73-420: A rotane is a hydrocarbon consisting of a central cycloalkane ring with cyclopropane units spiro -linked to each corner. The systematic naming pattern for these molecules is "[ n ]rotane", where n is the number of atoms in the central ring. The simplest such chemical, [3]rotane, consists solely of a branched array of spiro-cyclopropane units, and is thus a branched triangulane . This article about
146-419: A hydrocarbon is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Hydrocarbon In organic chemistry , a hydrocarbon is an organic compound consisting entirely of hydrogen and carbon . Hydrocarbons are examples of group 14 hydrides . Hydrocarbons are generally colourless and hydrophobic ; their odor is usually faint, and may be similar to that of gasoline or lighter fluid . They occur in
219-425: A paramagnetic one (inducing a magnetic field in the same direction as the applied field). The antennae of the stingless bee, therefore, exist as a complex sensory organ used for orientation and navigation through the combined use of thousands of hair-shaped sensilla . Like most eusocial insects, S. quadripunctata reproduction relies heavily on the established hierarchy and level of environmental quality. Usually,
292-575: A punctate thorax and abdomen and a dorsal thoracic area sporting a few hairs. Glands are present on the head and thorax. The glands are larger in the heads of general worker bees and larger in the thorax for nursing worker bees. Nests are entirely underground on the subtropical floor and consist of vast and expansive cavities. Each nest is occupied by a single colony consisting of an individual queen and several thousand workers. Brood cells are arranged in spiral combs, each cell housing only one individual. Cells housing queens are typically much larger than
365-439: A 2005 study conducted by Esquivel et al. on a S. quadripunctata nest near Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. The study applied various levels of applied magnetic fields across the entrance of the nest. The exiting angles (both vertical and horizontal) of the individual bees were then measured as they emerged from the nest. The primary control experiment confirmed that the majority of the nest had a preferential exiting angle in accordance with
438-424: A body area of 2.1 square millimetres ( 1 ⁄ 256 sq in), this gives a ratio of 6.8 opening to bee. This smaller entrance provides more than enough space for the relatively low enter and exit traffic of 17.4 individuals per minute. Schwarziana quadripunctata appears to rely heavily on the small entryway size as their main source of defense. Although three to five guards are typically seen guarding
511-414: A common thermoplastic material. Addition reactions apply to alkenes and alkynes. It is because they add reagents that they are called unsaturated. In this reaction a variety of reagents add "across" the pi-bond(s). Chlorine, hydrogen chloride, water , and hydrogen are illustrative reagents. Polymerization is a form of addition. Alkenes and some alkynes also undergo polymerization by opening of
584-534: A diverse array of these chemicals were present in each member. They then charted these hydrocarbon differences and found a distinct separation according to colony location, age, sex, and hierarchal position. In particular, older workers, which are in charge of colony protection, had higher concentrations of the alkenes heptacosene and hentriacontene. It was thus deduced that these alkenes were vital parts of kin recognition. Some of these essential hydrocarbons were also found to be lacking in younger individuals, alluding to
657-633: A diverse diet of flowering plants found abundantly on the forest floor, including guacatonga ( Casearia sylvestris ) and the mistletoe species Struthanthus concinnus . Schwarziana quadripunctata was first described by the French entomologist and former president of the French Entomologist Society Amédéé Louis Michel le Peletier in 1836. Although originally placed in the genus Trigona , more recent taxonomic evaluations have since placed it under its current genus, following
730-470: A diverse range of molecular structures and phases: they can be gases (such as methane and propane ), liquids (such as hexane and benzene ), low melting solids (such as paraffin wax and naphthalene ) or polymers (such as polyethylene and polystyrene ). In the fossil fuel industries, hydrocarbon refers to naturally occurring petroleum , natural gas and coal , or their hydrocarbon derivatives and purified forms. Combustion of hydrocarbons
803-426: A double bond between carbon atoms are sometimes referred to as 'olefins'. The predominant use of hydrocarbons is as a combustible fuel source. Methane is the predominant component of natural gas. C through C alkanes, alkenes, cycloalkanes, and aromatic hydrocarbons are the main components of gasoline , naphtha , jet fuel , and specialized industrial solvent mixtures. With the progressive addition of carbon units,
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#1733093758193876-554: A dwarf queen can be beneficial. Dwarf queens have a lower fecundity and reproduction rate than normal queens. This appears to be the consequence of a reduced egg-laying rate and a lower average ovary weight. A queen’s ovary is nearly four times larger than a dwarf queen’s. In some aspects, however, workers occasionally have a slight advantage over queens and dwarf queens. Worker bees are in charge of delivering food supplies to developing larvae. Thus, workers can force underdeveloped dwarf queen larvae and queen larvae to be converted into
949-465: A past evolutionary benefit. More distinctive to the intra-communal dynamics of the Schwarziana quadripunctata nest is the existence of multiple statuses of queen – the physogastric queen (those that are larger in size and more involved in reproduction) and multiple dwarf queens. The number of these dwarf queens varies in accordance to resource availability, colony conditions, and the physical state of
1022-403: A quarter of the weight of an average paperclip. Colonies contain a larger queen with greater fecundity than dwarf queens, causing the size discrepancy between the two. Unusual for most other eusocial insects, worker bees and dwarf queen bees tend to be similar in weight and size. The bees have a pale coloration of brown or reddish-brown with occasional yellow markings on the head. They maintain
1095-529: A single C–C bond it is alkane metathesis , for a double C–C bond it is alkene metathesis (olefin metathesis), and for a triple C–C bond it is alkyne metathesis . The vast majority of hydrocarbons found on Earth occur in crude oil , petroleum, coal , and natural gas. Since thousands of years they have been exploited and used for a vast range of purposes. Petroleum ( lit. ' rock oil ' ) and coal are generally thought to be products of decomposition of organic matter. Coal, in contrast to petroleum,
1168-401: A specialized cell in groups of one to five along with one or two worker bees. This is done in order to limit interference to the cell provisioning and oviposition processes of the physogastric queen. Future queen eggs are positioned near the periphery of the comb in larger, specialized cells while workers and dwarf queens (in a ratio of about 1000 to 6, respectively) are randomly placed about
1241-452: A tube network, several layers, or multiple openings. S. quadripunctata nest entrances in São Paulo , Brazil consisted of an average entrance area of 14.5 square millimetres ( 3 ⁄ 128 sq in), relatively small compared to the 2.1 square millimetres ( 1 ⁄ 256 sq in) body of the bee. This may account for the lower traffic levels of the stingless bee through
1314-468: A two neutral radical atoms ( homolytic fission ). all the way to CCl 4 ( carbon tetrachloride ) all the way to C 2 Cl 6 ( hexachloroethane ) Aromatic compounds, almost uniquely for hydrocarbons, undergo substitution reactions. The chemical process practiced on the largest scale is the reaction of benzene and ethene to give ethylbenzene : The resulting ethylbenzene is dehydrogenated to styrene and then polymerized to manufacture polystyrene ,
1387-404: A worker bee, or to be eradicated completely, through extreme limitations of their food rations. The division of labor often, in some way or another, reflects the evolutionary sex ratio of a species. This is especially true in S. quadripunctata , where worker bees can outnumber queens by about one thousand to one (1000:1). The main purpose of the colonial queen, or gyne , is to lay eggs within
1460-413: Is a distinct comparison to the complex entryways consisting of layered entrances or closable doorways observed in some other related species. Through the observation and measurement of several S. quadripunctata nests near São Paulo , Brazil , entrances were discovered to have an average area of 14.5 square millimetres ( 3 ⁄ 128 sq in). In comparison to the average stingless bee having
1533-488: Is a small, stingless bee found in a stretch of the South American Amazon from Goiás , Brazil , through Paraguay , to Misiones , Argentina . This highly eusocial insect constructs earthen nests in the subterranean level of the subtropical environment, an unusual feature among other stingless bees. The species ranges in sizes from 6.0 to 7.5 millimetres ( 1 ⁄ 4 to 9 ⁄ 32 in) and feeds on
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#17330937581931606-696: Is also potential to harvest hydrocarbons from plants like Euphorbia lathyris and E. tirucalli as an alternative and renewable energy source for vehicles that use diesel. Furthermore, endophytic bacteria from plants that naturally produce hydrocarbons have been used in hydrocarbon degradation in attempts to deplete hydrocarbon concentration in polluted soils. Saturated hydrocarbons are notable for their inertness. Unsaturated hydrocarbons (alkanes, alkenes and aromatic compounds) react more readily, by means of substitution, addition, polymerization. At higher temperatures they undergo dehydrogenation, oxidation and combustion. The cracking of saturated hydrocarbons
1679-688: Is also responsible for the ability of worker bees to determine the location of their home nest. Many stingless bee colonies, those of S. quadripunctata included, are repopulated by a single queen who mates. This should, in theory, create a conflicting rift between queens and the worker bees due to variations in genetic relatedness. Queens produce haploid males that are genetically identical to them. In contrast, workers only share fifty percent (50%) of their genes with males, leading to an evolutionary conflict of interest. However, worker bees were not observed to increase their aggressive behaviors towards newly reproduced males. A few possible explanations arose from
1752-430: Is believed that dwarf queens are evolutionarily advantageous in that they develop in order to avoid becoming a worker bee. Their role was found to become the head of a colony in the absence of viable, full-sized queens. The roles of the worker bee in S. quadripunctata include the maintenance and protection of larvae (queen, dwarf, or worker) placed within the brood cells. They are responsible for delivering nutrients to
1825-400: Is called autoxidation , begins with the formation of hydroperoxides (ROOH). Combustion of hydrocarbons is currently the main source of the world's energy for electric power generation , heating (such as home heating), and transportation. Often this energy is used directly as heat such as in home heaters, which use either petroleum or natural gas . The hydrocarbon is burnt and the heat
1898-477: Is estimated at more than 58 million metric tons, which will increase to 60 million tons in 2022. Hydrocarbons are also prevalent in nature. Some eusocial arthropods, such as the Brazilian stingless bee, Schwarziana quadripunctata , use unique cuticular hydrocarbon "scents" in order to determine kin from non-kin. This hydrocarbon composition varies between age, sex, nest location, and hierarchal position. There
1971-418: Is often adverse weather conditions, rather than complete depletion of pollen and nectar from the resource, that terminate the length of harvesting by the stingless bees. In total, S. quadripunctata utilizes over 35 different species of flowering plants. Many of these produce a large quantity of flower material, limiting interspecies and intraspecies competition. Over ten percent (10%) of their diet comes from
2044-438: Is possible. Hydrocarbons are generally of low toxicity, hence the widespread use of gasoline and related volatile products. Aromatic compounds such as benzene and toluene are narcotic and chronic toxins, and benzene in particular is known to be carcinogenic . Certain rare polycyclic aromatic compounds are carcinogenic. Hydrocarbons are highly flammable . Schwarziana quadripunctata Schwarziana quadripunctata
2117-438: Is projected to continue into the future. Colonies are founded by the swarming of individuals consisting of a single queen followed by several thousand worker bees. This can only be achieved if both the queen and her workers “align” themselves towards the same goal in production of fertile females. Once a colony has been established, housing combs are produced by the workers, with larger ones allocated to potential queen larvae and
2190-463: Is richer in carbon and poorer in hydrogen. Natural gas is the product of methanogenesis . A seemingly limitless variety of compounds comprise petroleum, hence the necessity of refineries. These hydrocarbons consist of saturated hydrocarbons, aromatic hydrocarbons, or combinations of the two. Missing in petroleum are alkenes and alkynes. Their production requires refineries. Petroleum-derived hydrocarbons are mainly consumed for fuel, but they are also
2263-616: Is the main industrial route to alkenes and alkyne . These reactions require heterogeneous catalysts and temperatures >500 °C. Widely practice conversions of hydrocarbons involves their reaction with oxygen. In the presence of excess oxygen, hydrocarbons combust. With, however, careful conditions, which have been optimized for many years, partial oxidation results. Useful compounds can obtained in this way: maleic acid from butane , terephthalic acid from xylenes , acetone together with phenol from cumene (isopropylbenzene), and cyclohexanone from cyclohexane]]. The process, which
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2336-748: Is the main source of the world's energy. Petroleum is the dominant raw-material source for organic commodity chemicals such as solvents and polymers. Most anthropogenic (human-generated) emissions of greenhouse gases are either carbon dioxide released by the burning of fossil fuels , or methane released from the handling of natural gas or from agriculture. As defined by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry 's nomenclature of organic chemistry , hydrocarbons are classified as follows: The term 'aliphatic' refers to non-aromatic hydrocarbons. Saturated aliphatic hydrocarbons are sometimes referred to as 'paraffins'. Aliphatic hydrocarbons containing
2409-398: Is the paucity of enzymes that act on them. Nonetheless, the area has received regular attention. Bacteria in the gabbroic layer of the ocean's crust can degrade hydrocarbons; but the extreme environment makes research difficult. Other bacteria such as Lutibacterium anuloederans can also degrade hydrocarbons. Mycoremediation or breaking down of hydrocarbon by mycelium and mushrooms
2482-597: Is used to heat water, which is then circulated. A similar principle is used to create electrical energy in power plants . Both saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons undergo this process. Common properties of hydrocarbons are the facts that they produce steam, carbon dioxide and heat during combustion and that oxygen is required for combustion to take place. The simplest hydrocarbon, methane , burns as follows: In inadequate supply of air, carbon black and water vapour are formed: And finally, for any linear alkane of n carbon atoms, Partial oxidation characterizes
2555-535: The Solar System . Lakes of liquid methane and ethane have been found on Titan , Saturn 's largest moon, as confirmed by the Cassini–Huygens space probe. Hydrocarbons are also abundant in nebulae forming polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon compounds. Burning hydrocarbons as fuel, which produces carbon dioxide and water , is a major contributor to anthropogenic global warming . Hydrocarbons are introduced into
2628-411: The physogastric queen lays the majority of the eggs. However, the miniature (or dwarf) queens may also lay fertile eggs, although they tend to be fewer in number and smaller in size. As multiple virgin queens approach the age of reproductive success, they begin to accumulate the reddish-brown pigmentation associated with adult members. At this time, male workers will begin individually courting them on
2701-467: The 1943 work of Padre J.S. Moure, occasionally referred to as "the Father of Brazilian Bee Taxonomy". However, some still consider the term Schwarziana as a subgenus rather than genus and instead incorrectly classify it under the closely related genus Plebeia . The closest relative of S. quadripunctata is the species Schwarziana mourei , determined through morphological and genetic evidence collected in
2774-420: The brood cells housed in the combs. They also play a vital role in the establishment of new colonies. Using their attractive senses, queen bees are able to lead a swarm of workers and the occasional dwarf queen to new locations. Until fairly recently, it was hypothesized that these dwarf, or miniature, queens were the result of developmental mistakes. However, through Tom Wenseleers' "Caste Conflict Hypothesis," it
2847-444: The case of an encounter between the physogastric queen and the newborn “virgin” queens, the larger queen may initiate buccal contact with the smaller queen. A rapidly growing virgin queen may incite her own imprisonment in specialized prison chambers. In one case, an abnormally large and pigmented virgin queen became overly agitated in her prison cell. The release of this queen prompted the interruption of brood cell construction, though
2920-525: The colony, ensuring that, should one queen unexpectedly succumb to injury or illness, another one is readily available to take its place in maintaining the nest. The subtropical environment of the South American Amazon provides a vast array of dietary options for a stingless bee such as S. quadripunctata . With such a densely populated niche of pollinating insects, it remains of utmost importance to balance competition and resource acquisition. It
2993-431: The current physogastric queen. However, the dwarf queens are typically produced year round, with several hatching simultaneously. Mate attractiveness to the newly born queens coincides with pigmentation. The more brightly colored queens were more likely to lay more eggs than their paler counterparts. As the newborn queens begin to age, pigmentation increased as well as the number of courtships from male stingless bees. In
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3066-414: The developing larvae until they hatch. Worker bees are also responsible for accompanying the establishments of new colonies by a queen. Unlike typical honeybees , which practice multiple mating, stingless bees have been suspected of single mating between drones and queen bees. This, along with the consequential pairing of the high relatedness rates within colonies of S. quadripunctata , serves to explain
3139-509: The early twenty-first century. Until recently (2015) it was believed that these were the only two existing species under the genus Schwarziana in the world. However, two more species were discovered in the high altitude environment of South America – S. bocainensis in southeastern Brazil and S. chapadensis in central Brazil. The stingless bee S. quadripunctata varies in size from 6.0 to 7.5 millimetres ( 1 ⁄ 4 to 9 ⁄ 32 in). Worker bees and dwarf queens tend to be on
3212-425: The entryway, an average of 17.4 bees per minute per nest. Members of this species are fairly common in their large South American region, with nests containing over several thousand members each. However, their population is believed to have declined by nearly sixty-five percent (65%) over the past few decades due to competition with the introduced Africanized honeybees along with human deforestation . This decline
3285-524: The environment through their extensive use as fuels and chemicals as well as through leaks or accidental spills during exploration, production, refining, or transport of fossil fuels. Anthropogenic hydrocarbon contamination of soil is a serious global issue due to contaminant persistence and the negative impact on human health. When soil is contaminated by hydrocarbons, it can have a significant impact on its microbiological, chemical, and physical properties. This can serve to prevent, slow down or even accelerate
3358-404: The fertile topsoil of the subtropical rainforests. The niche breadth of S. quadripunctata includes a wide variety of flowering plants that overlaps with many other eusocial bees native to the area, including members of the tribes Meliponini and Trigoni , as well as Africanized honeybees . Each nest features a single, simple rounded entrance, as opposed to a triangular entrance or one with
3431-440: The form of chemical signals between members of the same colony. In particular, cuticular hydrocarbon levels are thought to be of great importance to S. quadripunctata communication and can vary greatly according to age, sex and caste. Hydrocarbons in the stingless bee can vary in length from nonadecane with nineteen carbons to tritriacontane with thirty-three carbons, as discovered in a study conducted by Nunes et al. (2009). It
3504-446: The growing larvae. With so much control, worker bees occasionally discriminate or display reproductive suppression tendencies against dwarf queens by either uncapping the cell before the dwarf hatches, halting the supply of nutrients, or killing the newly developed individual upon emergence of the cell. A major strength of any eusocial insect is the ability to communicate amongst one another. Often, this method of communication comes in
3577-495: The growth of vegetation depending on the exact changes that occur. Crude oil and natural gas are the two largest sources of hydrocarbon contamination of soil. Bioremediation of hydrocarbon from soil or water contaminated is a formidable challenge because of the chemical inertness that characterize hydrocarbons (hence they survived millions of years in the source rock). Nonetheless, many strategies have been devised, bioremediation being prominent. The basic problem with bioremediation
3650-452: The high degree of kin selection among stingless bees. After a female queen mates and lays her brood, the worker bees package them into specifically designed cells – queens in larger “royal” cells and workers and dwarf queens in smaller ones. Each cell is then capped with a layer of wax-like substance. With the queen’s role in production complete, the combs are left to the tending of worker bees, which distribute nutrients and vital resources to
3723-550: The idea that the chemicals are acquired as the exposure to the waxy comb, specific to each colony, increases. One case sought to further test the importance of hydrocarbon concentration. In a group of related worker bees, half were injected with an alien alkene . Aggressive behaviors towards these individuals by the non-injected worker bees increased significantly. They were unable to be recognized by their unique odor and were subsequently treated as intruders. The recognition of various odors associated with hydrocarbon concentrations
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#17330937581933796-407: The interior in smaller brood cells. The eggs are cared for by the workers. Since S. quadripunctata reproduction typically relies on a single queen, genetic relatedness within individual colonies is expected to be relatively high. In an analyzation of the genetic relatedness within four separate colonies with an average of eight different worker genotypes per colony, an average relatedness of .792
3869-423: The layers of wax on the comb or on the comb itself. Courting occurs in the form of buccal contact between the males and females through a lateral hole in the thorax of the female. Some virgin queens will begin manipulating the cerumen (wax) layers in preparation for the construction of brood cells by the workers. If the physogastric queen deems a virgin queen is too much of a sexual threat, it may be imprisoned in
3942-436: The local geomagnetic field. Over the course of four months, the study group measured the two angles in comparison to various magnitudes of applied magnetic fields and compared them to observed angles in natural geomagnetic fields. A significant correlation was found between the two, definitively showing that the stingless bee relies on magnetoreception for navigational purposes. A similar 2005 study by Lucano et al. observed
4015-421: The lower end of this spectrum while queens tend to lie on the higher end. Dwarf queens and workers tend to have an average weight of about 30 mg, but have been known to weigh as much as 40 mg or as little as 22 mg. Mated queens (those in charge of the nest) are, in comparison, much larger. The average queen bee weighs in at about 130 mg. However, some have been measured at over 160 mg, about
4088-413: The more numerous, normal-sized cells produced for the worker bee eggs. Dwarf queens are also reared in worker cells. Queen cells are typically located near the edge or periphery of the comb while worker and dwarf queen cells are randomly aggregated towards the center. Although less than one percent (1%) of dwarf queens were seen to emerge from worker cells, they account for nearly eighty-six percent (86%) of
4161-505: The multiple bonds to produce polyethylene , polybutylene , and polystyrene . The alkyne acetylene polymerizes to produce polyacetylene . Oligomers (chains of a few monomers) may be produced, for example in the Shell higher olefin process , where α-olefins are extended to make longer α-olefins by adding ethylene repeatedly. Some hydrocarbons undergo metathesis , in which substituents attached by C–C bonds are exchanged between molecules. For
4234-399: The navigational system of Schwarziana quadripunctata had remained elusive until quite recently. It has been determined that S. quadripunctata navigates, like many other bees, through the use of magnetoreception – utilizing magnetic fields in the atmosphere to recognize differences in location, altitude and directionality. This notion of magnetic navigational skills was first observed in
4307-479: The older member. In the stingless bee S. quadripunctata , as in many social insects, queens reign at the top of the dominance hierarchy, followed by dwarf queens and finally workers. However, dwarf queens have been observed to lead nearly one in five colonies. Although, this accounts for only seventeen percent (17%) of dwarf queens and is significantly lower than the rate at which they were reared (constituting 86% of all females). This does show, however, that becoming
4380-405: The physogastric queen maintained her normal routine. Within a couple days, the virgin queen was found dead and was being carried off by workers. The defining aspect of queen-queen conflict appears to rely heavily on size differentiation. The dominant queen can reach sizes over three times larger than that of the dwarf queens. However, multiple queen production serves a vital role in the survival of
4453-401: The reactions of alkenes and oxygen. This process is the basis of rancidification and paint drying . Benzene burns with sooty flame when heated in air: Saturated hydrocarbons react with chlorine and fluorine . In the case of chlorination, one of the chlorine atoms replaces a hydrogen atom. The reactions proceed via free-radical pathways , in which the halogen first dissociates into
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#17330937581934526-407: The same nest of Schwarziana quadripunctata to determine the location of the bodily magnetoreceptors. After separating the head, thorax, abdomen and antennae of a dozen stingless bees, magnetic fields were applied to each body part. It was found that the head, thorax, and abdomen present a diamagnetic contribution (inducing a magnetic field opposite to the applied field), while the antennae displayed
4599-737: The simple non-ring structured hydrocarbons have higher viscosities , lubricating indices, boiling points, and solidification temperatures. At the opposite extreme from methane lie the heavy tars that remain as the lowest fraction in a crude oil refining retort. They are collected and widely utilized as roofing compounds, pavement material ( bitumen ), wood preservatives (the creosote series) and as extremely high viscosity shear-resisting liquids. Some large-scale non-fuel applications of hydrocarbons begin with ethane and propane, which are obtained from petroleum and natural gas. These two gases are converted either to syngas or to ethylene and propylene respectively. Global consumption of benzene in 2021
4672-517: The source of virtually all synthetic organic compounds, including plastics and pharmaceuticals. Natural gas is consumed almost exclusively as fuel. Coal is used as a fuel and as a reducing agent in metallurgy . A small fraction of hydrocarbon found on earth, and all currently known hydrocarbon found on other planets and moons, is thought to be abiological . Hydrocarbons such as ethylene, isoprene, and monoterpenes are emitted by living vegetation. Some hydrocarbons also are widespread and abundant in
4745-460: The species Casearia sylvestris (called guaçatonga) and Myrcia tomentosa (commonly referred to as goiaba-brava) alone. Other popular flowering plants comprising their diet include Mikania catharinensis , Piptocarpha oblonga (or braço-do-rei in Brazil), and Cordia trichoclada . The entrance to a stingless bee nest serves as a particularly vulnerable area. It serves as the threshold that separates
4818-437: The study in an attempt to explain this lack of aggression. One hypothesis couples the production of males in a stingless bee society with an increase in food reproduction. In this case, the benefit of a stable diet would overcome the workers’ desire to produce females. Another possibility is that aggression is beneficial no matter the sex being produced. The aggression between workers and queens may just be residual left over from
4891-471: The surrounding cells housing males and workers. The distribution of S. quadripunctata ranges from the central highlands of Brazil down towards the northern edge of Argentina on the eastern side of South America . Altitudes can reach up to fifteen hundred meters (1,500 metres (4,921 ft)) in some areas. Lying so near the equator, temperatures are fairly warm year-round, averaging twenty-five degrees Celsius (25 °C (77 °F)). Nests are built into
4964-399: The total queen population. A colony will continue to grow in size until the queen bee dies or swarms to a new location to begin a new colony. In rare cases, two queens may swarm to the same location, due to balanced attractiveness, to begin a new colony. In these special cases, the younger queen typically produces more eggs than the older queen and begins to take over the colony, phasing out
5037-422: The viability of the species from the outside world. The size of the entryway is critical. It must remain large enough to allow the easy to-and-fro passage of the bee, yet small enough to dissuade potential predators (such as orb spiders ) from causing havoc inside the nest. Evolutionarily, a size compromise must be reached. The nest entrance of Schwarziana quadripunctata consists of a simple, round opening. This
5110-527: The wax present in the nest. The relative concentrations of hydrocarbons in members of a colony differed between unrelated sites, alluding to the hypothesis that the wax of each nest contains a unique chemical blend from which the developing larvae absorb. Along with, and often closely related to, communication, effective navigation within an environment is vital to the successful reproduction of eusocial insects. Although some organisms’ methods of navigation seem quite apparent (i.e. through modes of sight and scent)
5183-410: Was collected and calculated on the evaluation of seven polymorphic microsatellite loci , each with several attributable alleles . Kin recognition often goes hand in hand with communication. For instance, researchers compared the relative amounts of various hydrocarbon compounds present in the epicuticles , serving as a chemical odor to other individuals, of S. quadripunctata . The study showed that
5256-571: Was found among worker bees within each colony. This value has been replicated in several studies, including one conducted by Toth et al. (2001) among eighteen colonies in Brazil (relatedness value = 0.75 ± 0.04 among worker bees). In the same study, males (being haploid ) had a relatedness value of 1.0 to queens, while workers only shared approximately fifty percent (50%) of the queen’s genes (relatedness value = 0.48). Relatedness between workers and males were also about half (relatedness value = 0.51). The data
5329-403: Was found that cuticles of older worker bees contained higher concentrations of heptacosene (C27) and hentriacontene (C31) than younger workers and virgin queens, indicating that these hydrocarbons play an important role in nest mate recognition. It was also found that younger stingless bees lacked some of the major hydrocarbons found in older individuals, most likely due a result of less exposure to
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