function into
16048-569: The sick, the poor, and the afflicted through the corporal and spiritual works of mercy . The Catholic Church operates tens of thousands of Catholic schools, universities and colleges , hospitals , and orphanages around the world, and is the largest non-government provider of education and health care in the world. Among its other social services are numerous charitable and humanitarian organizations. The Catholic Church has profoundly influenced Western philosophy , culture , art , literature , music , law , and science . Catholics live all over
16184-421: The slowest-moving bills in the country's history. The passed House version of the bill would have penalised discrimination with a fine of not less than ₱100,000 but not more than ₱500,000, or imprisonment of not less than one year but not more than six years or both, depending on the court's decision. However, she said the bill had gained new allies and wider acceptance among policy makers and the public and that she
16320-494: The support of 19 senators. Included in the signatories of the Senate committee report were Hontiveros, Senate president pro tempore Legarda, and Senate minority leader Koko Pimentel. Senator majority leader Joel Villanueva reverted the bill to the committee level after he referred the bill to the committee on rules in February 2023, which delayed sponsorship of the bill by the plenary. Villanueva and his father, Rep. Eddie Villanueva in
16456-521: The term "bishop of Rome" to the most prominent members of the clergy in the earlier period and also to Peter himself. On this basis protestant scholars Oscar Cullmann , Henry Chadwick , and Bart D. Ehrman question whether there was a formal link between Peter and the modern papacy. Raymond E. Brown also says that it is anachronistic to speak of Peter in terms of local bishop of Rome, but that Christians of that period would have looked on Peter as having "roles that would contribute in an essential way to
16592-629: The urgent request of Pope Stephen, the Frankish king Pepin the Short conquered the Lombards. He then gifted the lands of the former exarchate to the pope, thus initiating the Papal States . Rome and the Byzantine East would delve into further conflict during the Photian schism of the 860s, when Photius criticized the Latin west of adding of the filioque clause after being excommunicated by Nicholas I . Though
16728-695: The votes in favor of it from all 24 Senate seats. The SOGIE Equality Bill was supported by 12 seats that were allowed to vote on the measure. The bill is also supported by the Catholic student governments of University of the Philippines-Diliman (UPD), Ateneo de Manila University (ADMU), De La Salle University (DLSU)-Manila, De La Salle - College of St. Benilde (CSB), Far Eastern University (FEU), Miriam College (MC), St. Scholastica's College (SSC)-Manila and San Beda University (SBU). The longest running LGBT student organization, UP Babaylan, has also been supporting
16864-597: The war and reunite families. The interwar Pope Pius XI modernized the papacy, appointing 40 indigenous bishops and concluding fifteen concordats, including the Lateran Treaty with Italy which founded the Vatican City State . His successor Pope Pius XII led the Catholic Church through the Second World War and early Cold War . Like his predecessors, Pius XII sought to publicly maintain Vatican neutrality in
17000-471: The winners of the 2019 and 2022 Senate elections . The House of Representatives is composed of the winners of the 2022 House of Representatives elections . In both chambers, the majority bloc is composed of members generally supportive of the incumbent presidency of Bongbong Marcos , while the minority blocs are those opposed. In the House of Representatives, there is an independent minority bloc, and 4 vacant seats. In both chambers, membership in committees
17136-570: The world . The pope , who is the bishop of Rome, is the chief pastor of the church. The Diocese of Rome , known as the Holy See , is the central governing authority of the church. The administrative body of the Holy See, the Roman Curia , has its principal offices in Vatican City , which is a small, independent city-state and enclave within the city of Rome , of which the pope is head of state . The core beliefs of Catholicism are found in
17272-537: The world through missions , immigration , diaspora , and conversions . Since the 20th century, the majority have resided in the Global South , partially due to secularization in Europe and North America. The Catholic Church shared communion with the Eastern Orthodox Church until the East–West Schism in 1054, disputing particularly the authority of the pope . Before the Council of Ephesus in AD 431,
17408-481: Was a major factor in preserving classical civilization , with its art (see Illuminated manuscript ) and literacy. Through his Rule , Benedict of Nursia ( c. 480 –543), one of the founders of Western monasticism , exerted an enormous influence on European culture through the appropriation of the monastic spiritual heritage of the early Catholic Church and, with the spread of the Benedictine tradition, through
17544-519: Was at its most intense in Poland , and Catholic resistance to Nazism took various forms. Some 2,579 Catholic clergy were sent to the Priest Barracks of Dachau Concentration Camp , including 400 Germans. Thousands of priests, nuns and brothers were imprisoned, taken to a concentration camp, tortured and murdered, including Saints Maximilian Kolbe and Edith Stein . Catholics fought on both sides in
17680-564: Was barred from voting on the bill as she is currently in police custody. It was opposed by Senators Tito Sotto , Manny Pacquiao , Cynthia Villar , and Joel Villanueva (who signed up as a co-author of the bill). Other senators such as Win Gatchalian , Koko Pimentel , Antonio Trillanes , Panfilo Lacson , and Richard J. Gordon did not express their support or rejection of the bill. Additionally, Alan Peter Cayetano and Gregorio Honasan lost their voting rights on Senate measures as they joined
17816-529: Was burned at the stake for heresy, but his reform efforts encouraged Martin Luther , an Augustinian friar in modern-day Germany, who sent his Ninety-five Theses to several bishops in 1517. His theses protested key points of Catholic doctrine as well as the sale of indulgences , and along with the Leipzig Debate this led to his excommunication in 1521. In Switzerland , Huldrych Zwingli , John Calvin and other Protestant Reformers further criticized Catholic teachings. These challenges developed into
17952-401: Was created. Those elected in 1941 would not serve until 1945, as World War II erupted. The invading Japanese set up the Second Philippine Republic and convened its own National Assembly . With the Japanese defeat in 1945, the Commonwealth and its Congress was restored. The same setup continued until the Americans granted independence on July 4, 1946. Upon the inauguration of the Republic of
18088-404: Was first introduced in the 14th Congress of the Philippines, and has since been refiled continuously up to the present Congress. A senate bill against discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation and gender identity was believed to have been first filed under the 11th Congress of the Philippines in 2000 by then-Senator Miriam Defensor-Santiago . On July 26, 2004, under the 13th Congress of
18224-406: Was first used to describe the church in the early 2nd century. The first known use of the phrase "the catholic church" ( Greek : καθολικὴ ἐκκλησία , romanized : katholikḕ ekklēsía ) occurred in the letter written about 110 AD from Saint Ignatius of Antioch to the Smyrnaeans , which read: "Wheresoever the bishop shall appear, there let the people be, even as where Jesus may be, there
18360-410: Was largely resolved in 1415–17 at the Council of Constance , with the claimants in Rome and Pisa agreeing to resign and the third claimant excommunicated by the cardinals, who held a new election naming Martin V pope. In 1438, the Council of Florence convened, which featured a strong dialogue focussed on understanding the theological differences between the East and West, with the hope of reuniting
18496-416: Was the first bishop of Rome. Others say that the institution of the papacy is not dependent on the idea that Peter was bishop of Rome or even on his ever having been in Rome. Many scholars hold that a church structure of plural presbyters/bishops persisted in Rome until the mid-2nd century, when the structure of a single bishop and plural presbyters was adopted, and that later writers retrospectively applied
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