Rottenacker is a village in the district of Alb-Donau in Baden-Württemberg in Germany .
167-504: During the late 18th century the Radical Pietist movement throughout the Duchy of Württemberg increased again after having diminished over the previous decades. Many Pietists separated from church for religious reasons. In Württemberg, where Rottenacker belonged to, those religious dissenters were generally known as 'separatists'. Since 1785 the linen weaver George Rapp from Iptingen became
334-819: A French absolutist state. They interpreted the social and natural calamities faced by the Württemberg as God 's punishment for the immorality of the ducal court and society and worked to uphold the Estates of Württemberg and co-operation between it and the duke. After the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht that ended the War of the Spanish Succession , the duchy enjoyed a period of peace and increasing fortune, and Württemberg Pietism's character shifted from moral and philosophical criticism of society to quiet theological contemplation. [REDACTED] This article incorporates text from
501-433: A community of goods . Six years later, together with Separatists from other villages, they acquired an estate named Brandenburg near the border to Bavaria where they intended to found a community based on their religious principles. However, King Friedrich of Württemberg refused permission. Therefore, a group of Separatists from Württemberg led by Joseph Michael Bimeler from Ulm and Stephan Huber from Rottenacker emigrated to
668-460: A de facto official language of Namibia after the end of German colonial rule alongside English and Afrikaans , and had de jure co-official status from 1984 until its independence from South Africa in 1990. However, the Namibian government perceived Afrikaans and German as symbols of apartheid and colonialism, and decided English would be the sole official language upon independence, stating that it
835-402: A second language , and 75–100 million as a foreign language . This would imply the existence of approximately 175–220 million German speakers worldwide. German sociolinguist Ulrich Ammon estimated a number of 289 million German foreign language speakers without clarifying the criteria by which he classified a speaker. As of 2012 , about 90 million people, or 16% of
1002-587: A "commonly used" language and the Pan South African Language Board is obligated to promote and ensure respect for it. Cameroon was also a colony of the German Empire from the same period (1884 to 1916). However, German was replaced by French and English, the languages of the two successor colonial powers, after its loss in World War I . Nevertheless, since the 21st century, German has become
1169-440: A burgher. The senior bailiff, more free than his counterpart, was not restricted to serving within his own district and would sometimes advise other rulers and even the duke. The senior bailiff was also charged with the defense of his district and so usually would reside in a castle in or near the district seat. Old noble families traditionally served in their districts, giving them experience that some would use to secure positions in
1336-623: A diet to state publicly his support of the Treaty of Tübingen , then appointed a new Statthalter , Maximilian van Zevenbergen from the Netherlands , and new Chancellor, Heinrich Winckelhofer. They were aided in issuing the Statthalter ' s orders by the regents and other commissioners. Treasury officials were given much more control over the treasury than in Ulrich's reign so as to reestablish order, and
1503-502: A diet. He held it in Tübingen on 26 June 1514 in a move that showed his paranoia of public opinion of him in the capital, and would be the first of three diets in Ulrich's reign, though representatives from 14 towns in the duchy had met previously in Marbach am Neckar in order to effectively pacify the attending commoners. The result of that pre-meeting was the list of 41 articles that became
1670-489: A famous humanist and knight who was also a firebrand publicist, and son of Ludwig von Hutten, a Franconian knight who had also served in the ducal court and was of the von Huttens, one of the most powerful lower noble families in the entire duchy. The political fallout of this murder resulted in the immediate resignation of 18 noblemen from Ulrich's court, demands from the von Huttens for financial compensation, and fiery, printed attacks by Ulrich von Hutten. The second event
1837-556: A greater need for regularity in written conventions. While the major changes of the MHG period were socio-cultural, High German was still undergoing significant linguistic changes in syntax, phonetics, and morphology as well (e.g. diphthongization of certain vowel sounds: hus (OHG & MHG "house") → haus (regionally in later MHG)→ Haus (NHG), and weakening of unstressed short vowels to schwa [ə]: taga (OHG "days")→ tage (MHG)). A great wealth of texts survives from
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#17330928815692004-523: A higher rank, and they were paid differently. Chamber music began to be considered a major part of the court's musical establishment, on par even with church and table music, as evidenced by various documents following Pez's death (25 September 1716) in May 1717 from Schwartzkopf and Störl that confirmed Pez's view of the Hofkapelle as a pool of multi-talented musicians who could play a wide range of instruments, and
2171-552: A matter could not be solved by the town council, it would be referred to the Chancellor by the bailiff , and he would decide the matter. The Chancellor also represented the Duke for diplomatic missions and occasionally at territorial diets of the Estates . By the mid-16th century, the advisory body to the Duke, the Oberrat , created the position of Vice Chancellor ( Vizekanzler ) in 1556 to aid
2338-453: A native tongue today, mostly descendants of German colonial settlers . The period of German colonialism in Namibia also led to the evolution of a Standard German-based pidgin language called " Namibian Black German ", which became a second language for parts of the indigenous population. Although it is nearly extinct today, some older Namibians still have some knowledge of it. German remained
2505-695: A past debt. The leader of the Swabian League army was the capable William IV, Duke of Bavaria , and his campaign lasted little over two weeks. It opened with Duke William attacking Hellenstein Castle on 28 March 1519, followed then by attacks on Esslingen , Uhlbach , Obertürkheim , Hedelfingen , the nunnery of Weiler Filstand , Hunddskehle Castle , Teck Castle , and finally stormed Stuttgart in April and forced Ulrich to flee. His first reign had ended, and he would not return for 15 years. The first order of business for
2672-679: A popular foreign language among pupils and students, with 300,000 people learning or speaking German in Cameroon in 2010 and over 230,000 in 2020. Today Cameroon is one of the African countries outside Namibia with the highest number of people learning German. In the United States, German is the fifth most spoken language in terms of native and second language speakers after English, Spanish , French , and Chinese (with figures for Cantonese and Mandarin combined), with over 1 million total speakers. In
2839-509: A publication now in the public domain : Chisholm, Hugh , ed. (1911). " Württemberg ". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. German language German (German: Deutsch , pronounced [dɔʏtʃ] ) is a West Germanic language in the Indo-European language family , mainly spoken in Western and Central Europe . It
3006-544: A rarity and he was typically appointed by the town council and normally from the town's notables. The Burgomaster often came into conflict with the Schultheiss as the former upheld the interests of the town council and the latter of the lord. His chief duties were the accounting of taxes, fines and other town incomes and to present an annual accounting ( Gemeinderechnung ) before the junior bailiff, whom he assisted in daily local administration. The number of Burgomasters throughout
3173-475: A result, the surviving texts are written in highly disparate regional dialects and exhibit significant Latin influence, particularly in vocabulary. At this point monasteries, where most written works were produced, were dominated by Latin, and German saw only occasional use in official and ecclesiastical writing. While there is no complete agreement over the dates of the Middle High German (MHG) period, it
3340-504: A ruler's wealth and sophistication and the perceptible increase in instrumental specialization in the Hofkapelle (a phenomenon also present at larger German courts), which may have been effected by the employment of foreign musicians. This process was brought about by the formalization of service at the Ducal family's country estates. By 1715, this began to cause financial hardship in Stuttgart, as
3507-460: A seven-member regency would rule the duchy for a period of six years consisting of the Landhofmeister , the Chancellor, a prelate, two nobles, and two burghers, with an eighth regent to be named by the emperor. Ulrich himself was to be dependent on this regency for counsel, and he no longer had control of the duchy, a proposition he was not in agreement with. Ulrich charged many leading members of
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#17330928815693674-471: A single kettledrummer . Two of those Kapellmeister s, Theodor Schwartzkopf and Johann Georg Christian Störl, Schwartzkopf's former pupil. These two men had a falling out and Störl attempted to have Schwartzkopf and his family ejected from the Kapellhaus , claiming that his residence was unsuitable for the practice of opera. In truth, the small Old Castle was already too small for the Duke's musical retinue, as
3841-496: A sudden end with the War of Spanish Succession and it would have an indelible impact on music at the court in later years. While very little documentation of the musical activity of the first decade of the 18th century, we know that by 1715, the membership of the duchy's Hofkapelle was three concertmasters ( German : Kapellmeister ), 22 instrumentalists, 11 vocalists, and two choirboys ( German : Kapellknaben ) as well as an additional complement of seven trumpeters and
4008-580: Is a recognized minority language in the following countries: In France, the High German varieties of Alsatian and Moselle Franconian are identified as " regional languages ", but the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages of 1998 has not yet been ratified by the government. Namibia also was a colony of the German Empire, from 1884 to 1915. About 30,000 people still speak German as
4175-596: Is also notable for its broad spectrum of dialects , with many varieties existing in Europe and other parts of the world. Some of these non-standard varieties have become recognized and protected by regional or national governments. Since 2004, heads of state of the German-speaking countries have met every year, and the Council for German Orthography has been the main international body regulating German orthography . German
4342-546: Is an Indo-European language that belongs to the West Germanic group of the Germanic languages . The Germanic languages are traditionally subdivided into three branches: North Germanic , East Germanic , and West Germanic . The first of these branches survives in modern Danish , Swedish , Norwegian , Faroese , and Icelandic , all of which are descended from Old Norse . The East Germanic languages are now extinct, and Gothic
4509-472: Is called the "German Sprachraum ". German is the official language of the following countries: German is a co-official language of the following countries: Although expulsions and (forced) assimilation after the two World wars greatly diminished them, minority communities of mostly bilingual German native speakers exist in areas both adjacent to and detached from the Sprachraum. Within Europe, German
4676-430: Is complicated by the existence of several varieties whose status as separate "languages" or "dialects" is disputed for political and linguistic reasons, including quantitatively strong varieties like certain forms of Alemannic and Low German . With the inclusion or exclusion of certain varieties, it is estimated that approximately 90–95 million people speak German as a first language , 10–25 million speak it as
4843-520: Is generally seen as ending when the 1346–53 Black Death decimated Europe's population. Modern High German begins with the Early New High German (ENHG) period, which Wilhelm Scherer dates 1350–1650, terminating with the end of the Thirty Years' War . This period saw the further displacement of Latin by German as the primary language of courtly proceedings and, increasingly, of literature in
5010-595: Is generally seen as lasting from 1050 to 1350. This was a period of significant expansion of the geographical territory occupied by Germanic tribes, and consequently of the number of German speakers. Whereas during the Old High German period the Germanic tribes extended only as far east as the Elbe and Saale rivers, the MHG period saw a number of these tribes expanding beyond this eastern boundary into Slavic territory (known as
5177-559: Is less closely related to languages based on Low Franconian dialects (e.g., Dutch and Afrikaans), Low German or Low Saxon dialects (spoken in northern Germany and southern Denmark ), neither of which underwent the High German consonant shift. As has been noted, the former of these dialect types is Istvaeonic and the latter Ingvaeonic, whereas the High German dialects are all Irminonic; the differences between these languages and standard German are therefore considerable. Also related to German are
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5344-666: Is mountainous and wooded, with the Black Forest to the west and the Swabian Alb to the east. The very southeastern part of the duchy, on the other side of the Swabian Alb, is the Danube river basin. The Duchy of Württemberg was over 8,000 square kilometres (3,100 sq mi) of pastures, forests, and rivers. Politically, it was a patchwork of 350 smaller territories governed by many different secular and ecclesiastical landlords. As early as
5511-435: Is one of the major languages of the world . German is the second-most widely spoken Germanic language , after English, both as a first and as a second language . German is also widely taught as a foreign language , especially in continental Europe (where it is the third most taught foreign language after English and French), and in the United States. Overall, German is the fourth most commonly learned second language, and
5678-587: Is one of the three biggest newspapers in Namibia and the only German-language daily in Africa. An estimated 12,000 people speak German or a German variety as a first language in South Africa, mostly originating from different waves of immigration during the 19th and 20th centuries. One of the largest communities consists of the speakers of "Nataler Deutsch", a variety of Low German concentrated in and around Wartburg . The South African constitution identifies German as
5845-401: Is partly derived from Latin and Greek , along with fewer words borrowed from French and Modern English . English, however, is the main source of more recent loanwords . German is a pluricentric language ; the three standardized variants are German , Austrian , and Swiss Standard German . Standard German is sometimes called High German , which refers to its regional origin. German
6012-510: Is the Sachsenspiegel , the first book of laws written in Middle Low German ( c. 1220 ). The abundance and especially the secular character of the literature of the MHG period demonstrate the beginnings of a standardized written form of German, as well as the desire of poets and authors to be understood by individuals on supra-dialectal terms. The Middle High German period
6179-750: Is the most spoken native language within the European Union . It is the most widely spoken and official (or co-official) language in Germany , Austria , Switzerland , Liechtenstein , and the Italian autonomous province of South Tyrol . It is also an official language of Luxembourg , Belgium and the Italian autonomous region of Friuli-Venezia Giulia , as well as a recognized national language in Namibia . There are also notable German-speaking communities in France ( Alsace ),
6346-566: Is the only language in this branch which survives in written texts. The West Germanic languages, however, have undergone extensive dialectal subdivision and are now represented in modern languages such as English, German, Dutch , Yiddish , Afrikaans , and others. Within the West Germanic language dialect continuum, the Benrath and Uerdingen lines (running through Düsseldorf - Benrath and Krefeld - Uerdingen , respectively) serve to distinguish
6513-481: Is understood in all areas where German is spoken. Approximate distribution of native German speakers (assuming a rounded total of 95 million) worldwide: As a result of the German diaspora , as well as the popularity of German taught as a foreign language , the geographical distribution of German speakers (or "Germanophones") spans all inhabited continents. However, an exact, global number of native German speakers
6680-470: Is what our musicians do with the utmost diligence and punctuality; one can make music with two or three people, which is also [the number of musicians] a burgher can afford, but a most Serene Ruling Duke of Württemberg providing for His Most Princely Kapelle and Hofmusik (as I understand the setting and glory of his most princely house) must have more than eight musicians belonging to his musical establishment." Despite its small size and financial strain, Pez
6847-673: The Ostsiedlung ). With the increasing wealth and geographic spread of the Germanic groups came greater use of German in the courts of nobles as the standard language of official proceedings and literature. A clear example of this is the mittelhochdeutsche Dichtersprache employed in the Hohenstaufen court in Swabia as a standardized supra-dialectal written language. While these efforts were still regionally bound, German began to be used in place of Latin for certain official purposes, leading to
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7014-581: The Centner ) on consumables such as meats, wine and grain. Again Ulrich refused to call a diet to discuss the tax, but successfully levied it through local and district officials. This particular tax was intensely unpopular, even more so than the first, as it was implemented by the officials who had dodged the first tax, drove the prices of their food up and, to the chagrin of the lower classes, Ulrich and his government sought to have Roman law officially accepted into Württemberg's legal system. The tax, combined with
7181-627: The Alamanni , Bavarian, and Thuringian groups, all belonging to the Elbe Germanic group ( Irminones ), which had settled in what is now southern-central Germany and Austria between the second and sixth centuries, during the great migration. In general, the surviving texts of Old High German (OHG) show a wide range of dialectal diversity with very little written uniformity. The early written tradition of OHG survived mostly through monasteries and scriptoria as local translations of Latin originals; as
7348-557: The Czech Republic ( North Bohemia ), Poland ( Upper Silesia ), Slovakia ( Košice Region , Spiš , and Hauerland ), Denmark ( North Schleswig ), Romania and Hungary ( Sopron ). Overseas, sizeable communities of German-speakers are found in Brazil ( Blumenau and Pomerode ), South Africa ( Kroondal ), Namibia , among others, some communities have decidedly Austrian German or Swiss German characters (e.g. Pozuzo , Peru). German
7515-522: The Early Middle Ages . German is an inflected language , with four cases for nouns, pronouns, and adjectives (nominative, accusative, genitive, dative); three genders (masculine, feminine, neuter) and two numbers (singular, plural). It has strong and weak verbs . The majority of its vocabulary derives from the ancient Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family, while a smaller share
7682-709: The Ehrbarkeit , and of them killed brothers Conrad and Sebastion Breuning, Conrad Vaut, the bailiff of Cannstatt , and Hans Stickel, the Burgomaster of Stuttgart. After the executions of the Breuning brothers, Maximilian attempted to call another diet to enforce the Treaty of Blaubeuren, but it was here that he realized the fatal flaw of the treaty: it did not involve the Estates and, thanks in part to Maximilian's advanced age, they had neither
7849-417: The European Union 's population, spoke German as their mother tongue, making it the second most widely spoken language on the continent after Russian and the second biggest language in terms of overall speakers (after English), as well as the most spoken native language. The area in central Europe where the majority of the population speaks German as a first language and has German as a (co-)official language
8016-514: The German states . While these states were still part of the Holy Roman Empire , and far from any form of unification, the desire for a cohesive written language that would be understandable across the many German-speaking principalities and kingdoms was stronger than ever. As a spoken language German remained highly fractured throughout this period, with a vast number of often mutually incomprehensible regional dialects being spoken throughout
8183-677: The Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I , and the other being Meißner Deutsch , used in the Electorate of Saxony in the Duchy of Saxe-Wittenberg . Alongside these courtly written standards, the invention of the printing press led to the development of a number of printers' languages ( Druckersprachen ) aimed at making printed material readable and understandable across as many diverse dialects of German as possible. The greater ease of production and increased availability of written texts brought about increased standardisation in
8350-644: The Old High German language in several Elder Futhark inscriptions from as early as the sixth century AD (such as the Pforzen buckle ), the Old High German period is generally seen as beginning with the Abrogans (written c. 765–775 ), a Latin-German glossary supplying over 3,000 Old High German words with their Latin equivalents. After the Abrogans , the first coherent works written in Old High German appear in
8517-608: The Protestant Reformation , Württemberg faced great pressure from the Catholic emperors to remain loyal. Württemberg resisted repeated French invasions in the 17th and 18th centuries, the duchy being directly in the path of French and Austrian armies who were engaged in the long rivalry between the House of Bourbon and the House of Habsburg . In 1803, Napoleon raised the duchy to be the Electorate of Württemberg . On 1 January 1806,
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#17330928815698684-640: The Sprachraum in Europe. German is used in a wide variety of spheres throughout the country, especially in business, tourism, and public signage, as well as in education, churches (most notably the German-speaking Evangelical Lutheran Church in Namibia (GELK) ), other cultural spheres such as music, and media (such as German language radio programs by the Namibian Broadcasting Corporation ). The Allgemeine Zeitung
8851-536: The Standard German language in its written form, and the Duden Handbook was declared its standard definition. Punctuation and compound spelling (joined or isolated compounds) were not standardized in the process. The Deutsche Bühnensprache ( lit. ' German stage language ' ) by Theodor Siebs had established conventions for German pronunciation in theatres , three years earlier; however, this
9018-510: The Swabian League occupation was to set Württemberg's government in order. One of the most crucial steps to achieve this was to settle the Duchy's enormous 1.1 million gulden debt, and few wanted to help finance this. The knights, who were at this time most able to assist, did not want to as they felt that they did not constitute an estate of the duchy and were thus without obligation to it. Since
9185-502: The Swabian League . The Estates would continue to exercise their right to approve taxation to the duchy's frequent wars, a right that would be extremely tested during Ulrich's reign. Despite its urbanization, the duchy's economy was very agricultural, its most important product being wine. The peasantry harvested such grains as rye , barley , hay , and oats . Other products, wool , wood , cloth , linen , and glass and metal wares, followed in importance. Frequent trading partners were
9352-439: The Thirty Years' War . Ulrich, of the Urach line of the House of Württemberg , succeeded Eberhard II in 1498, in his minority. His regency was controlled by four nobles: Counts Wolfgang von Fürstenberg and Andreas von Waldburg, Hans von Reischach (the senior bailiff of Mömpelgard ), and Diepolt Spät (the senior bailiff of Tübingen ). Two other men, the abbots of Zwiefalten and Bebenhausen , also held advisory positions in
9519-404: The Treaty of Tübingen , the most significant piece of legislation of Ulrich's reign, at the Diet on 8 July 1514. The Estates agreed to pay Ulrich 920,000 florins over the next decade to annul his debts in exchange for requiring the consent of the Estates prior to any declaration of war, the prosecution of criminals to be instigated only with a regular legal procedure, and the right all citizens of
9686-400: The Upper German dialects spoken in the southern German-speaking countries , such as Swiss German ( Alemannic dialects ) and the various Germanic dialects spoken in the French region of Grand Est , such as Alsatian (mainly Alemannic, but also Central–and Upper Franconian dialects) and Lorraine Franconian (Central Franconian). After these High German dialects, standard German
9853-427: The history of music in the West: the emergence of the orchestra , importance of chamber music and the growing number of Italian composers and musicians employed at the courts of German princes in the 18th century. Although the duchy was recognized by Peter H. Wilson as "one of the weaker middle ranking territories within the Empire," the Dukes went to great - and expensive - lengths by the ducal court to be ahead of
10020-408: The pagan Germanic tradition. Of particular interest to scholars, however, has been the Hildebrandslied , a secular epic poem telling the tale of an estranged father and son unknowingly meeting each other in battle. Linguistically, this text is highly interesting due to the mixed use of Old Saxon and Old High German dialects in its composition. The written works of this period stem mainly from
10187-424: The "fourteen great monastic trusts," and the Duke or the Estates could spend this money on the duchy's defense or on other projects. While he supervised this revenue, his clerks recorded it account books called Kirchenkastenrechungen . Of the positions only held by nobility, most were created in the 15th century and required little or no education, paid much more than burgher, and often involved constant contact to
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#173309288156910354-439: The 11th century, and Duke Eberhard I himself ascended to the throne in 1450 at the age of 14, over a territory split in two states: the Württemberg ruled by the Württemberg-Stuttgart line, and the Württemberg of the Württemberg-Urach line. In 1482, he united the two parts of the future duchy, fusing the governments of both counties into what would be the basis of the duchy's central government. After Eberhard's death in 1496, he
10521-446: The 14th century, it had dissolved into many districts (called Ämter or Vogteien in German ), which originally were called " Steuergemeinde ," a "small, taxable community." By 1520, the number of these districts had risen to 45, from 38 in 1442, and would number 58 by the end of the 16th century. These varied vastly in size, with Urach containing 76 outlying villages to Ebingen , which only contained its eponymous town. Württemberg
10688-470: The 15th century, the membership of the council and court were, by the end of the 16th century, made up completely by the town's notables, people like rich artisans, merchants, and local guild members. One of the leading officials in the local government was a kind of village mayor called the Schultheiss . The origins of this position date back to the 13th century, the first recorded instances being in Rottweil in 1222 and in Tübingen in 1247. In that time,
10855-409: The Chancellor, by now struggling with his workload, and to substitute for the Chancellor in his absence, and to serve as the secretary for sessions of the privy council ( Geheimer Rat ). More than any other official in the central government, the chamber secretary, Kammersekretär , charged with the organizing the Duke's schedule, writing Ducal correspondence, and processing documents, worked solely for
11022-447: The County of Löwenstein-Wertheim and the districts of Weinsberg , Neuenstadt am Kocher , and Möckmühl from the Palatinate as well as Heidenheim an der Brenz and the abbeys of Königsbronn , Anhausen , and Herbrechtingen . Ulrich's ability to rule, on the other hand, was less reliable. The first crisis he faced was financial: since the beginning of his reign to 1514, he had racked up a debt of more than 600,000 florins in addition to
11189-402: The Duke or other nobles. Originally, the Württemberg court had a Hofmeister , but this office was broken into the offices of territorial governor, Landhofmeister , and the court steward, Haushofmeister . The most powerful of the nobles in court traditionally was the territorial governor, Landhofmeister , who served as the Duke's foremost adviser and controlled the chancery. With the creation of
11356-404: The Duke, but he became even more powerful during the Habsburg occupation of the duchy, as three were appointed to set the duchy's finances in order. However, this title too became increasingly honorary; by the 1570s, there were long periods wherein there were no Kammermeister as the Kammersekretär had largely taken over his responsibilities. The final noble-held office in the central government
11523-465: The Duke, increasingly short on cash because of the war and the construction of Ludwigsburg Palace , issued a massive retrenchment that dramatically shrank the Hofkapelle . This strain would still be felt in 1714, and Pez commented: "...four hours of Tafelmusik , two to three and a half hours of chamber music, Tafelmusik once again, and from time to time, a ball as well, that [is a workload] eight musicians could not manage without alternation, which
11690-404: The Duke. This job was also always held by a burgher, as he had to have clerical expertise, but almost never had a university education. At first, the Vice Chancellor held no political power, but then Duke Christoph enlarged the role of the Kammersekretär by allowing him to advise on policies concerning the chancery, church council , and even to oversee the treasury, a right no other official but
11857-474: The Emperor. This entire event, the metaphorical last straw of Ulrich's reign, was in complete violation of the Treaty of Tübingen. It angered the other Free Cities, most of whom were in the Swabian League , from which Württemberg had been expelled in February 1512 against the wishes of Maximilian I. They prepared for war while Ulrich coerced 80,000 florins from the Estates and received 10,000 crowns from Francis I of France in February 1519 to fund his war and repay
12024-714: The Empire. Its use indicated that the speaker was a merchant or someone from an urban area, regardless of nationality. Prague (German: Prag ) and Budapest ( Buda , German: Ofen ), to name two examples, were gradually Germanized in the years after their incorporation into the Habsburg domain; others, like Pressburg ( Pozsony , now Bratislava), were originally settled during the Habsburg period and were primarily German at that time. Prague, Budapest, Bratislava, and cities like Zagreb (German: Agram ) or Ljubljana (German: Laibach ), contained significant German minorities. In
12191-448: The Estates and thus deprived Duke Eberhard II of his principality in May 1498. While the Duke's advisers were arrested or fled, Eberhard II himself was banished to Lindenfels Castle and granted an annuity of 6000 florins until his death in 1504. The one accomplishment of Eberhard II's reign was the establishment of the Hofkapelle for the performance of religious music, and this system of music patronage would remain uninterrupted until
12358-418: The Estates but were rebuked, despite Ulrich's now widespread unpopularity out of loyalty to him and a lack of influence in Württemberg on Sabina's part. The Bavarians resorted to attacking the duchy, causing Maximilian I to intervene and call a diet in Stuttgart on 18 September 1515 to limit Ulrich's power and to create a balanced system of government. This resulted in the Treaty of Blaubeuren, which mandated that
12525-610: The Estates helped organize it like its counterpart in Austria , which was separate from the Chancery and was called the Kammer and was operated by three treasurers. This control over the treasury and state expenditure would be the most important reform of the Habsburg occupation. The government of the Duchy of Württemberg was one composed of several hundred people. One group, called the "Notables," or Ehrbarkeit , made up of powerful local families,
12692-532: The Estates often to consent to new taxation and to raise troops for Austria during the War with the Turks . Unfortunately for the Habsburgs , the tenures of the Statthalter tended to be short. Despite this, their office would continue into the second reign of Duke Ulrich and would become especially important in the regency of Duke Ludwig. Beneath the councilors were the secretaries , clerks , and accountants who ran
12859-482: The Estates, as they authored a government based on collegiate principle, with four nobles acting as regents and two prelates as advisers. The Estates voiced the interests of the towns to the regency, but during the Swabian War this regency became opposed to the wishes of the local burghers, among whom the war was very unpopular. The Estates would continue to vote more men and money to the war, which would end in defeat for
13026-507: The Fortrass of Asperg near Ludwigsburg in central Württemberg where many of them remained prisoners for a long time. When some parents refused to send their children to school the pupils were taken away to the orphanage at Stuttgart, the capital of Württemberg. In 1811, some Separatists from Rottenacker bought the local 'Vogthaus' (today the Protestant ministry) near the church where they lived in
13193-718: The Frisian languages— North Frisian (spoken in Nordfriesland ), Saterland Frisian (spoken in Saterland ), and West Frisian (spoken in Friesland )—as well as the Anglic languages of English and Scots. These Anglo-Frisian dialects did not take part in the High German consonant shift, and the Anglic languages also adopted much vocabulary from both Old Norse and the Norman language . The history of
13360-524: The German language begins with the High German consonant shift during the Migration Period , which separated Old High German dialects from Old Saxon . This sound shift involved a drastic change in the pronunciation of both voiced and voiceless stop consonants ( b , d , g , and p , t , k , respectively). The primary effects of the shift were the following below. While there is written evidence of
13527-447: The German states; the invention of the printing press c. 1440 and the publication of Luther's vernacular translation of the Bible in 1534, however, had an immense effect on standardizing German as a supra-dialectal written language. The ENHG period saw the rise of several important cross-regional forms of chancery German, one being gemeine tiutsch , used in the court of
13694-675: The Germanic dialects that were affected by the High German consonant shift (south of Benrath) from those that were not (north of Uerdingen). The various regional dialects spoken south of these lines are grouped as High German dialects, while those spoken to the north comprise the Low German and Low Franconian dialects. As members of the West Germanic language family, High German, Low German, and Low Franconian have been proposed to be further distinguished historically as Irminonic , Ingvaeonic , and Istvaeonic , respectively. This classification indicates their historical descent from dialects spoken by
13861-646: The Irminones (also known as the Elbe group), Ingvaeones (or North Sea Germanic group), and Istvaeones (or Weser–Rhine group). Standard German is based on a combination of Thuringian - Upper Saxon and Upper Franconian dialects, which are Central German and Upper German dialects belonging to the High German dialect group. German is therefore closely related to the other languages based on High German dialects, such as Luxembourgish (based on Central Franconian dialects ) and Yiddish . Also closely related to Standard German are
14028-507: The MHG period. Significantly, these texts include a number of impressive secular works, such as the Nibelungenlied , an epic poem telling the story of the dragon -slayer Siegfried ( c. thirteenth century ), and the Iwein , an Arthurian verse poem by Hartmann von Aue ( c. 1203 ), lyric poems , and courtly romances such as Parzival and Tristan . Also noteworthy
14195-522: The Separatist era can still be visited. Duchy of W%C3%BCrttemberg The Duchy of Württemberg ( German : Herzogtum Württemberg ) was a duchy located in the south-western part of the Holy Roman Empire . It was a state of the Holy Roman Empire from 1495 to 1803. The dukedom's long survival for over three centuries was mainly due to its size, being larger than its immediate neighbors. During
14362-464: The United States in 1817 and went to Ohio where they founded a communal society at Zoar. There, they lived in a community of goods where all private property was abolished. After Joseph Bimeler died in 1853, a younger generation was no more willing to share their property with others, and therefore the Zoar Society was dissolved in 1898. Today, Zoar Village is a museum where many of the buildings from
14529-455: The authority of the Schultheiss eroded. Despite this, he could still preside over the district court in the absence of the bailiff. Subordinate to the Schultheiss was the town's Burgomaster ( Burgermeister ), the only official to be elected by the citizenry and another office with its origins in the 13th century (the first documented one in Rottweil in 1283). However, popular election was still
14696-455: The bureaucracy of the duchy and adhered to a strict discipline and worked long hours. These men held no political power of their own, but often, this was the starting place for burghers looking to climb the ladder. Secretaries and clerks ( Schreiber ) copied and filed important documents for the various branches of the government. The growth of the central government's bureaucracy also meant the number of clerks growing from 25 in 1520 to over 80 by
14863-478: The burghers that attended the Landtag of 1520, all of them belonged to the court and council of 44 towns, all of them Ehrbarkeit . The lack of resistance on their part to Ulrich's strong government shows that the Estates had neither a strong leader and popular support nor a permanent position in the duchy's constitution and could be easily coerced. The Estates became useful to the Duke for the payment of his debts and for
15030-399: The capital, Stuttgart . The supervision of the count's court income and grain and wine had become too great for the 15th century Hofmeister and cellarer, prompting the creation of the receipt department ( Zentralkasse ), staffed by the territorial clerk ( Landschreiber ) and ducal treasurer ( Kammermeister ). To complement this was the central financial office ( Landschreiberei ), in essence
15197-441: The central government of the duchy. By the end of the 17th century, the title of senior bailiff had become almost entirely honorary and only about 25 were employed by the duchy. The junior bailiff was a much more executive officer, being charged with law and order through the district courts, and he also supervised the district's finances and the levying of new taxes. If he was unable to rectify any given situation, he would refer it to
15364-512: The chamber master ( Kammermeister ) possessed. In the reign of Duke Ludwig , he would become one of the most influential officers in the central government, assuming the role of personal adviser and close friend to the Duke, rivaling only the territorial governor, Landhofmeister in influence on policy. Following the Reformation , new positions that worked during the Visitation were created. With
15531-469: The chancery in 1482, the same year as the reunification of the duchy (then county) and establishment of Stuttgart as capital, the Landhofmeister and the Chancellor worked closely together, and this association remained important until the Kammersekretär supplanted the chancellor in importance. The Haushofmeister , who once accompanied the Duke on hunting trips and managed the court income and servants,
15698-587: The chancery in Stuttgart, and the Chancellor ( Kanzler ) would decide the matter. This position, the link between local, district, and central government, was very common among officials who would later join the central government. Two more offices completed district government: the Cellarer ( Keller or Pfleger ) and the Forester ( Forstmeister or Waldvogt ), of whom there were never more than 12. The cellarer oversaw
15865-414: The chancery, because of the legal knowledge required. The growing influence of the chancery meant the growing influence of the Chancellor, normally the best educated of the Duke's councilors, typically holding a doctorate in canon and civil law as well as extensive administrative power. As one of the burgher elite, he was the link between the central government and local communities for settling disputes. If
16032-600: The church council director, or Kirchenratdirektor , who worked with the church council on Ducal policy in religious matters, helped with the appointing of local preachers and administrating of church lands, and supervised the monasteries. Supervision of the monasteries and nunneries was important to the duchy, as the Reformation made their exorbitant spending no longer acceptable, though they were still allowed to exist in Lutheran Württemberg. The government placed levies on
16199-457: The citizenry, who resented the increasing taxes and restrictions placed on the forest's use. The primary power in local government were the town council and court ( Rat und Gericht ). The council handled the town's daily affairs while the court exercised civil jurisdiction in the town and jurisdiction of non-capital criminal affairs for the entire district. Though the bailiff was originally charged with appointing members of either organization in
16366-514: The collection and stockpiling of the district's grain and wine, a job previously managed by the bailiff until the creation of the cellarer (this duty would sometime be performed by another chief administrative officer called the Schultheiss ). The forester, a position created around 1410, was in charge of the forests in his district, enforcing the laws governing the forest that covered such things as logging and hunting. Often, he came into conflict with
16533-486: The court and the number of court musicians who could pay more than one instrument, but also dramatically shrank the importance of the Kapellknaben to the point where only two were employed by the court. This growth happened in spite of the ongoing War of the Spanish Succession and even Villars 's invasion of the duchy in 1707 (which caused the ducal family to temporarily flee to Switzerland ) finally ended in 1709 when
16700-539: The court chapel as well as the group that played within it, was founded by Duke Eberhard II during his short reign of the Duchy of Württemberg. The rules of the Baroque dukes, Eberhard Louis , Charles Alexander , and Charles Eugene , were an unstable period in the musical scene in the duchy based at the palaces of Ludwigsburg and Stuttgart (much like the Dukes that patronized those arts) that illuminates three central themes in
16867-423: The cultural curve. The result, in the final years of the 17th century, was an increasing awareness and then desire for French style and fashion, resulting in the employment of French musicians, adoption of new Baroque woodwinds , putting on of large-scale French-style ballets de cour called Singballete and the institution of a Lullian string band that paved the way for appearance of the orchestra at court. Even in
17034-453: The debt of 300,000 florins he inherited, amounting to almost one million florins. Ulrich attempted to assuage this with a 6% wealth tax (1 pfennig on 1 gulden ), which was met with fierce resistance by his subjects, particularly the Ehrbarkeit , who had the most to lose. Ulrich refused to call a diet to discuss this tax, but he did not press it and repealed it. Following this failure, Ulrich next tried an indirect tax (3 schilling heller on
17201-408: The declaration of the war, and they provided the duchy's leading inhabitants political power and a forum to debate in. The Treaty of Esslingen in 1492, which stated that 12 members of the Estates could assume rule in times of incompetence, became the basis for following compromises between the Duke and the Estates throughout the 16th centuries. The regency of Duke Ulrich was a time of transition for
17368-430: The development of non-local forms of language and exposed all speakers to forms of German from outside their own area. With Luther's rendering of the Bible in the vernacular, German asserted itself against the dominance of Latin as a legitimate language for courtly, literary, and now ecclesiastical subject-matter. His Bible was ubiquitous in the German states: nearly every household possessed a copy. Nevertheless, even with
17535-452: The dialect so as to make the work as natural and accessible to German speakers as possible. Copies of Luther's Bible featured a long list of glosses for each region, translating words which were unknown in the region into the regional dialect. Luther said the following concerning his translation method: One who would talk German does not ask the Latin how he shall do it; he must ask the mother in
17702-467: The duchy at will, called the Freisitz , provided they met certain criteria. While the relationship between the Duke and the Estates seemed to be cemented, the dukes did not always abide by the Treaty, and the knights and prelates, who appeared at no point or at one point in the creation of the treaty respectively, had little no involvement in it. Ironically, the treaty, which would not be fully implemented for
17869-420: The duchy in comparison to other German states was that burghers held positions in the duchy's central government alongside nobility, most of them holding an extensive university education, and were employed in an ever-growing number for the administrative needs of the duchy. Despite the lower pay and prestige they enjoyed by comparison to nobility, burghers would remain their own distinct class. The best example of
18036-436: The duchy was wildly inconsistent, as each town's constitution mandated how many Burgomasters the town could have and how long they served (most terms ranged from one year to a decade). In some instances, no Burgomasters were present in town and thus they only had a Schultheiss . The final office in local government was the town clerk ( Stadtschreiber ), who wrote up important documents for the council and would sometimes supervise
18203-482: The duchy's neighbors, mostly including the south western Imperial cities like Esslingen am Neckar and Reutlingen , and the Swiss Confederation . The cities of Basel and Solothurn would also regularly extended loans to the dukes of Württemberg. Though it had no central business hub like Ulm or Strasbourg , the duchy was a breadbasket for its neighbors. The Württemberg Hofkapelle , a term both describing
18370-507: The eastern provinces of Banat , Bukovina , and Transylvania (German: Banat, Buchenland, Siebenbürgen ), German was the predominant language not only in the larger towns—like Temeschburg ( Timișoara ), Hermannstadt ( Sibiu ), and Kronstadt ( Brașov )—but also in many smaller localities in the surrounding areas. In 1901, the Second Orthographic Conference ended with a (nearly) complete standardization of
18537-451: The ecclesiastical bodies whom fronted the salaries of the Hofkapelle made known their disdain for paying a clearly secular facet of the court. To reduce this strain, a rotational system wherein a copyist and pianist were on call at all times with three groups consisting of a violinist, an oboist, and a string bass player alternating every four weeks. These musicians were simply referred to as "court and chamber musicians," weren't appointed at
18704-444: The end of the century. Accountants too grew in number, as the number of bookkeepers ( Buchhalter ), charged with maintaining a general ledger to recording and writing summaries of votes cast in privy council meetings, would be expanded greatly to fill the needs of the government. Other low-level positions included the keeper of the treasury ( Gewöhlbeverwater ), who curated the goods of the treasury vault such as government archives, and
18871-419: The face of periodic French aggression in the 18th century, Duke Eberhard Louis, educated with French style and mannerisms, strove to make his court a haven for French culture . At the turn of the 18th century, Württemberg's musical interests, like many other European states, began turning to Italy , which can be seen in the productions of Johann Sigismund Kusser from 1698 to 1702. Musical funding would come to
19038-486: The forests of Böblingen in May 1515. Ulrich had taken a romantic interest in von Hutten's wife and, according to a later declaration the Imperial Diet of Augsburg on 19 August 1518, had become hostile towards him after Hans' marriage to Ursula von Hutten. Ursula was the daughter of Thumb von Neuburg, the marshal and one of the most influential men in the ducal court, and Hans von Hutten was the cousin of Ulrich von Hutten,
19205-423: The government treasury that received the taxes collected across the duchy. The Ehrbarkeit held a variety of positions in local government as well as district government, which relied on a network of the duchy's market towns, establishing a link between the town and the countryside. The most powerful official in a district was the bailiff ( Vogt ), who governed and supervised the functions of urban government in
19372-408: The help of the Ducal court and reformers Johannes Brenz , Ambrosius Blarer , and Erhard Schnepf , a powerful new, centralized ecclesiastical cabinet formed to assure the Duke's will in religious matters were felt throughout the duchy via a strict system of visitation to all of the duchy's districts. The creation of the church council, Kirchenrat , in 1553 resulted in a position only held by burghers:
19539-432: The hiring of violinist and virtuoso Giuseppe Antonio Brescianello as "director of chamber music" about a month after Pez's death. By the end of 1717, the concept of an orchestra as an institution began to solidify at the court. The University of Tübingen was established by the ruling dynasty in 1477. In the 16th century, Württemberg became one of three competing southwest Imperial states vying for greater status in
19706-435: The home, the children on the streets, the common man in the market-place and note carefully how they talk, then translate accordingly. They will then understand what is said to them because it is German. When Christ says ' ex abundantia cordis os loquitur ,' I would translate, if I followed the papists, aus dem Überflusz des Herzens redet der Mund . But tell me is this talking German? What German understands such stuff? No,
19873-474: The influence of Luther's Bible as an unofficial written standard, a widely accepted standard for written German did not appear until the middle of the eighteenth century. German was the language of commerce and government in the Habsburg Empire , which encompassed a large area of Central and Eastern Europe . Until the mid-nineteenth century, it was essentially the language of townspeople throughout most of
20040-466: The knights refused to pay and the Ehrbarkeit and lay citizenry had not the funds to pay, the League sold the duchy to the new Holy Roman Emperor , Charles V , on 6 February 1520, for 220,000 florins, with the blessing of the Estates. The sale was on the conditions that League pay the debts incurred under Ulrich and defend the duchy from any future attacks made by Ulrich. Charles V may have had some motives in
20207-539: The last elector assumed the title of King of Württemberg. Later that year, on 6 August 1806, the last Emperor, Francis II , abolished (de facto) the Holy Roman Empire. Much of the territory of the Duchy of Württemberg lies in the valley of the Neckar river, from Tübingen to Heilbronn , with its capital and largest city, Stuttgart , in the center. The northern part of Württemberg is wide and open, with large rivers making for decent arable land. The southern part of Württemberg
20374-457: The laws that governed it, and this would be tested by the chancery in Stuttgart whenever the clerk visited the capital. As before, the duchy's notables had a powerful presence in the central government but burghers, in particular, came to fill many important offices by either university education, clerical expertise, or administrative experience in district and local government. Burgher or noble,
20541-453: The leading burgher councilors in the central government was the Chancellor ( Kanzler ), a position again traceable to the 13th century, when monks worked on documents for the court. The duchy's first Chancellor was a prelate who was given the position by Count Eberhard V in 1481. However, after the County 's elevation to a duchy, this position would only be held by burghers, like most of the jobs in
20708-506: The longest and most tumultuous periods in the history of the region. The young duke at first made little change to the government, allowing his councilors to decide on policy while he made his greatest marks in the duchy through the expansion of the realm, usually through war. With the aid of Duke Albert IV of Bavaria and Maximilian I, Ulrich invaded the Electoral Palatinate with an army of 20,000 soldiers, obtaining Maulbronn Abbey ,
20875-442: The many councilors in the central government had tremendous influence, even if that influence and thus the balance of power in the duchy's administration, was subject to the whim of the ruling duke. However, they were not entirely dependent on the duke, as much of the actual governing was out of his hands, and the geographical location and political instability of the duchy contributed greatly to its unique political development. One of
21042-421: The masculinity of the term) who would receive music training with the expectation that they would become permanent members of the Württemberg establishment with an equal salary to the choirboys. It is also likely that female vocalists formed part of a French comödianten from 1713 to 1716 in a nod to the large-scale theatrical performances of the early days that the Duke called off and never returned to because of
21209-554: The message supervisor ( Botenmeister ), who managed the couriers of the duchy. The Estates ( Landschaft ), the largest political body in the duchy, were an entity that had existed even before the founding of the duchy (The first assembly of the Estates, called a Landtag , occurred in Leonberg in 1457 when Count Ulrich V summoned the notables of the towns to counterbalance the attending knights ( Ritterschaft )), and it consisted of representatives from several different estates ( Stände ):
21376-532: The most important leader of the Separatists in Württemberg, directing about 2,000 followers. When Rapp emigrated to the United States in 1803, a Separatist group from Rottenacker took over the leading role within the movement. It had been initiated in 1800 by a farmgirl named Barbara Grubenmann from Teufen in the Swiss canton Appenzell-Ausserrhoden south of Lake Constance who had come to Rottenacker. About 70 inhabitants of
21543-402: The mother in the home and the plain man would say, Wesz das Herz voll ist, des gehet der Mund über . Luther's translation of the Bible into High German was also decisive for the German language and its evolution from Early New High German to modern Standard German. The publication of Luther's Bible was a decisive moment in the spread of literacy in early modern Germany , and promoted
21710-414: The name of the duke from the district seat ( Amtstadt ). This position first appeared around 1425, but it took around seventy years for the functions of the bailiff to be fully established. By the end of the 15th century, this office had split into senior bailiff ( Obervogt ), typically a nobleman, and junior bailiff ( Untervogt ), who would preside in the absence of the senior bailiff and was usually himself
21877-630: The ninth century, chief among them being the Muspilli , Merseburg charms , and Hildebrandslied , and other religious texts (the Georgslied , Ludwigslied , Evangelienbuch , and translated hymns and prayers). The Muspilli is a Christian poem written in a Bavarian dialect offering an account of the soul after the Last Judgment , and the Merseburg charms are transcriptions of spells and charms from
22044-577: The nobility were to be empowered. This government in Charles V's absence was headed by a new position, the Statthalter , a nobleman who represented the Emperor in all matters, and by the Chancellor. This was Gregor Lamparter (one of the Ehrbarkeit ), who had been Chancellor and was arrested by Ulrich but escaped death. Charles V turned the duchy over to Archduke Ferdinand I on 31 March 1522. Ferdinand first called
22211-528: The participants of a Diet were townsfolk, though the peasantry had almost no input. The Estates had no means of imposing their will, and were to a certain extent dependent on the Duke to be effective. At times they were able to convince the Duke into reform, such as with the Treaty of Tübingen in 1514. During times of minority or absence of the Duke, the Estates had a large decree of control over policy and government, which they effectively lost in times of majority. Duke Ulrich, for example, rarely called Diets. Of
22378-630: The peasantry makes clear their dissatisfaction, and the final result of this dissatisfaction and taxation was the Poor Conrad revolt, which began in Kernen im Remstal in the Schorndorf district, 30 km (19 mi) from Stuttgart, a wine-growing region particularly affected by economic downturn caused by poor harvests in recent years and high taxation. Despite Ulrich's repealing of the excise on meat, discontent continued to grow, forcing Ulrich to finally call
22545-456: The power wielded by the burghers in the duchy's government, however, was to be found in the Estates , who sought always to hold the duke to the terms of the Treaty of Tübingen , a piece of legislation that outlined the rights of the burghers and the duke's duties to them. The foundations of the government of the Duchy of Württemberg were laid even before the elevation of the County of Württemberg in 1495. The House of Württemberg had governed
22712-400: The prelates, nobles, and burgher officials. The prelates were the abbots of the fourteen monasteries of the duchy, who were generally present at the diets as Ducal appointees after the Reformation. Roughly 30 noblemen, usually ducal councilors or some other senior official, also regularly attended. Since the Estates were intended to be the representatives of the duchy's inhabitants, about 75% of
22879-462: The pronunciation of the ending -ig as [ɪk] instead of [ɪç]. In Northern Germany, High German was a foreign language to most inhabitants, whose native dialects were subsets of Low German. It was usually encountered only in writing or formal speech; in fact, most of High German was a written language, not identical to any spoken dialect, throughout the German-speaking area until well into the 19th century. However, wider standardization of pronunciation
23046-481: The purchasing of the duchy based on plans of Maximilian I's in 1518 of "Austrian centralization" in Swabia with "an integrated judicial system." Charles V did not, however, ever rule the duchy himself, electing instead to proclaim the "freedom of the Estates of Württemberg " on 15 October 1520 and that Württemberg would pay him an annual levy of 22,000 florins, setting the tone of the Habsburgs' 14-year rule, during which
23213-438: The regency. While the regency would hear the wishes of the people through the Estates, they became opposed to the wishes of the local burghers during the very unpopular Swabian War , for which the Estates voted more soldiers and money. Maximilian I declared Ulrich I of age at 16, in the process violating the 1492 Treaty of Esslingen [ de ] that stipulated that he could only fully succeed at 20. Thus began one of
23380-551: The region and the Empire at large. Itself Lutheran , Württemberg sparred with the Roman Catholic Duchy of Lorraine and the Calvinist Electoral Palatinate . Württemberg found allies in north and east Germany because of its Lutheran faith. In the late 17th and early 18th centuries, Pietism became widespread throughout the duchy as a response to the perceived hedonism of Baroque society and attempt at
23547-418: The rest of the 16th century, appeared to be more of a victory for Duke Ulrich, as he sought just to appease the Estates and to obtain the funds required to continue his rule, both of which he had accomplished, allowing him to ignore the treaty. Three events would come to be responsible for the demise of Duke Ulrich's first rule. The first of these would be the murder of his equerry , Hans Ritter von Hutten, in
23714-541: The states of North Dakota and South Dakota , German is the most common language spoken at home after English. As a legacy of significant German immigration to the country , German geographical names can be found throughout the Midwest region , such as New Ulm and Bismarck (North Dakota's state capital), plus many other regions. A number of German varieties have developed in the country and are still spoken today, such as Pennsylvania Dutch and Texas German . In Brazil,
23881-419: The statute passed by the Estates in 1514 that denied scales and weights, further hurting merchants and farmers, the lack of say commoners had in their own government, and the restriction of the use of the forests, rivers and meadows around them caused much unrest. To pour salt into the wound, the commoners came to dread the increase in lawyers and officials, who brought new legal methods. A list of grievances from
24048-404: The taxation of the populace. The town clerk was the link between the local and central governments, as he had to, for example, write all requests to be sent to the Duke by the citizenry (these would also have to be approved by the junior bailiff), making him one of the most important people in local government. He would also be expected to have a specific knowledge of the territory of the duchy and
24215-482: The territory for centuries, but had split in half along the two branches of the family in 1442 by the Treaty of Nürtingen . When Count Eberhard V the Bearded united the two halves of the duchy in 1482, he merged the governments of the two into the basis of the central government. An important department of this government was the chancery ( Kanzlei ), which had existed in Württemberg since 1482 and found its headquarters in
24382-496: The third most commonly learned second language in the United States in K-12 education. The language has been influential in the fields of philosophy, theology, science, and technology. It is the second most commonly used language in science and the third most widely used language on websites . The German-speaking countries are ranked fifth in terms of annual publication of new books, with one-tenth of all books (including e-books) in
24549-465: The town's lord ( Stadtherr ) chose the Schultheiss from a pool of 30 to 50 men and he governed the town according to the lord's interests. When the interests of the Scultheiss came to share those of the town's elite rather than the lord's, he created the position of bailiff in order to maintain his interests in the community. These two officials would work together for a time, but during the 15th century,
24716-454: The various components of the participating Hofkapelle lodged in and around Ludwigsburg Palace . By the second decade of the 18th century, the Singballete and operas used to celebrate previous ducal birthdays had been replaced with smaller presentations. This coincided with the shift of opinion in the court as to what extent chamber music ( German : Cammer-Musique ) was able to portray
24883-420: The vast amounts of money lost in the stay of Johann Sigismund Kusser in Stuttgart, and Pez (according to his own word) was required to practice with and compose for this group for many hours. This group would perform in the celebrations of the Duke's hunting order, founded in 1702 and named after St. Hubert , that became one of the most important events in court life as the 18th century moved ahead, with Pez and
25050-530: The village separated from church. From the beginning political ideas played an important role when the separatists insulted the ruler of Württemberg, the Elector Friedrich (1797-1803 Duke Friedrich II, 1806-1816 King of Württemberg) and his officials. In May 1804, the Elector sent military to the villages of Rottenacker, Dettingen unter Teck, Horrheim and Boll. The most prominent Separatists were arrested and led to
25217-483: The will nor the power to act against Ulrich. The final event that sealed the fate of Ulrich's first reign of the duchy came eight days after Maximilian I's death on 12 January 1519, when Duke Ulrich stormed the Imperial City of Reutlingen on the pretense of avenging the recent murder of the commander of the town's fort and his wife. He made it a possession of Württemberg, with its allegiance owed to Ulrich rather than
25384-543: The world being published in German. German is most closely related to other West Germanic languages, namely Afrikaans , Dutch , English , the Frisian languages , and Scots . It also contains close similarities in vocabulary to some languages in the North Germanic group , such as Danish , Norwegian , and Swedish . Modern German gradually developed from Old High German , which in turn developed from Proto-Germanic during
25551-579: The written form of German. One of the central events in the development of ENHG was the publication of Luther's translation of the Bible into High German (the New Testament was published in 1522; the Old Testament was published in parts and completed in 1534). Luther based his translation primarily on the Meißner Deutsch of Saxony , spending much time among the population of Saxony researching
25718-429: Was a "neutral" language as there were virtually no English native speakers in Namibia at that time. German, Afrikaans, and several indigenous languages thus became "national languages" by law, identifying them as elements of the cultural heritage of the nation and ensuring that the state acknowledged and supported their presence in the country. Today, Namibia is considered to be the only German-speaking country outside of
25885-462: Was a position that would become merely honorary, and he would soon find himself relegated to tutoring of noble children and sourcing the food consumed by the court. This position was unique in that husband and wife could both serve as Haushofmeister and Haushofmesiterin , who would assist her husband and taught the female children of the nobility. A leading noble figure at the court was the Marshal , who
26052-434: Was also one of the most populous regions of the Holy Roman Empire , supporting 300,000-400,000 inhabitants (and a birthrate that grew 6–7% each year) in the 16th century, 70% of which lived in the countryside. The largest town in the duchy was Stuttgart (9,000), followed by Tübingen, then Schorndorf , and Kirchheim-Teck (2,000-5,000), and over 670 villages that contained the rest of the population. The Duchy of Württemberg
26219-530: Was an artificial standard that did not correspond to any traditional spoken dialect. Rather, it was based on the pronunciation of German in Northern Germany, although it was subsequently regarded often as a general prescriptive norm, despite differing pronunciation traditions especially in the Upper-German-speaking regions that still characterise the dialect of the area today – especially
26386-485: Was established on the basis of public speaking in theatres and the media during the 20th century and documented in pronouncing dictionaries. Official revisions of some of the rules from 1901 were not issued until the controversial German orthography reform of 1996 was made the official standard by governments of all German-speaking countries. Media and written works are now almost all produced in Standard German which
26553-607: Was formed when, at the Diet of Worms , 21 July 1495, Maximilian I , King of the Romans and Holy Roman Emperor , declared the Count of Württemberg ( German : Graf von Württemberg ), Eberhard V "the Bearded," Duke of Württemberg ( German : Herzog von Württemberg ). This would be the last elevation to dukedom of the Medieval era. The House of Württemberg had reigned over the territory since
26720-587: Was in charge of instructing the Wittelsbach children in music. Emperor Charles VI released the entire musical ensemble of the Imperial fugitives by decree in May 1706, and Eberhard Louis hired Pez as Senior concert master ( German : Oberkapellmeister ) of the Württemberg Hofkapelle , above both Störl and Schwartzkopf. Pez expanded the size of the Hofkapelle , particularly the number of instruments used by
26887-451: Was noted by the two Kapellmeister . While in Munich during the winter of 1705–06 following the defeat of Elector Maximilian II Emanuel and his brother, Joseph Clemens , Elector-archbishop of Cologne , after their defeat at defeat at Blenheim in 1704 and subsequent exile to France in 1706, he learned of the Catholic musician and composer Johann Christoph Pez , a Catholic , who now
27054-437: Was still very proud of the quality of his instrumentalists, however he worried about his vocalists, who were not numerous and contained many Catholic members who would at times not be present, exacerbating the problem. Württemberg, unlike other Lutheran German courts, found a semi-solution to a shortage of treble voices in the hiring of a succession of young, unmarried called Legr-Discantistinnen or Kapelleknaben (despite
27221-467: Was succeeded by his cousin, Eberhard II , and he would make little change to the government's structure. Despite having earlier been the count from 1480 to 1482, he proved to be administratively incompetent, and his attempt to begin a war against Bavaria prompted the Estates to request Maximilian I to call a diet in March 1498 to remove Eberhard II. The Emperor then made the unprecedented decision to side with
27388-471: Was tasked with its defense as well as supervising the court servants ( Hofgesinde ). Although military experience was no longer considered a prerequisite by the reign of Duke Ludwig , it remained an important advisory position. The Kammermeister oversaw the Ducal treasury and was in this way distinct from the Landschreiber , who oversaw the general treasury. The Kammermeister was already a close adviser to
27555-399: Was that of the Statthalter , a kind of ad hoc substitute governor. There was typically a Statthalter only in times of regency or absence of the duchy's ruler, and he became particularly important during the period 1520–1534, when the occupying Habsburgs attempted to rule the Duchy in the absence of Emperors Charles V and Ferdinand . He maintained close ties with Austria , summoning
27722-457: Was the dominant force in the local administration of the duchy. The central government consisted primarily of a bureaucracy of these Ehrbarkeit from the regional towns that came to work and live in Stuttgart . Typically, these officials began in local or district government, and then retired to their home towns in their later years or when court was not in session, creating the "town and district" character of Württemberg's politics. An oddity of
27889-557: Was the flight of Ulrich's wife, Sabina of Bavaria , back to her family in November 1515 along with Dietrich Spät, one of Ulrich's advisers. Overnight she had unmade a match Emperor Maximilian I had arranged with her father, Duke Alphrecht. She had complained bitterly about the mistreatment she had experienced by Ulrich, of von Hutten's murder, and of Ulrich's refusal to pay off her debts. Her immediate family demanded immediate compensation and for Ulrich to be expelled, and to this end appealed to
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