Bernardo de Irigoyen (December 18, 1822 – December 27, 1906) was an Argentine lawyer, diplomat and politician.
61-538: Roque José Antonio del Sagrado Corazón de Jesús Sáenz-Peña (19 March 1851 – 9 August 1914) was an Argentine politician and lawyer who served as President of Argentina from 12 October 1910 to his death in office on 9 August 1914. He was the son of former president Luis Sáenz-Peña . He was a candidate for an internal, modernist line within the National Autonomist Party . He was responsible for passing Law 8871, known as " Sáenz-Peña Law ", which greatly reformed
122-618: A military junta , where power was shared by the chiefs of the armed forces. In 1962, the president of the Senate ruled, but in the other cases, a military chief assumed the title of president. It is debatable whether these military presidents can properly be called presidents, as there are issues with the legitimacy of their governments. The position of the current Argentine government is that military presidents Jorge Rafael Videla and Leopoldo Fortunato Galtieri were explicitly not legitimate presidents. They and their immediate successors were denied
183-578: A boundary dispute with Chile (Rosas was charged with the Argentine Confederation 's foreign policy during his 1835–1852 reign), and from 1844 to 1850, Irigoyen served as Justice Minister in Mendoza Province , where he enacted the first provincial judicial system, as well as reformist military law and land law statutes. He again negotiated with Chile over the disputed Straits of Magellan (1851), and following Rosas' overthrow, helped draft
244-585: A delegate from an invited country to preside over the conference, but the U.S. Secretary of State was elected to be the permanent chair of the conference. The delegates attended the second session. Throughout the conference Sáenz Peña advocated against an American free trade area. Nevertheless, the United States and twelve nations voted for a “recommendation to work for inter-American reciprocity treaties.” Only Argentina, Chile, and Bolivia voted against it. During Sáenz Peña's tenure as foreign minister, he traveled
305-516: A family of supporters of Rosas : his paternal and maternal grandparents, Roque Julián Sáenz-Peña and Eduardo du Cos de La Hitte, had been deputies of the Legislature during his government. After the defeat of Rosas in the Battle of Caseros , the federal tradition of the grandparents and the father, who did not change their convictions, kept them away from public service. He completed his secondary studies at
366-530: A large part of society - still had no right to vote. Although they did not vote, they were instead taken into account when determining the population of the districts and the number of deputies that could be elected by each one. The first test of the Law in operation was in a provincial election: the Province of Santa Fe was intervened by the government, which ordered the holding of the governor's elections in accordance with
427-534: A result of the dissidents produced within the autonomism due to the conciliation policy initiated by President Nicolás Avellaneda to which Sáenz-Peña was opposed, he resigned from his position and ended up temporarily abandoning politics. On 4 February 1887, he married Rosa Isidora González, daughter of the Mendoza politician Lucas González and Rosa Delgado, in the Basilica of Our Lady of Pilar (Buenos Aires). The War of
488-554: A street with the name of Sáenz Peña and there are monuments to his memory. In Rio de Janeiro , his name is remembered in Plaza Sáenz Peña . President of Argentina The president of Argentina ( Spanish : Presidente de Argentina ; officially known as the president of the Argentine Nation Spanish : Presidente de la Nación Argentina ) is both head of state and head of government of Argentina . Under
549-525: Is also used by the Air Force chief of staff. As helicopters , a Sikorsky S-70 (H-01 ) and two Sikorsky S-76 (H-02 and H-03 ) also make-up the fleet, with an additional Air Force Bell 212 , as needed. During Néstor Kirchner and Cristina Fernández administration AAP used different aircraft for their global flights, most notably Boeing 747 loaned from Aerolíneas Argentinas and a private Bombardier Global 5000 . Following military coups that overthrew
610-566: Is responsible for the security of the entire presidential family. To move the president uses aircraft that are part of the Presidential Air Group : The main aircraft was a Boeing 757 known as Tango 01 after its military registry: "T-01" (the "T" stands for "Transport", although it is fortuitously pronounced "Tango", as in the Argentine national dance , in the NATO alphabet ). The 757 entered
671-524: The Casa Rosada because of his sensitive health that prevented him from traveling with his cart from home. He adopted a sector as his home and had heating, rugs, rocking chairs and stained glass installed. During the last days of his life, Sáenz Peña remarked “I have lost almost all my friends, but I have governed for the Republic.” He died 3 years and 301 days after assuming the presidency, on 9 August 1914. He
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#1733093598085732-526: The National School of Buenos Aires , under the direction of Amadeo Jacques. In 1875 he graduated as a doctor of law, with a thesis on "Legal status of foundlings." During the Revolution of 1874 he defended the authorities of the nation as Captain of Regiment, under the command of Luis María Campos . After the revolution, he was promoted to Second Commander of National Guards, but requested to be relieved of
793-596: The Peruvian Army . His main motivation was not patriotic or to show solidarity, but rather to escape Buenos Aires due to an unrequited love affair. After his superior officers had been killed in the Battle of Arica he assumed their roles and commanded a very weak Peruvian division. Sáenz Peña was captured after the Peruvians' defeat at the battle and imprisoned briefly by the Chileans. When Sáenz Peña returned to Buenos Aires he
854-463: The king of Spain was still regarded as head of state. Executive power was still not in the hands of a single person until the position of supreme director was created by the 1813 National Assembly . In 1817, Congress declared independence and composed a constitution. This established the Supreme Director as head of state and vested the position with presidential powers. This constitution gave
915-688: The provisional president of the Senate ; in his or her absence, by the president of the Chamber of Deputies ; and in the absence of both, by the president of the Supreme Court . In case of the permanent absence of both the president and the vice president, due to resignation, death, or removal, the Constitution (art. 88) entitles the National Congress Assembled to select a new president from among
976-591: The viceroy . These viceroys were seldom natives of the country. By the 18-25 May Revolution in 1810, the first Argentine autonomous government , known as the Primera Junta , was formed in Buenos Aires . It was later known as the Junta Grande when representatives from the provinces joined. These early attempts at self-government were succeeded by two Triumvirates and, although the first juntas had presidents,
1037-568: The 1852 San Nicolás Agreement . He participated in the constitutional assembly that paved the way for the 1860 reunification with secessionist Buenos Aires Province , and was nominated to the Argentine Supreme Court ; he refused, however, and resumed his private practice. Irigoyen returned to public life in 1870 as a provincial legislator, and in 1875, was appointed Minister of Foreign Affairs by President Nicolás Avellaneda . He negotiated boundary treaties with Brazil and Paraguay in
1098-422: The 1994 constitutional amendment, the president serves for four years, with a possibility of immediate reelection for one more term. A president who has served two consecutive terms may be elected again after an interval of one term. There is no limit on how many times a candidate may seek the presidency if they are unsuccessful. The same rules apply, mutatis mutandis , to the vice presidency of Argentina. Under
1159-531: The Argentine electoral system, making the vote secret, universal and compulsory for males over 18. This effectively ended the rule by electoral fraud of the conservative Argentine oligarchy, the Generation of '80 , and paved the way for the rise of the Radical Civic Union in the first free elections of the country. Roque Sáenz-Peña was the son of Luis Sáenz-Peña and Cipriana du Cos de La Hitte. He came from
1220-509: The Civic Union organized its first presidential ticket in 1892. Irigoyen was nominated as Mitre's running mate, though before the campaign could begin in earnest, Alem's opposition led to Mitre's quitting the race. Irigoyen attempted to create a coalition of more conservative Civic Union figures and reformists from within the ruling PAN. His faction, however, was overshadowed by Hipólito Yrigoyen 's newly formed Radical Civic Union , which espoused
1281-523: The Pacific (La Guerra del Pacífico) pitted Chile against an allied Bolivia and Peru. Later, Argentina secretly joined the alliance. The dispute was over territory on the Pacific coast that had never been resolved, specifically control of a part of the Atacama Desert . The area contained high amounts of sodium nitrate which is a valuable mineral resource. During the war, Sáenz-Peña left Argentina to fight with
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#17330935980851342-620: The Sáenz Peña Law; the UCR abandoned abstentionism and participated, achieving victory. Shortly after, he obtained a new victory in the deputy elections in the City of Buenos Aires , in an election in which popular participation amounted to 62.85% of the electoral roll; the Socialist Party also obtained a notable growth in them. From the time of the assumption of Roque Sáenz Peña as president, his health
1403-474: The assembly. Along with Manuel Quintana , Sáenz Peña represented Argentina in the first Pan American Conference in 1889. The two delegates made a 40-day journey to New York and then a four-day trip to Washington for the meeting that was taking placed in the State Department building. The Argentine delegation boycotted the opening meeting over, as they saw it, a violation of diplomatic custom. Custom requires
1464-565: The conservative sectors, still not openly opposing it, obstruct the reform. After a month of discussion in the Chamber of Deputies and a week in the Senate, the Sáenz Peña Law was approved and promulgated on 13 February 1912. The law was a great advance in its time since it allowed large masses of the population to participate in the electoral act, although it was still far from being completely universal: women and foreigners - who at that time were
1525-526: The constitution of 1853 had an article that considered the usurpation of public power as 'treason', but was referred to the de jure rulers. For this reason the constitutional reform of 1994 included Article 36 which says: In summary, the article states: The office of vice president was established by the 1853 constitution for the purpose of providing a succession in case the president is unable to complete their term via death, resignation, or removal from office. The Argentine constitution (art. 88) entitles
1586-424: The constitution of 1853, the president served for six years, with no possibility of consecutive reelection. In 1949, the constitution was amended to allow the president to run for an unlimited number of six-year terms. This provision was repealed in 1957. After the 1966 military coup d'état, the regime shortened the presidential term to four years. However, political instability led to frequent turnovers in office. With
1647-469: The constitutional government were de facto military presidents in 1930–1932, 1943–1946, 1955–1958, 1966–1973 and 1976–1983 that brought in addition to the powers of the president also corresponding to Congress. The subsequent analysis of the validity of their actions led to the subsequent formulation of the doctrine of de facto governments. That doctrine was nullified by the constitutional reform of 1994, which added Article 36 (see below). Article 29 of
1708-517: The construction of a large number of railway branches, which would allow the establishment of its population towards the interior. Branches were built in the national territories of Chaco , Formosa , Río Negro , Chubut and Santa Cruz ; and a railroad branch even reached Posadas , the capital of Misiones . On 10 August 1912, he signed the decree for the creation of the Military Aviation School (EMA), together with G. Vélez, according to
1769-462: The current senators, deputies and governors , within the following two days of the death or resignation of the former president, and to provide him or her with a mandate to call for elections . Bernardo de Irigoyen Born in Buenos Aires , Irigoyen enrolled at the University of Buenos Aires and earned a juris doctor in 1843. He was commissioned by Governor Juan Manuel de Rosas to settle
1830-487: The election of the first president, Bernardino Rivadavia . Because of the Cisplatine War , Rivadavia resigned after a short time, and the office was dissolved shortly thereafter. A civil war between unitarios (unitarians, i.e. Buenos Aires centralists) and federalists ensued in the following decades. At this time, there was no central authority, and the closest to that was the chairman of foreign relations, typically
1891-595: The electoral requirements. A modified two-round system , or ballotage , is used (Section 94). Unlike in most countries using a two-round system, presidential candidates in Argentina do not need to win a majority of the vote to win the presidency in a single round. To win the election in the first round, the winning candidate's party must receive either more than 45 percent of so-called "positive votes", or votos positivos (Section 97) or at least 40 percent of positive votes and be more than 10 percentage points ahead of
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1952-415: The first presidents of Argentina by different historians: Rivadavia for being the first one to use the title, Urquiza for being the first one to rule under the 1853 constitution, and Mitre for being the first president of Argentina under its current national limits. In 1930, 1943, 1955, 1962, 1966, and 1976, military coups deposed elected presidents. In 1966 and 1976, the federal government was undertaken by
2013-592: The formation of a Pan-American Congress ; ultimately, however, the Argentine relationship with the British Empire led Irigoyen, who was otherwise amenable to the idea, to reject Blaine's proposals for closer economic ties with the United States . Irigoyen joined Bartolomé Mitre , Leandro Alem , and others in establishing the Civic Union in 1890. Formed to challenge the paramount National Autonomist Party (PAN),
2074-410: The government. On 12 October 1910, Roque Sáenz Peña assumed the presidency of Argentina. In his first inaugural address he declared: “My international policy if known to you. It will be friendship for Europe and fraternity for America.” He came into power without the support of his own party, like his father. Sáenz Peña was elected while tensions were high in 1910 while promising electoral reform to curb
2135-459: The governor of the province of Buenos Aires. The last to bear this title was Juan Manuel de Rosas , who in the last years of his governorship was elected Supreme Chief of the Confederation , gaining effective rule of the rest of the country. In 1852, Rosas was deposed, and a constitutional convention was summoned. This constitution, still in force, established a national federal government, with
2196-458: The huge proportion of the foreign population, who did not participate in any way in politics, could fall into maximalist positions or remain a foreign body in society. For all these reasons he supported political reform based on universal and free voting. Given the history of pressure on the voters - who voted aloud - the only possibility of electoral freedom was secret suffrage , through ballots written in sealed envelopes. And to ensure that no one
2257-419: The leader of the opposition, Hipólito Yrigoyen . In this last interview, the radical leader promised to abandon the revolutionary path, and Sáenz Peña to promulgate an electoral law that would modernize the elections and prevent electoral fraud. Yrigoyen requested the intervention of the provinces to prevent their governors from interfering with said process, Sáenz Peña refused but allowed radicalism to be part of
2318-634: The nation or from any province. The president's salary is $ 131,421 Argentine pesos per month. The Casa Rosada in Buenos Aires is the official workplace of the president and the Quinta de Olivos their official residence. The president is entitled to use its staff and facilities. It has a summer residence in the town of Chapadmalal , in Buenos Aires Province , which is called the Presidential Unit Chapadmalal. The Presidential Guard
2379-494: The national constitution , the president is also the chief executive of the federal government and commander-in-chief of the armed forces . Throughout Argentine history, the office of head of state has undergone many changes , both in its title as in its features and powers. The current president Javier Milei was sworn into office on 10 December 2023. He succeeded Alberto Fernández . The constitution of Argentina, along with several constitutional amendments , establishes
2440-409: The next most-voted candidate (Section 98). Positive votes are valid votes cast for any of the candidates, leaving out of the count blank and spoiled ballots. If no candidate obtains the necessary votes to win in the first round, then the two candidates with the most votes compete in the second round, held two weeks later, when the candidate with the most votes in that round is elected president. Under
2501-474: The office of president. The term was fixed as six years, with no possibility of reelection. The first elected president under the constitution was Justo José de Urquiza , but Buenos Aires seceded from the Argentine Confederation as the State of Buenos Aires . Bartolomé Mitre was the first president of the unified country, when Buenos Aires rejoined the confederation. Thus, Rivadavia, Urquiza, and Mitre are considered
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2562-821: The official bulletin 692-2 part). In the same it was established that in the meantime there would be no military personnel trained in Aerostation and Aviation, the Technical Directorate would be in charge of the Argentine Aeroclub and the Military Directorate in charge of the Chief of the Argentine Army with the title of Director of the School of Military Aviation . In June 1912 a great protest movement broke out among
2623-444: The owners' own administration of the fields began, who began to consider the presence of tenants dangerous. Sáenz Peña was a convinced democrat; He thought that, freed from professional politicians, the people would elect the best for their government. He was also concerned about the social question, that is, about the possibility that - apart from politics - the workers could adhere to anarchism or socialism . Finally, he feared that
2684-507: The power of the oligarchy and to prevent a revolution. In 1912 - at the initiative of the Minister of Agriculture, Ezequiel Ramos Mexía - Law 5,599, on the Promotion of National Territories, was enacted. Most of the national territories had the vast majority of their population concentrated on their maritime or fluvial coastline; For this reason, the law provided - and to a great extent succeeded -
2745-449: The presidency of Argentina took place on 13 March 1910, with a large number of irregularities common at that time. The new president had not even participated in the electoral campaign: he was the Argentine ambassador to Italy. A single list of elector candidates participated in the elections, of which ten - out of 273 - did not vote for Sáenz Peña. Days before assuming the presidency, Sáenz Peña met with President Figueroa Alcorta and with
2806-705: The ranks. Opponent of Bartolomé Mitre , he was a member of the Autonomist Party headed by Adolfo Alsina and in 1876 he was elected to a Deputy seat in the Legislature of the Province of Buenos Aires . He came to serve as president of the body at the age of 26, thus being one of the youngest presidents of the House. In 1877 he founded the Republican Party , together with Leandro Alem , Aristóbulo del Valle , Hipólito Yrigoyen , Lucio Vicente López , Pedro Goyena , José Manuel Estrada and Francisco Uriburu . In 1878, as
2867-446: The requirements, powers, and responsibilities of the president, the term of office and the method of election. The origins of Argentina as a nation can be traced to 1776, when it was separated by King Charles III of Spain from the existing Viceroyalty of Peru , creating the new Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata . The head of state continued to be the king, but he was represented locally by
2928-480: The restoration of democracy in 1983, the term was restored to six years. Prior to the 1994 constitutional reform, the president and vice president were required to be Roman Catholics. This stipulation was abolished in 1994. As of 2015, the president and vice president enjoy a salary paid by the national treasury, which can not be altered during the period of their appointment. During the same period, they may not hold any other office nor receive any other emolument from
2989-480: The right to a presidential pension after the conclusion of their terms. The status of earlier military presidents, however, remains more uncertain. The president of the nation has the following powers granted by Constitution (Article 99): Article 89 of the Constitution detail the requirements: Article 89. To be elected president or vice president of the Nation, it is necessary to have born in Argentine territory, or be
3050-450: The service in 1995 replacing the former T-01, a Boeing 707 . The aircraft was nicknamed Virgen de Luján after Argentina's patron saint . The Tango 01 was defunct in 2016 and eventually replaced in 2023 by a Boeing 757-200 in VIP design, designated ARG-01 . The current presidential fleet also includes two Fokker F28 (T-02 and T-03) (one always in service) and Learjet 60 (T-10). The Learjet
3111-455: The son of a native citizen, having been born in a country foreign; and the other qualities required to be elected senator . Article 55. The requirements to be elected senator are: to be thirty years old, to have been a citizen of the Nation for six years, enjoy an annual income of two thousand pesos or an equivalent income, and be a native of the province that chooses it, or with two years of residence immediate in it. Sections 94 to 98 detail
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#17330935980853172-460: The supreme director the power of appointing governors of the provinces. Owing to political circumstances, this constitution never came into force, and the central power was dissolved, leaving the country as a federation of provinces. A new constitution was drafted in 1826. This constitution was the first to create a president, although this office retained the powers described in the 1816 constitution. This constitution did come into force, resulting in
3233-507: The tenant farmers against the worsening of the conditions of their contracts with the owners of the fields they worked, known as the Grito de Alcorta . It spread throughout the Pampas region and ended with a massive drop in rents. It marked the irruption of a portion of the rural middle class, formed by the farmers, in the national politics of the 20th century. But at the same time, a gradual trend towards
3294-446: The vice president to exercise the duties of the president, both in the case of a temporary absence and in the case of a permanent absence for health reasons. In the absence of both the president and the vice president, the succession is regulated by the Law 20,972 ("Acephaly Law") . It provides that the executive power must be temporarily exercised (without assuming the title of president) by
3355-713: The wake of the Paraguayan War against the latter nation, and was named Internal Affairs Minister in 1879, during which tenure he drafted the 1880 federalization of Buenos Aires . He was returned to the Foreign Minister's post by Avellaneda's successor, President Julio Roca , and secured the boundary treaty of 1881 between Chile and Argentina . He was elected to the Argentine Senate in 1884, and ran unsuccessfully for President in 1886. He later represented Argentina in talks with U.S. Secretary of State James Blaine for
3416-579: The word and the advice of its first president, let the people vote." The person in charge of designing the project and defending it in Congress was the Minister of the Interior, the Catholic Indalecio Gómez . He had to face stiff resistance from conservative deputies, whose privileges were clearly threatened by the reform, and who did not know any other way of doing politics. Thus, many legislators from
3477-648: The world and effectively argued for policies that benefited Argentina. He also performed traditional ceremonial duties, like in 1906 when he attended the wedding of King Alfonso XIII of Spain . He worked with the Italian government to increase trade while providing them with official cables from Argentina telling of the economic developments within the country. He distributed these cables to other European governments and businessmen as well. Before his presidency, Sáenz Peña served as ambassador to Spain (1906–1907) and Italy (1907–1910). The electoral act that led Roque Sáenz Peña to
3538-465: Was appointed sub-secretary of the Ministry of Foreign Relations under Minister of Foreign Relations Bernardo de Irigoyen in 1880. He soon left politics only to return in 1887 when he accepted the ministership to Uruguay. He represented Argentina at the 1888 Montevideo Congress . Sáenz Peña held firm to his legal and political doctrines and definitively stated that Argentine was immune to any action taken by
3599-627: Was buried the next day in the Recoleta Cemetery in Buenos Aires. Sáenz Peña is known today for his electoral reform and his fierce determination to protect the interests of Argentina abroad. In Argentina, mainly in Buenos Aires , he is also very honored, having streets, avenues and towns with his name. An example of this is: among others. The figure of Roque Sáenz Peña -as a soldier- is very remembered in Peru , where many cities in this country have
3660-472: Was not good, but it worsened significantly from the year 1913. The version that circulated at the time was that the president suffered the neurological consequences of syphilis that was it would have been infected during the War of the Pacific . In early October 1913, he delegated the government on his Vice-President Victorino de la Plaza , as he took a leave of absence. Sáenz Peña was the only president who lived in
3721-418: Was prevented from voting, he also made it universal and mandatory . The military registry would be used as the electoral roll. On the other hand, the participation of the population in the elections was very low, barely exceeding 20% of potential voters. Sáenz Peña presented the project in Congress with these words: "I have told my country all my thoughts, my convictions and my hopes. May my country listen to
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