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154-757: The commune is composed of fourteen villages: The villages were historically part of the Székely Land area of Transylvania . Mózes Székely , prince of Transylvania, had the center of his estates here. The villages belonged to Udvarhelyszék district until the administrative reform of Transylvania in 1876, when they fell within Udvarhely County in the Kingdom of Hungary . After the Treaty of Trianon of 1920, they became part of Romania and fell within Odorhei County during

308-561: A Hungarian ethnic enclave within present-day Romania. The population of the historical Székely Land (according to the 2002 census) is 409,000, 312,043 of them Hungarians, accounting for 76.65% of the total. The Hungarians represent 59% of the populations of Harghita, Covasna and Mureș counties. The percentage of Hungarians is higher in Harghita and Covasna (84.8% and 73.58% respectively), and lower in Mureș County, (38.82%). According to

462-706: A Székely flag during his visit to the Székely Land. The photo was posted by the mayor of Sfântu Gheorghe on Facebook. The reactions of the politicians in Bucharest were turbulent. In a response Klemm affirmed that the only two flags that are important to him, as a diplomat, are the U.S. and the Romanian ones. Article 1 of the Romanian Constitution defines the country as a "sovereign, independent, unitary and indivisible national state." It has often been argued that, as

616-630: A cover letter , which accompanied the text of the Peace Treaty with Hungary. The letter, signed by the President of the Paris Peace Conference, Alexander Millerand , dated 6 May 1920, stated that the Entente Powers and their allies determined new borders of Hungary without plebiscites due to their belief that "a popular consultation ... would not produce significantly different results". At

770-675: A death camp in Feldioara . This paramilitary group was described as " a band of terrorist-chauvinistic criminals " by the Soviets. The USSR let the Romanian authorities back to the area in March 1945, and the Paris Peace Treaties officially returned Northern Transylvania to Romania. Following the Northern Transylvania's return to Romania after World War II , a Magyar Autonomous Region

924-769: A higher level of self-governance for the Székely Land within Romania. On 4 June 2005, the Civic Forum of the Romanians of Covasna, Harghita and Mureș was founded in Miercurea Ciuc. It is an organization aimed at organizing the ethnic Romanian population in the counties that compose Székely Land. On 2 February 2009, Romanian President Traian Băsescu met the Hungarian President László Sólyom in Budapest and discussed

1078-400: A historic mission, emphasized the geographical and economic unity of the country, condemned that many Hungarians were now living under the "hegemony of races with lower cultures" and declared that the torso of the historic Hungarian kingdom could not live without the lost regions, without its mineral wealth, water energy and labor force. Hungary would never accept these borders and would follow

1232-514: A negotiated end to the war, international disarmament, the withdrawal of the Central Powers from occupied territories, the creation of a Polish state , the redrawing of Europe's borders along ethnic lines, and the formation of a League of Nations to guarantee the political independence and territorial integrity of all states. It called for a just and democratic peace uncompromised by territorial annexation. Point ten announced Wilson's "wish" that

1386-860: A new line set along the Tisza river. Unable to reject these terms and unwilling to accept them, the leaders of the Hungarian Democratic Republic resigned and the Communists seized power. In spite of the country being under Allied blockade, the Hungarian Soviet Republic was formed and the Hungarian Red Army was rapidly set up. This army was initially successful against the Czechoslovak Legions , due to covert food and arms aid from Italy. This made it possible for Hungary to reach nearly

1540-506: A number of autonomous Székely seats within Transylvania . The self-governing Székely seats had their own administrative system, and existed as legal entities from medieval times until the 1870s. The privileges of the Székely and Saxon seats were abolished and seats were replaced with counties in 1876 . Along with Transylvania and eastern parts of Hungary proper , the Székely Land became

1694-480: A part of Romania in 1920, in accordance with the Treaty of Trianon . In August 1940, as a consequence of the Second Vienna Award , northern territories of Transylvania , including the Székely Land, were returned to Hungary . Northern Transylvania came under the control of Soviet and Romanian forces in 1944, and were confirmed as part of Romania by the Paris Peace Treaties signed after World War II. Under

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1848-578: A policy aimed at its revision. The lengthy negotiation process was recorded on a daily basis by János Wettstein  [ hu ] , deputy first secretary of the Hungarian delegation. According to Hronský, it turned out to be a mistake on Hungary's part when it appointed Apponyi to lead the Hungarian delegation. Count Apponyi, though popular in Hungary, had a negative reputation in the neighboring countries. His education acts (1907), his pro-German policy during

2002-456: A population of 3,738 of which 99.11% or 3,705 are Hungarians . Sz%C3%A9kely Land The Székely Land or Szeklerland ( Hungarian : Székelyföld , pronounced [ˈseːkɛjføld] , Székely runes : 𐲥𐳋𐳓𐳉𐳗𐳌𐳞𐳖𐳇; Romanian : Ținutul Secuiesc and sometimes Secuimea ; German : Szeklerland ; Latin : Terra Siculorum ) is a historic and ethnographic area in present-day Romania , inhabited mainly by Székelys ,

2156-563: A population of 7.6 million, 36% compared to the pre-war kingdom's population of 20.9 million. Though the areas that were allocated to neighbouring countries had a majority of non-Hungarians, in them lived 3.3 million Hungarians – 31% of the Hungarians – who then became minorities. The treaty limited Hungary's army to 35,000 officers and men, and the Austro-Hungarian Navy ceased to exist. These decisions and their consequences have been

2310-581: A relative small army of Greeks (9 divisions), French (6 divisions), Serbs (6 divisions), British (4 divisions) and Italians (1 division), staged a successful Vardar offensive in Vardar Macedonia that ended by taking Bulgaria out of the war. That collapse of the Southern (Italian) Front was one of several developments that effectively triggered the November 1918 armistice. By the end of October 1918,

2464-464: A result of this provision, any ethnic-based territorial autonomy, including that of the Székely Land, would be unconstitutional. The Supreme Council of National Defence of Romania declared that an autonomy of the so-called Székely Land would be unconstitutional. In 2002 the estimated ethnic composition of the Székely Land (Mureș, Covasna and Harghita counties) consisted of Hungarians (66%), Romanians (29%), Germans (1%) and Roma (4%). The area forms

2618-609: A result, by 4 February 1919, the Czechoslovak Ministry moved its headquarters from Zsolna ( Žilina ) to newly renamed Bratislava (formerly Pozsony). During the rule of Károlyi's pacifist cabinet, Hungary rapidly lost control over approximately 75% of its former pre-WWI territories (325,411 km (125,642 sq mi)) without a fight and was subject to foreign occupation. The Károlyi government failed to manage both domestic and military issues and lost popular support. On 20 March 1919, Béla Kun , who had been imprisoned in

2772-490: A single fact. Instead, they argued in favor of four different positions: The Hungarian representatives placed the blame for the Great War on the former Austrian government. The war was directed centrally from Vienna and Hungarians took no responsibility for its origin or continuation. Hungarians committed no sin other than fighting bravely in the war that was forced on them. Hungarian representatives also claimed credit for ending

2926-631: A slightly bigger territory. It includes the whole territories of Mureș, Harghita, and Covasna counties. Transylvania was populated by Thracian peoples in the First Iron Age . The area received a large influx of Scythians from the East in the first half of the first millennium BC. The Celts appeared in Transylvania in the La Tène period (c. 4th century BC). Dacian culture presence in southeastern Transylvania

3080-469: A subgroup of Hungarians . Its cultural centre is the city of Târgu Mureș (Marosvásárhely), the largest settlement in the region. Székelys (or Szeklers) live in the valleys and hills of the Eastern Carpathian Mountains , corresponding mostly to the present-day Harghita , Covasna , and parts of Mureș counties in Romania. Originally, the name Székely Land denoted the territories of

3234-750: A train bound for the Auschwitz concentration camp . Three transports left Marosvásáhely for Auschwitz: on 27 May, 30 May and 8 June 1944; altogether, they carried 7,549 Jews. On 12 September 1944, the Second Vienna Award was voided by the Allied Commission through the Armistice Agreement with Romania, and the Romanian-Soviet forces seized the area in Autumn 1944; however, the Romanian administration

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3388-543: A white terror, they destroyed the good will of their sympathizers in London and Paris. We hope that the Hungarians or Magyars will be satisfied with a national, non-imperial state, and that they will give up their almost Asiatic institutions and accept new principles." -Swiss newspaper Gazette de Lausanne , reacting to the signing of the Treat of Trianon The Treaty of Trianon not only redrew Hungary's borders but also laid down rules for

3542-613: Is a list of the most known high schools of each city: Those in italic have the Romanian language as their medium of instruction. The Székely ice hockey team Sport Club of Csíkszereda, with mainly home trained, local players (Székelys), plays simultaneously in the Erste League (Hungarian League) and in the Romanian Ice Hockey Championship. Starting with the 2010/2011 season, the Sport Club ice hockey team participated at

3696-578: Is blind and uncritical self-love. These vices, in which they excelled during the war, are still the leading principles of their politics and their whole life. We have a vital interest in carefully following all their movements, but especially in avoiding similar errors." — Ing. Štefan Janšák  [ sk ] , Slovak archeologist, historian and publicist, speaking after the conclusion of the 1920 Paris Peace conference at Trianon The Hungarian delegation, led by Count Apponyi, arrived in Paris on 7 January 1920 and

3850-508: Is marked by discoveries such as the flagship hoard Sâncrăieni (Harghita county) or Dacian fortresses in Covasna county ( Cetatea Zânelor ) or Jigodin (Harghita county). Dacian Kingdom led by Decebal the Romanian ancestors, was taken after two wars, in 106 AD by the Roman Empire under the emperor Trajan, who began organizing the new Roman province of Dacia. Southeastern Transylvania was included in

4004-654: Is mostly famous due to the territorial changes induced on Hungary and recognizing its new international borders after the First World War . Hungary, as part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire , had been involved in the First World War since August 1914. After its allies – Bulgaria and later Turkey – signed armistices with the Entente , the political elite in Budapest opted to end the war as well. On 31 October 1918,

4158-593: Is this really!? Stop him speaking!!" On 18 October Woodrow Wilson responded to the peace offer of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, burying the hope that federalization would preserve its territorial integrity. Wilson emphasized that since his Fourteen Points on 8 January the situation has changed, that the USA has recognized the Czechoslovak National Council in Paris as a de facto government, and that

4312-527: Is why these nations did not deserve self-realization and should remain under the leadership of Hungarians "who represented a highly developed and state-forming element in the Carpathian basin" . This racially colored mentality of a "ruling nation" was used thorough the Memoirs submitted by the Hungarian representatives, and was also used to justify Magyarization . All the non-Hungarian nations and nationalities (with

4466-478: The "oppressed nations of Austria-Hungary will themselves assess what will satisfy their aspirations and their rights". . In his last political speech to the Hungarian parliament, Tisza bitterly complained about how the Entente powers "negotiated with the internal enemies of the state" which meant that now he was forced to enter talks with "the phantasmagoria of a Czechoslovak state" . Wekerle responded that they will negotiate with them "only if they first give up on

4620-724: The Austro-Hungarian Army was so fatigued that its commanders were forced to seek a ceasefire . Czechoslovakia and the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs were proclaimed, and troops started deserting, disobeying orders and retreating. Many Czechoslovak troops, in fact, started working for the Allied cause, and in September 1918, five Czechoslovak Regiments were formed in the Italian Army . The launch of an offensive by 51 Entente divisions along

4774-585: The Habsburg monarchy (later Austrian Empire ), and governed by imperial governors. In 1848 during the Hungarian revolution and freedom war it was declared the reunion of Hungary proper and Transylvania. The Austrian emperor incited the Romanians and Serbians living in Hungary and Transylvania against the Hungarians, promising them some kind of autonomy. In 1867, as a result of the Austro-Hungarian Compromise , Transylvania become again an integral part of

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4928-781: The Huns from the east pressured most of the German tribes to leave. In the Battle of Nedao the East Germanic Gepids defeated the Huns and founded Gepidia in the territory of present-day Transylvania. This marked the end of the Hunnic Empire . The territory of the Székely Land was part of the Avar Khaganate . During this period, Avar and Slavic groups migrated into Transylvania . From around 900 to 1526

5082-708: The Peace Dictate of Trianon or Dictate of Trianon in Hungary, was prepared at the Paris Peace Conference and was signed on the one side by Hungary and, on the other, by the Allied and Associated Powers, in the Grand Trianon château in Versailles on 4 June 1920. It formally terminated the state of war issued from World War I between most of the Allies of World War I and the Kingdom of Hungary . The treaty

5236-585: The River Mureș (Maros) . However, on 14 November, Serbia occupied Pécs . General Franchet d'Espèrey followed up the victory by overrunning much of the Balkans , and by the war's end his troops had penetrated well into Hungary. In mid-November 1918, the Czechoslovak troops advanced into the northern parts of the collapsing kingdom (i.e. future Slovakia), but on 14 November Károlyi ordered the Hungarian forces to repulse

5390-536: The Tisza River and reinforced its position with the 8th Division, which had been moving forward from Bukovina since 22 May. Hungary then controlled the territory almost to its old borders; regained control of industrial areas around Miskolc, Salgótarján , Selmecbánya (Banská Štiavnica), Kassa (Košice). In June, the Hungarian Red Army invaded the eastern part of the so-called Upper Hungary , now claimed by

5544-751: The Triple Entente (led by Britain, France and Russia). In 1918 Germany tried to overwhelm the Allies on the Western Front but failed. Instead the Allies began a successful counteroffensive and forced the Armistice of 11 November 1918 that resembled a surrender by the Central Powers. On 6 April 1917, the United States entered the war against Germany and in December 1917 against Austria-Hungary. The American war aim

5698-405: The "Czech invasion" back. After King Charles IV's withdrawal from government on 16 November 1918, Károlyi proclaimed the First Hungarian Republic , with himself as provisional president of the republic. On the same day the Slovak National Council dispatched Pavel Fábry to Budapest on an official mission to discuss public security and police order in their respective areas. Fábry reported back that

5852-408: The 2011 official census, 570,033 Hungarians (53.22%) live in the counties of Covasna, Harghita and Mureș (out of a total population of 1,071,890 inhabitants). In Mureș county the Romanians have a slight majority (52.6%), while in the counties of Covasna and Harghita, the Hungarians make up the majority (79.6% and 85.9%). The 2011 census compared to the data of the previous census (2002) also shows that

6006-422: The 79th Infantry regiment rebelled and occupied the town. Fearing the spread of revolution from Croatia to Hungary, Prime Minister Wekerle resigned under pressure. During the war, Count Mihály Károlyi led a small but very active pacifist anti-war maverick faction in the Hungarian parliament. He even organized covert contacts with British and French diplomats in Switzerland. On 25 October 1918 Károlyi had formed

6160-425: The Allied Powers. On 28 June 1914, the heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary , the Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria , was assassinated by a Serbian nationalist . This caused a rapidly escalating July Crisis resulting in Austria-Hungary declaring war on Serbia, followed quickly by the entry of most European powers into the First World War. Two alliances faced off, the Central Powers (led by Germany ) and

6314-420: The Allied trade blockade, particularly by the Czechs, and to allow fuel and food to be imported into Hungary. The communists remained bitterly unpopular in the Hungarian countryside, where the authority of that government was often nonexistent. Rather than divide the big estates among the peasants – which might have gained their support for the government, but would have created a class of small-holding farmers

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6468-455: The Budapest government declared independence of Hungary from Austria and immediately began peace talks with the Allies. Despite the end of hostilities, the Entente Allies – Hungary's neighbours – Czechoslovakia (which just declared its independence on 28 October 1918), Romania, and Yugoslavia put Hungary under an economic blockade. They deprived Hungary of importing food, fuel (coal and petrol) and other important goods. In an attempt to alleviate

6622-449: The Budapest government ordered their withdrawal following a political arrangement with Prague which established the first demarcation line between Hungary and Czechoslovakia. Military and political events changed rapidly and drastically after the Hungarian unilateral disarmament: Károlyi appointed the liberal progressive and pacifist Oszkár Jászi to become Minister without portfolio for nationality questions. Jászi wanted to indicate that

6776-446: The Coal Shortage in 1918–21 The Hungarian government terminated its union with Austria on 31 October 1918, officially dissolving the Austro-Hungarian dual monarchy. The de facto temporary borders of independent Hungary were defined by the ceasefire lines in November–December 1918. Compared with the pre-war Kingdom of Hungary, these temporary borders did not include: The territories of Banat, Bačka and Baranja (which included most of

6930-411: The Czechoslovak state as an Allied participant in the war, is participating in the armistice, in which the former Austro-Hungarian Monarchy was included. As a result of this, I am authorized to call on the Hungarian government to withdraw its army from the territory of Slovakia without delay..." — Supreme Commander of the Allied Armies Marshal Ferdinand Foch , 3 December 1918 The Armistice of 3 November

7084-505: The Czechoslovak troops to occupy northern Hungary ( Slovakia ) as well. In exchange, Budapest hoped to reopen foreign trade and supply coal. In order to extend their zones of occupation in Hungary, Romania and Czechoslovakia moved their armies further into Hungary in April 1919, provoking a renewal of hostilities between these three countries. In June 1919, the Entente powers ordered Budapest, Prague, and Bucharest to cease fighting and accept new demarcation lines that would be guaranteed as

7238-414: The Entente military representative demanded more territorial concessions from Hungary, Kun attempted to "fulfill" his promise to adhere to Hungary's historical borders. The men of the Hungarian Red Army were recruited mainly from the volunteers of the Budapest proletariat. On 20 May 1919, a force under Colonel Aurél Stromfeld attacked and routed Czechoslovak troops from Miskolc . The Romanian Army attacked

7392-449: The Hungarian National Council. The Austro-Hungarian monarchy politically collapsed and disintegrated as a result of a defeat in the Italian front . On 31 October 1918, in the midst of armistice negotiations, the Aster Revolution erupted and Charles IV King of Hungary appointed the liberal Károlyi as prime minister. The revolution in Budapest occurred in parallel to the disintegration of the Austria-Hungary trade network. The heaviest blow to

7546-402: The Hungarian Red Army; even the chief of the general staff Aurél Stromfeld, resigned his post in protest. When the French promised the Hungarian government that Romanian forces would withdraw from the Tiszántúl , Kun withdrew from Czechoslovakia his remaining military units who had remained loyal after the political fiasco with the Slovak Soviet Republic. Kun then unsuccessfully tried to turn

7700-444: The Hungarian flank with troops from the 16th Infantry Division and the Second Vânători Division, aiming to maintain contact with the Czechoslovak Army. Hungarian troops prevailed, and the Romanian Army retreated to its bridgehead at Tokaj . There, between 25 and 30 May, Romanian forces were required to defend their position against Hungarian attacks. On 3 June, Romania was forced into further retreat but extended its line of defence along

7854-432: The Hungarian government agreed to extend the Czechoslovak zone of occupation to Pozsony (Bratislava), Komárom (Komárno), Kassa (Košice) and Ungvár (Užhhorod). By late January 1919, the Czechoslovak troops advanced into these areas. The Budapest approval for the Czechoslovak advancement was largely explained by the Hungarian desire to reopen trade with Czech lands and to obtain crucially needed coal amidst an energy crisis. As

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8008-421: The Hungarian government agreed to retreat behind temporary boundaries drawn by Milan Hodža , who led a delegation of the Slovak National Council in Budapest. Hodža stipulated that the line he drew "would be valid only until new instructions concerning the demarcation line come from Paris." On 24 December 1918, the French Minister of Foreign Affairs Stephen Pichon informed Budapest of a new demarcation line, and

8162-499: The Hungarian interests. Simultaneously, Horthy entrusted Count Pál Teleki with collecting and preparing all the material necessary for the peace conference. Nevertheless it was Apponyi who took over the conceptual leadership of all the works connected with the peace talk. The Czechoslovak President Tomáš Masaryk , knowing that the Hungarian delegation to Paris would be eventually headed by Apponyi, proposed to compile statistics on Hungarian education, where it would be emphasized that it

8316-402: The Hungarians and the Romanians. However, the Entente pressed the Romanians to leave Budapest in November 1919 and orchestrated formation of a new Hungarian coalition government . The new cabinet was invited to attend the Paris Peace Conference. In January 1920, it received the Allied proposal for a peace treaty. The treaty stipulated the legalization of the demarcation lines of 13 June 1919 as

8470-417: The Hungarians, as no other delegation from a defeated state had been given the same advantage. On 15 January, Apponyi received the text of the proposed Peace Treaty in the "Red Hall", and the next day Apponyi made his prepared speech to the Supreme Council. He called for the right of self-determination of Hungarians, denied that other nations were oppressed in the old Kingdom of Hungary, claimed that Hungary had

8624-429: The Kingdom of Hungary, within Austria-Hungary . In 1876, a general administrative reform abolished all the autonomous areas in the Kingdom of Hungary and created a unified system of counties. As a result, the autonomy of the Székely Land came to an end as well. Four counties were created in its place: Udvarhely , Háromszék , Csík , and Maros-Torda . (Only half of the territory of Maros-Torda originally belonged to

8778-430: The Károlyi government considered the fight against Yugoslavs and Romanians to be lost, and instead aimed to send all of their military forces to the northern front, in order to at least retain "Upper Hungary". Fábry entered talks with Károlyi and Jászi, agreeing to nothing while stalling for time, until the Entente could act. On 6 December, following a note from 3 December sent to Budapest by French Marshal Ferdinand Foch ,

8932-432: The Markó Street prison, was released. On 21 March, he led a successful communist coup d'état ; Károlyi was deposed and arrested. Kun formed a social democratic , communist coalition government and proclaimed the Hungarian Soviet Republic . Days later the communists purged the social democrats from the government. The Hungarian Soviet Republic was a small communist rump state . When the Republic of Councils in Hungary

9086-427: The Paris Peace Conference, such as the Saint-Germain Peace Treaty of 1919 and the Teschen Settlement of July 1920 , it provided the legal framework for overcoming the economic chaos in Central Europe caused by the First World War and exacerbated by the disintegration of the Austro-Hungarian common market in late 1918. Breaking up a customs union: The case of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1919 The critical element of

9240-409: The Paris peace commission to point out any contradiction. Apponyi's claims on the question of education were likewise pointed out to be contradictory to what he claimed and what he passed while in office as Minister of Education (1906–1910), which the Czechoslovak side exploited with great effect. The lack of unity and contradictions of the Hungarian Memoirs was because they failed to consistently pursue

9394-429: The People Act 1918 ). All feudal privileges of the Hungarian nobility was erased by the April Laws of 1848. Germany, the major ally of Austria-Hungary in World War I, suffered numerous losses during the Hundred Days Offensive between August and November 1918 and was in negotiation of armistice with Allied Powers from the beginning of October 1918. Between 15 and 29 September 1918, Franchet d'Espèrey , in command of

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9548-471: The Red Army saw the establishment of the Slovak Soviet Republic as a betrayal, and their support for the government began to erode. Despite a series of military victories against the Czechoslovak army, the Hungarian Red Army started to disintegrate due to tension between nationalists and communists during the establishment of the Slovak Soviet Republic. The concession eroded support of the communist government among professional military officers and nationalists in

9702-478: The Romanian ethnic ratio in the Székely Land has been decreasing (due to emigration). Târgu Mureș is the home for the largest community of Hungarians in Romania (60,669 in 2011), but the town itself has a Romanian majority (69,702 out of 134,290 inhabitants). Important centers of the Székely Land are Târgu-Mureș ( Marosvásárhely ), Miercurea Ciuc ( Csíkszereda ), Sfântu Gheorghe ( Sepsiszentgyörgy ), and Odorheiu Secuiesc ( Székelyudvarhely ). The following

9856-497: The Romanian men's national ice hockey team consist of Székely players. The national team are ranked 28th in the 2010 IIHF World Rankings and currently compete in Division IIA. The Székely Land football team represents the Székely Land in ConIFA competitions. Treaty of Trianon The Treaty of Trianon ( French : Traité de Trianon ; Hungarian : Trianoni békeszerződés ; Italian : Trattato del Trianon ; Romanian : Tratatul de la Trianon ) often referred to as

10010-422: The Slovaks, and as such I would grant to him that he should be the one to sign the sentence of condemnation not only of his life..." The Czechoslovak, Romanian and Yugoslavian delegation decided on a joint approach when replying to the Hungarian memorandums. On 26 February, the Hungarian newspaper Pesti Hírlap ridiculed this cooperation as some kind of " Little Entente " . The treaty of peace in its final form

10164-490: The Székely Land was held on 28 April 1944; it covered the counties of Csík, Háromszék, Maros-Torda and Udvarhely. The area's Jews were ghettoized in Szászrégen ( Reghin ), Sepsiszentgyörgy ( Sfântu Gheorghe ) and Marosvásárhely. Roundups began on 3 May 1944 and were completed within a week. The Hungarian authorities actively participated in the crimes of the Nazis. The Jews ghettoized at Sepsiszentgyörgy were later sent to Szászrégen, whence on 4 June 1944, 3,149 were boarded on

10318-494: The Székely Land. Those Székely Hungarians who possessed degrees were subjected to resettlement. In March 1990, the city of Târgu Mureș witnessed violent clashes between ethnic Romanian and Hungarian groups. After the fall of communism , many hoped that the former Magyar Autonomous Region , abolished by Nicolae Ceauşescu 's regime, would soon be restored. This did not happen; however, there are Székely autonomy initiatives and further efforts from Székely organisations to reach

10472-443: The Székely Land.) The isolated Aranyosszék became a district of Torda-Aranyos county. In December 1918, in the wake of the First World War , Romanian delegates from throughout Transylvania voted to join the Kingdom of Romania . There was an attempt in Udvarhely to found a "Székely republic" on 9 January 1919; however, its creation was unsuccessful. In 1920, by the Treaty of Trianon , Transylvania along with further territories

10626-472: The administrative divisions of Romania—are dissimilar. The exact territory of the present-day Székely Land is not disputed. According to Minahan its territory is approximately 16,943 square kilometres (6,542 sq mi), though the autonomy proposal of the Szekler National Council consists of about 13,000 km . This size is close to the extent of the historical Székely Land, though it does not contain Aranyos Seat . The UDMR 's autonomy project covers

10780-515: The area was under the direct control of the Hungarian state . The Székelys presumably settled in Transylvania in the 12th century from present day Bihar and Bihor counties . Ancient Hungarian legends suggest a connection between the Székelys and Attila's Huns . The origin of the Székely people is still debated. The Székely seats were the traditional self-governing territorial units of the Transylvanian Székelys during medieval times . (Saxons were also organised in seats.) The Seats were not part of

10934-427: The area were drafted into forced labor battalions . For example, 1,200 Jewish males of Marosvásárhely ( Târgu Mureș ) were conscripted between 1941 and 1944; over half died in Ukraine, Poland and Hungary. However, despite discrimination and many casualties, most of the community lived in relative safety until the March 1944 occupation of Hungary by Nazi Germany. A conference devoted to the concentration of Jews in

11088-525: The basic set of Memoirs were sent to Paris in January 1920, and further supplements, protest notes and demands were added in the following months. The Memoir intended to present a harmonious life of the nations and nationalities inside the Kingdom of Hungary while denying their oppression, marginalization and systematic assimilation. But its massive size also turned to be its greatest weakness, as it made it easy for

11242-527: The borders should remain as they were drafted in 1919, because "the nationality situation in Central Europe is such that it is not possible to ensure that political borders fully agree with ethnic borders" and thus the Great Powers were forced to leave some populations under the sovereignty of other states. In spite of this, the Great Powers rejected the Hungarian claim "that it would be better to not change

11396-745: The cause of deep resentment in Hungary ever since. The principal beneficiaries were the Kingdom of Romania , the Czechoslovak Republic , the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later Yugoslavia ), and the First Austrian Republic . But it also led to international recognition of Hungary and of its sovereignty. The treaty canceled the Belgrade armistice, which gave right to the Allied powers to occupy Hungary. The treaty also granted Hungarian citizens abroad right of protection of their property from nationalization. Most importantly, it guaranteed

11550-517: The centre of the village. Rugănești is a Székely village, next to Cristuru Secuiesc on the Nyikó creek. It is populated by Hungarian Calvinists and Unitarians . It has a Gothic Calvinist Church with a few remaining Gothic murals painted before the Reformation which were uncovered in the 20th century. The commune has an absolute Székely ( Hungarian ) majority. According to the 2002 census it has

11704-484: The championships under the name HSC Csíkszereda and that year it won its first Erste League title as well. The team's main achievements so far: The Romanian Championship (fifteen times winner): 1949, 1952, 1957, 1960, 1963, 1997, 2000, 2004, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013. The Romanian Cup (ten times winner): 1950, 1952, 1995, 2001, 2003, 2006, 2007, 2010, 2011, 2014. Pannonian League (one-time winner): 2004. Erste League (one-time winner): 2011. The majority of

11858-525: The communist government proclaimed the nationalization of the estates. But having no skilled people to manage the estates, the communists had no choice but to leave the existing estate managers in place. These, while formally accepting their new government bosses, in practice retained their loyalty to the deposed aristocratic owners. The peasants felt that the revolution had no real effect on their lives and thus had no reason to support it. The communist party and communist policies only had real popular support among

12012-432: The economic crisis, succeeding Hungarian governments pleaded with the Entente to lift the blockade and restore regional trade. First peace talks led to an armistice in Belgrade on 13 November 1918: Hungary undertook to demobilise its army and granted the Allies the right to occupy the south ( Vojvodina and Croatia) and east of Hungary (south Transylvania ) until a peace treaty was signed. In December 1918, Budapest allowed

12166-611: The economic paralysis in Hungary and other Danubian countries was the shortage of coal, which had been aggravating since 1914, but became critical in 1918-1920. [1] While coal production in the Habsburg Monarchy had been declining after 1914, the disappearance of imperial unity at the end of 1918 halted the distribution of coal from the Silesian mines to various consuming regions, including Hungary. Coal production in Hungary fell from 10 million tonnes in 1913 to 3 million tonnes in 1919, but

12320-682: The end, Millerand's letter categorically emphasized, that "The conditions for peace, which were presented to you today, are, however, definitive." The United States did not ratify the Treaty of Trianon. Instead it negotiated a separate peace treaty that did not contradict the terms of the Trianon treaty. "...Today it is possible to say that Hungarian or Magyar imperialism will be broken. Although we risk angering Hungarian patriots, whose propaganda reaches as far as Switzerland, we do not hesitate to declare that this strictness appears to us to be justified, since

12474-558: The exception of the Germans and Saxons) had "a much less developed civilization than the Hungarians" , which the Hungarian state blamed on their inferior languages. The Slovaks, Romanians and Jews "willingly" magyarized themselves, because they realized that "the Magyar race was the bearer of a thousand years of civilization" . Before World War I , only three European countries declared ethnic minority rights, and enacted minority-protecting laws:

12628-499: The first was Hungary (1849 and 1868), the second was Austria (1867), and the third was Belgium (1898). In contrast, the legal systems of other pre-WW1 era European countries did not allow the use of European minority languages in primary schools, in cultural institutions , in offices of public administration and at the legal courts. "In the name of the great principle so happily phrased by President Wilson, namely that no group of people, no population, may be transferred from one State to

12782-510: The former frontiers of Hungary gave the Hungarian or Magyar minority of 9 million headed by the nobility the position... to exploit 12 million people of other nationalities. The French Government did not always speak to the Hungarians in the language they deserved, and the English aristocracy agreed with the Hungarian oligarchy even in the course of the war. However, it appears that the Hungarian nobility went too far: by evoking Bolshevism and installing

12936-570: The former territory of the Kingdom of Hungary , settling a smaller territorial dispute between the First Austrian Republic and the Kingdom of Hungary , because some months earlier, the Rongyos Gárda launched a series of attacks to oust the Austrian forces that entered the area. During the Sopron plebiscite in late 1921, the polling stations were supervised by British, French, and Italian army officers of

13090-418: The free trade between Hungary, Austria, and Czechoslovakia (for 5 years), and obliged Czechoslovakia and Poland to supply coal to Hungary in "reasonable quantity". One of the main elements of the treaty was the doctrine of " self-determination of peoples", and it was an attempt to give the non-Hungarians their own national states. In addition, Hungary had to pay war reparations to its neighbours. The treaty

13244-458: The future borders of Hungary. Despite temporary military successes against the Czechs, Budapest accepted the offer and withdrew its army behind the demarcation line. Bucharest, however, ignored the Entente order and continued its offensive.  In early August 1919, the Romanian army entered Budapest and a new pro-Romanian government was installed in Hungary. This marked the end of hostilities between

13398-409: The government in Budapest to secure coal supplies and stabilise the economy. In November 1918, the Hungarian government began negotiations with Czechoslovakia and the Entente powers to alleviate the coal crisis. Hungary's desperate need for coal influenced its diplomatic strategy and led it to make concessions. Hungary also sought help from the Entente, recognising that cooperation with its neighbours and

13552-421: The government was caused by the stop of coal imports from Silesia , which assured the functioning of most of transport, industry and heating in cities. By 5 November, Károlyi learnt that the national coal stocks would be empty in 2 days. The energy crisis in Hungary, caused by a shortage of coal, weakened the Budapest government to such an extent that it felt compelled to seek a compromise with Czechoslovakia, which

13706-522: The heavy territorial losses in favour of Prague. After the ratification of the Trianon Treaty by the Hungarian Parliament in November 1920, Hungary started receiving increasing quantities of coal via Czechoslovakia. During the 1920s, Czechoslovakia became the most important trading partner of Hungary. ‘Each Wagon of Coal Should Be Paid for with Territorial concessions.’ Hungary, Czechoslovakia, and

13860-418: The historic borders: The continuation of a situation, even if it is a thousand years old, is not justified if it is against justice." The belated Hungarian offers for Slovak autonomy within Hungary were dismissed as a diplomatic trick, since "the basic historic fact was that for many years all the efforts of the Hungarian political elite were directed towards silencing the voices of the national minorities." At

14014-497: The historical Székely areas. Hungarian authorities subsequently restored the pre-Trianon structure with slight modifications. Ion Gigurtu 's antisemitic laws, the Romanian version of Nuremberg Laws , were replaced by Hungarian ones. The Jews of the Székely Land were subjected to particularly harsh treatment. These individuals had their citizenship status reviewed, many of them being detained. In Csíkszereda ( Miercurea Ciuc ), dozens of families were rounded up and expelled. The men in

14168-523: The historical, geographical, economic and spiritual unity of the old Kingdom of Hungary. Yet, the Memoirs mixed them all in a confusing way. Hungary also demanded plebiscites as a means to restore the former multi-national Kingdom of Hungary, and not to create a majority Hungarian nation state. The Supreme Council of the Peace Conference, when drawing the Czechoslovak–Hungarian border, applied

14322-417: The idea of turning Hungary into Eastern Switzerland" . Wekerle promised the parliament that they will tell Wilson that "we know of no Czechoslovak union, only of a Czech union" . The Hungarian government agreed to begin negotiations with the nationalities, promise them some minor concessions and if these were not accepted, they would hold a plebiscite and make sure its resolution was favorable to Hungarians and

14476-480: The integrity of Hungary. They would inform President Wilson of the results and the conditions for peace would be fulfilled. Only a minority of Hungarian politicians, led by Mihály Károlyi, sought preservation in the democratisation of the semi-feudal kingdom, which still lacked universal suffrage. (Similar to Hungary, the most Western European countries did not have universal suffrage before the end of WW1. The UK introduced universal suffrage after WWI Representation of

14630-614: The interwar period. In 1940, the second Vienna Award granted the Northern Transylvania to Hungary and they were held by Hungary until 1944. After Soviet occupation, the Romanian administration returned and the villages became officially part of Romania in 1947. Between 1952 and 1960, the commune fell within the Magyar Autonomous Region , between 1960 and 1968 the Mureș-Magyar Autonomous Region. In 1968,

14784-679: The issues of minority rights and regional autonomy. Băsescu stated "The Hungarian minority will never be given territorial autonomy." In 2014, the UDMR and the Hungarian Civic Party had a joint autonomy proposal for the Székely Land, but the Szekler National Council also possessed its own suggestion. In 2016, Hans G. Klemm , the United States Ambassador to Romania , together with other local officials, were pictured with

14938-488: The latter including Gyergyószék ; Covasna County covers more or less the territory of the former Háromszék ; and what was once Maros-Torda is mostly part of present-day Mureș County . The former Aranyosszék is today divided between Cluj and Alba counties. Nicolae Ceaușescu came to power in 1965. For the next couple of decades, due to the Romanianization efforts, a large number of ethnic Romanians settled in

15092-408: The lost natural wealth and energy would be in the hands of "less cultured nations", unable to use it. The alleged cultural inferiority of Romanians, Slovaks and Yugoslavs would not only lead to economic decline, but would also have a destructive effect on spiritual and moral life, on science, arts, literature, religion (especially European Catholicism), social development and political organization. This

15246-427: The military service the Székely provided until the beginning of the 18th century . The medieval Székely Land was an alliance of the seven autonomous Székely seats of Udvarhely , Csík , Maros , Sepsi , Kézdi , Orbai and Aranyos . The number of seats later decreased to five, when Sepsi , Kézdi and Orbai seats were united into one territorial unit called Háromszék (literally Three seats ) . The main seat

15400-406: The mobilization of the five youngest year groups (1896–1900). This was presaged by Károlyi's proclamation, in which he declared the entrance of Czechoslovak troops a "Czech invasion and occupation" . "The Czechoslovak state was recognized by the Allies, and the Allies recognized the Czechoslovak army as Allied. The Czechoslovak state is entitled to occupy the territory of Slovakia, already because

15554-498: The most drastic blow came from the cessation of imports of 5 million tonnes of rich Silesian bituminous coal. The stoppage of coal imports was mainly due to the blockade imposed by the Czechoslovak government over Hungary at the end of 1918. In fact, Czechs gained control over a significant part of the Silesian mines, such as in Teschen, and over the transit railways from Silesia to Vienna and Budapest. From November-December 1918, Prague made

15708-439: The name Magyar Autonomous Region , with Târgu Mureș as capital, parts of the Székely Land enjoyed a certain level of autonomy between 8 September 1952 and 16 February 1968. There are territorial autonomy initiatives with the aim to obtain self-governance for this region within Romania. Szekely Land is located in the middle of modern-day Romania, in eastern Transylvania. Its historical extent and present-day boundaries—set by

15862-485: The name of Hungary, without regard for its German and Austrian allies. By this, alongside his pacifist views, he sought to distance Hungary from those mainly responsible for the war, and convince the victorious Entente that his government already represented a democratic country, and so should not be punished for the warlike actions of preceding governments, as Slovak historian Marián Hronský considered. Károlyi yielded to President Wilson's demand for pacifism by ordering

16016-488: The new borders and guaranteed the end of the blockade and the restoration of free trade between the former Habsburg lands and the import of coal into Hungary. The government in Budapest and the Hungarian Parliament (opened in February 1920) accepted the peace terms. While it welcomed the restoration of peace and trade, it still formally protested against the cession of their former territories without plebiscites. The Peace Treaty

16170-794: The newly forming Czechoslovak state. The Hungarian Red Army achieved some military success early on: under the leadership of Colonel Aurél Stromfeld, it ousted Czechoslovak troops from the north and planned to march against the Romanian Army in the east. Kun ordered the preparation of an offensive against Czechoslovakia , which would increase his domestic support by making good on his promise to restore Hungary's borders. The Hungarian Red Army recruited men between 19 and 25 years of age. Industrial workers from Budapest volunteered. Many former Austro-Hungarian officers re-enlisted for patriotic reasons. The Hungarian Red Army moved its 1st and 5th artillery divisions—40 battalions—to Upper Hungary. Despite promises for

16324-471: The obligation of Czechoslovakia and Poland to provide coal to Hungary in necessary quantities, but also assured that the two important coal-mining centers of Hungary – surrounding towns of Pécs and of Salgótarján – would be freed from the occupying Czech and Serbian troops and remain inside Hungary. The great powers understood that Hungary's desperate need for coal and trade with neighbouring countries, particularly Czechoslovakia, would force Budapest to accept

16478-411: The old Hungarian policy towards non-Hungarian nations and nationalities was over and a new democratic course was to begin. According to Jászi, the main aim of his nationality policy was "to defend the plebiscite principle, and so where possible make conditions more favorable for Hungary." The ultimate goal was the creation of a confederative state system, called Danube Confederation , that would preserve

16632-420: The other without being first consulted – as though they were a herd of cattle with no will of their own – in the name of this great principle, an axiom of good sense and public morals, we request and demand a plebiscite in those parts of Hungary which are now on the point of being severed from us. I declare that we are willing to bow to the decision of a plebiscite, whatever it should be". [...] "Gentlemen! From

16786-526: The pacifist and pro-Entente Károlyi's new Hungarian government decided to recall all of the troops, who were conscripted from the territory of Kingdom of Hungary, which was a major blow for the Habsburg's armies. Károlyi's new government insisted on preserving the historic borders of Hungary, but it was in no position to comply with the urgent demands for forcible intervention, demanded by military commanders. Károlyi intended to conclude an armistice independently in

16940-553: The partial responsibility which falls on Hungary for the outbreak of the World War and in general for the imperialist policy pursued by the Dual Monarchy" It also mentioned that the "territorial clauses in the peace conditions would not be changed at all, because any change of the frontiers which the Hungarian delegation demanded would have very unfortunate results" . Examination of Hungarian counter-proposals only confirmed to them that

17094-399: The peoples of Austria-Hungary be given autonomy—a point that Vienna rejected. The Hungarian Parliament, led by Prime Minister Sándor Wekerle , agreed to the proposal to discuss peace on the basis of Wilson's Fourteen Points. At the same time, it declared that the problem of non-Hungarian nations in Hungary was an internal matter for the state. Wekerle refused to publicly admit that the war

17248-461: The point of view of the great interests of humanity I think the fact of national hegemony falling into the hands of races who, while offering the best hopes for the future, are yet today on a low level of civilisation, can be looked upon neither with indifference nor with satisfaction." — Details from the closing speech of Count Albert Apponyi , head of the Hungarian delegation on 16 January 1920 The arguments used by Hungary concentrated on proving

17402-464: The pre-war Hungarian counties of Baranya , Bács-Bodrog , Torontál , and Temes ) came under military control by the Kingdom of Serbia and political control by local South Slavs. The Great People's Assembly of Serbs, Bunjevci and other Slavs in Banat, Bačka and Baranja declared union of this region with Serbia on 25 November 1918. The ceasefire line had the character of a temporary international border until

17556-438: The presence of minorities in political life being repressed. The election of Hungarians was consistently nullified. The place-names were subjected to Romanianization. The minority languages were excised from official life and the local authorities were mostly led by appointed ethnic Romanians. In 1940, as a result of the Second Vienna Award , Northern Transylvania became part of Hungary again; this territory included most of

17710-486: The principle of mutual balance of minorities in the two states, since, as they claimed, creating a clean and precise ethnic border was impossible. The Supreme Council rejected the maximum demands of the Czechoslovak side, nor did it apply a purely geographical or ethnic principle, but combined them with economical, historical, transportation, military strategical, and other geopolitical factors. The Supreme Council accepted Czechoslovak arguments that showed that post-war Hungary

17864-610: The proletarian masses of large industrial centers—especially in Budapest—where the working class represented a high proportion of the inhabitants. The communist government followed the Soviet model: the party established its terror groups (like the infamous Lenin Boys ) to "overcome the obstacles" in the Hungarian countryside. This was later known as the Red Terror in Hungary . In late May, after

18018-458: The proposed Peace Treaty with Hungary was fully prepared in Paris. Thereafter, the Károly Huszár government, which received the international recognition of the Entente, was invited to participate in the Paris Peace Conference on 2 December. The notable pre-WW1 politician and diplomat Count Albert Apponyi was appointed to lead the Hungarian delegation to the Paris Peace Conference to represent

18172-455: The province was abolished, and since then, the commune has been part of Harghita County. The village, populated by Unitarian Hungarians, was first mentioned in a tithe list from 1332. In terms of religious affiliations, it belonged to the Unitarian part of Udvarhelyszék . The original church was destroyed at the beginning of the 19th century, and the new church was built in a different place in

18326-473: The provinces of Dacia Porolissensis, Dacia Apulensis and Meuse and fortified with numerous camps such as those at Inlăceni ( Praetoria Augusta) and Sânpaul (Harghita county) Breţcu (Angustia) and Oltenia (Covasna county) or Brâncoveneşti and Călugăreni (Mureș county). After the fall of Roman Dacia , the present-day territory of the Székely Land became part of the Thervingi kingdom " Gutthiuda " . The migration of

18480-516: The remaining units of the demoralized Hungarian Red Army on the Romanians. After the fall of the communist regime of Béla Kun, the instability of the Hungarian state delayed the sending of a Hungarian delegation to the Peace conference in Paris. On 16 November 1919, Admiral Miklós Horthy entered Budapest, taking over the running of the country for a long time and thus bringing to an end the period of unstable Hungarian governments. By December 1919, text of

18634-399: The restoration of economic relations between Hungary and foreign countries, including its neighbors - the Entente allies: Czechoslovakia, Romania and Yugoslavia. The peace treaty de facto ended the Allied blockade of Hungary and de jure ordered the resumption of regional trade and the supply of coal to Hungary from Czechoslovakia and Poland. Together with other international agreements signed at

18788-712: The restoration of the former borders of Hungary, the communists declared the establishment of the Slovak Soviet Republic in Prešov (Eperjes) on 16 June 1919. After the proclamation of the Slovak Soviet Republic , the Hungarian nationalists and patriots soon realized that the new communist government had no intentions to recapture the lost territories, only to spread communist ideology and establish other communist states in Europe, thus sacrificing Hungarian national interests. The Hungarian patriots and professional military officers in

18942-584: The resumption of coal supplies to Vienna and Budapest conditional on the acceptance of its territorial claims to former Austrian and Hungarian territories. ‘Each Wagon of Coal Should Be Paid for with Territorial concessions.’ Hungary, Czechoslovakia, and the Coal Shortage in 1918–21 As the Hungarian revolutionary leader Vilmos Böhm recalled about the Hungarian-Czech coal talks, "every wagon of coal should be paid for with territorial concessions" [2] . Despite

19096-567: The right of the Hungarian parliament to speak or act in the name of the Slovaks, declared that only the Slovak National Council had the right to represent Slovaks at the peace conference and demanded the right to self-determination for all nations of Hungary. The Hungarian parliament erupted in anger, shouting "Where is this council!? Where is the Slovak nation!? What county does it live in!? Who

19250-636: The same time, the letter suggested that the Council of the League of Nations might offer its mediation to rectify the new borders amicably if suggested by the delimitation commission. The Hungarian diplomacy later appealed to the Millerand letter as a Great Powers promise of future territorial revisions in favour of Hungary. Only one plebiscite was permitted (later known as the Sopron plebiscite ) to settle disputed borders on

19404-481: The territorial integrity of Hungary, which Tisza claimed did not go against Wilson's points. (Tisza was bitterly unpopular among ethnic Hungarian voters and therefore his party National Party of Work drew most of his votes from ethnic minorities during the parliamentary elections. ) The non-Hungarian ethnic groups of Hungary would receive only small concession. The sole Slovak member of the parliament, Ferdinand Juriga  [ sk ] , opened his speech by denying

19558-453: The territorial integrity of the Kingdom of Hungary. Jászi immediately offered democratic referendums about the disputed borders for minorities; however, the political leaders of those minorities refused the very idea of democratic referendums regarding disputed territories at the Paris peace conference. In spite of this, Hungarian government still possessed forces strong enough to resist the encroaching Entente troops, and on 13 November declared

19712-471: The territory to remain under Hungarian control were made. The lines would apply until definitive borders could be established. The Entente was allowed to occupy strategically important places and its forces were allowed free movement inside Hungary. Under the terms of the armistice, Serbian and French troops advanced from the south, taking control of the Banat and Croatia. Romanian forces were permitted to advance to

19866-456: The traditional Hungarian county system, and their inhabitants enjoyed a higher level of freedom (especially until the 18th century) than those living in the counties . From the 12th and 13th centuries, the Székely Land enjoyed a considerable but varying amount of autonomy, first as a part of the Kingdom of Hungary , then inside the Principality of Transylvania . The autonomy was largely due to

20020-575: The transfer of three villages to Czechoslovakia in 1947. However, the actual borders of Hungary stem out from the Paris Peace Treaties, 1947 , which cancelled the territorial aggrandizement of Hungary in 1938–1941 . The Paris treaty of 1947 de-facto restored the Trianon borders of Hungary. After World War I , despite the "self-determination of peoples" idea of the US President Wilson , the Allies refused to organise plebiscites in Hungary to draw its new borders. The Allies explained this decision in

20174-545: The treaty. The central parts of Banat were later assigned to Romania, respecting the wishes of Romanians from this area, which, on 1 December 1918, were present in the National Assembly of Romanians in Alba Iulia, which voted for union with the Kingdom of Romania. After the Romanian Army advanced beyond this cease-fire line, the Entente powers asked Hungary ( Vix Note ) to acknowledge the new Romanian territorial gains by

20328-496: The unilateral self-disarmament of the Hungarian army.The Hungarian Royal Honvéd army still had more than 1,400,000 soldiers when Károlyi was announced as prime minister. This happened under the direction of Minister of War Béla Linder on 2 November 1918 On the request of the Austro-Hungarian government, an armistice was granted to Austria-Hungary on 3 November 1918 by the Allies. Disarmament of its army meant that Hungary

20482-408: The victorious powers was essential for economic recovery. ‘Each Wagon of Coal Should Be Paid for with Territorial concessions.’ Hungary, Czechoslovakia, and the Coal Shortage in 1918–21 Czechoslovakia and the Entente powers strategically used coal supplies as leverage to force Hungary to make territorial and political concessions. The negotiated peace treaty project included passages, which stipulated

20636-428: The war and negative relations with the non-Hungarian nationalities of Hungary made him an easy target for the international press. Štefan Osuský, the Czechoslovak ambassador in Paris, did not bother to hide his glee at Hungary choosing Apponyi of all people. "The choice of Apponyi was very welcome to me" , wrote Osuský back to Prague, "In the former Kingdom of Hungary, he embodied the spirit of disregard and oppression of

20790-461: The war, when they laid down arms after Wilson promulgated his Fourteen Points, only to be rewarded with occupation and robbery of its territory by the Entente. The Bolshevik revolution in Hungary was also blamed on the Entente. The French representatives countered that the Hungarian parliament was in a political alliance with the Prussians since 1867 and continuously supported German imperialism. Apponyi

20944-464: The whole Italian front on 24 October 1918 lead to the destruction of the Austro-Hungarian army. The troops of Austria-Hungary started a chaotic withdrawal during the Battle of Vittorio Veneto , and Austria-Hungary began to negotiate a truce on 28 October, which they signed at Padua on 3 November 1918. The Hungarian Parliament dissolved on 23 October after learning of a revolution in Rijeka , Croatia, where

21098-784: The withdrawal of Hungarian troops from the Upper Hungarian territories claimed by Prague (Slovakia in December 1918-January 1919 and Subcarpathian Ruthenia in April-July 1919), Czechoslovakia maintained a blockade on coal exports to Hungary until the signing of the Trianon Peace Treaty in June 1920. Czechoslovak-Hungarian Border Conflict / 1.1 / encyclopedic The acute coal shortage had a profound effect on Hungary's economy and infrastructure. Industrial production and transport were severely hampered. The shortage led to desperate diplomatic efforts by

21252-570: Was Udvarhely seat, which was also called the Principal seat ( Latin : Capitalis Sedes ) At Székelyudvarhely (Odorheiu Secuiesc) were held many national assemblies of the Székelys A known exception is the 1554 assembly, which took place at Marosvásárhely (Târgu Mureș) Due to the Ottoman conquest Transylvania became a semi-independent polity. From the end of the 17th century, Transylvania became part of

21406-453: Was blocking the coal road to Silesia. ‘Each Wagon of Coal Should Be Paid for with Territorial concessions.’ Hungary, Czechoslovakia, and the Coal Shortage in 1918–21 The collapse of the Austro-Hungarian army on the Italian front also affected the rear units in Hungary. By the beginning of November 1918, the collapsing statehood was experiencing "disturbances" or "looting". On the 1st of November,

21560-428: Was completed as regards Hungary on 13 November, when Károlyi signed the Armistice of Belgrade with the Allied nations, in order that a Treaty of Peace might be concluded. The terms of the armistice were harsh and without compromise. The Hungarian government had to withdraw its troops behind a line deep into Hungary. The army had to disarm, except for its six infantry and two cavalry divisions. Demarcation lines defining

21714-429: Was created in 1952 under the Soviets' pressure, which encompassed most of the land inhabited by the Székelys. In 1960, the region was renamed to Mureș-Magyar Autonomous Region. It was abolished in 1968, when Romania, following an administrative reform , returned to its traditional local administrative system based on counties . Roughly speaking, present-day Harghita County encompasses the former Udvarhely and Csík ,

21868-486: Was dictated by the Allies rather than negotiated, and the Hungarians faced an option to accept or reject its terms in full. The Hungarian delegation signed the treaty under protest, and agitation for its revision began immediately. The current boundaries of Hungary are for the most part the same as those defined by the Treaty of Trianon. Minor modifications occurred in 1921-1924 on the Hungarian-Austrian border and

22022-477: Was established, it controlled only approximately 23% of Hungary's historic territory. After the Communist takeover, the Allies sent a new diplomatic mission to Budapest, led by General Jan Smuts . During these talks with Smuts, Kun insisted that his government would abide by the Belgrade ceasefire and recognise the right to self-determination of the various ethnic groups living in Hungary. In return, Kun urged an end to

22176-449: Was expelled from these territories in October due to the activities of the Romanian paramilitary groups created in the area to avenge the atrocities committed by the Hungarians against the Romanians during the Hungarian rule in Northern Transylvania. For instance, the so-called Iuliu Maniu Guards terrorized the Székely villages, butchered the local Hungarians by axe and hatchet and operated

22330-490: Was informed that the peace conditions would be submitted to him on 15 January. On 14 January, Apponyi publicly protested in the press against the conditions for peace, despite still not knowing their official text. His demand to talk directly with the leading representatives of the Entente before officially receiving the text further irritated the Supreme Council and was declined. It would have meant preferential treatment for

22484-414: Was lost. Responding to that, Count Mihály Károlyi said that "We have lost the war. Now the main thing is not to lose the peace" and called for a democratic Hungary to conclude the most advantageous peace with the Entente. Count István Tisza responded that although Károlyi was right that the war was lost, Hungary did not need further democratisation during wartime. The only important task was to preserve

22638-406: Was officially ceded to the Kingdom of Romania . The Romanian language officially replaced Hungarian in the Székely Land, but Székely county boundaries were preserved, and Székely districts were able to elect their own officials at local level and to preserve Hungarian-language education. After 1930, the Romanian authorities began to Romanianize the Hungarian population of the Székely Land, with

22792-562: Was precisely Apponyi, who in his role as Minister for Education, suppressed the education of minorities in their native languages. The Czechoslovak delegation would be headed by the Slovak ambassador Štefan Osuský , who was given the task to monitor and study Hungarian counter-proposals. The result of the common work of Apponyi and Teleki was the so-called Memoirs : a huge amount of written material containing 346 memoirs supplemented with 4000 pages of large office format with 100 maps and many other statistical and graphical supplements. Copies of

22946-409: Was reminded of how he himself notoriously welcomed the proclamation of the war against Serbia by shouting "Hát végre!" ("At last!") at the Hungarian Parliament in 1914, and how he proceeded to make territorial demands against Serbia. The Hungarian delegation claimed that a diminished Hungary would not be capable of independent economic life and would only be a burden to the Entente. What's worse, all

23100-438: Was self-sufficient in coal, crude oil, grain, cattle and other areas of agriculture, railways and transport. "The Hungarian reply [at the Trianon conference] showed us our neighbors in a true light... Hungarian cunning and hypocrisy, their slithering smarminess towards the stronger, their brutal imperiousness towards the weak, and inflated scorn for those they consider inferior. The greatest source of their shortcomings and errors

23254-468: Was signed on 4 June 1920, ratified by Hungary on 16 November 1920 and came into force on 26 July 1921. The post-1920 Hungary became a landlocked state that included 93,073 square kilometres (35,936 sq mi), 28% of the 325,411 square kilometres (125,642 sq mi) that had constituted the pre-war Kingdom of Hungary (the Hungarian half of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy). The kingdom had

23408-594: Was submitted to the Hungarians on 6 May and signed by them in Grand Trianon on 4 June 1920, entering into force on 26 July 1921. An extensive accompanying letter, written by the Chairman of the Peace Conference Alexandre Millerand , was sent along with the Peace Treaty to Hungary. The letter emphasized that the Great Powers studied the notes provided by the Hungarian delegation, but "could not ignore

23562-419: Was to end aggressive militarism as shown by Berlin and Vienna; the United States never formally joined the Allies. President Woodrow Wilson acted as an independent force, and his Fourteen Points was accepted by Germany as a basis for the armistice of November 1918. It outlined a policy of free trade , open agreements , and democracy. While the term was not used, self-determination was assumed. It called for

23716-581: Was to remain without a national defence at a time of particular vulnerability. The unilateral self-disarmament made the occupation of Hungary directly possible for the relatively small armies of Romania, the Franco-Serbian army, and the armed forces of the newly established Czechoslovakia. Nevertheless, small Hungarian troops were still able to resist the advancement of the Czech army in the North. Only in early December

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