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53-501: The Roland, which performed its maiden flight in 1926, was promptly adopted by the German airline Deutsche Luft Hansa later that same year, using it on its route between Berlin and London via Hanover and Amsterdam . During 1928, Luft Hansa replaced three of its Rolands with a new variant, the Ro VIIIa , which had a stretched fuselage and were powered by the more powerful BMW V engines;

106-472: A chase plane , to verify items like altitude , airspeed , and general airworthiness . A maiden flight is only one stage in the development of an aircraft type. Unless the type is a pure research aircraft (such as the X-15 ), the aircraft must be tested extensively to ensure that it delivers the desired performance with an acceptable margin of safety. In the case of civilian aircraft, a new type must be certified by

159-420: A drying and softening operation, and may include splitting, shaving, dyeing , whitening or other methods. For some leathers, tanners apply a surface coating, called "finishing". Finishing operations can include oiling, brushing, buffing, coating, polishing, embossing, glazing , or tumbling , among others. Leather can be oiled to improve its water resistance. This currying process after tanning supplements

212-432: A flexible form that does not become putrid when rewetted. Many tanning methods and materials exist. The typical process sees tanners load the hides into a drum and immerse them in a tank that contains the tanning "liquor". The hides soak while the drum slowly rotates about its axis, and the tanning liquor slowly penetrates through the full thickness of the hide. Once the process achieves even penetration, workers slowly raise

265-453: A fuselage that was stretched by 30 cm (1 ft) and were powered by the more powerful BMW V engines in place of the BMW IVs fitted to the prototype and first production batch. A new Spanish airline, Iberia , purchased the three Rolands that Luft Hansa retired, and put them into service on its inaugural service between Madrid and Barcelona . In 1929, Rohrbach produced nine examples of

318-697: A governing agency (such as the Federal Aviation Administration in the United States) before it can enter operation. An incomplete list of maiden flights of notable aircraft types, organized by date, follows. Leather Leather is a strong, flexible and durable material obtained from the tanning , or chemical treatment, of animal skins and hides to prevent decay. The most common leathers come from cattle , sheep , goats, equine animals, buffalo, pigs and hogs, and aquatic animals such as seals and alligators. Leather can be used to make

371-623: A properly managed facility. A review of the total pollution load decrease achievable according to the United Nations Industrial Development Organization posts precise data on the abatement achievable through industrially proven low-waste advanced methods, while noting, "even though the chrome pollution load can be decreased by 94% on introducing advanced technologies, the minimum residual load 0.15 kg/t raw hide can still cause difficulties when using landfills and composting sludge from wastewater treatment on account of

424-495: A radiator positioned underneath the fuselage while units orientated laterally beneath the wings. The engines were regulated using push rods. Fuel pumps were used to supply fuel from the tanks to the engines; numerous fire cocks were present along the fuel lines as well as fire extinguishers as protective measures. All of the fuel piping was run externally while the various pipes used for water, oil, gas, and air were colour coded in accordance with Germany industrial best practice of

477-572: A real-size replica of that plane, painted red. It is the most famous ride in the park, opened on 23 September 1928, sometimes referred to as "the first flight simulator in the world", and called "L'avió" ( Catalan for "the plane"). Data from: German Aviation 1919 - 1945 Data from Jane's all the World's Aircraft 1928 , National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics General characteristics Performance Maiden flight The maiden flight , also known as first flight , of an aircraft

530-547: A route between Berlin and London via Hanover and Amsterdam . In July 1927, the Roland held the world endurance record for a payload of 1,000 kg, having flown for 14 hours and 23 minutes, and the world distance record for a payload of 2,000 kg of 1,750 km (1,090 mi). At different times, the Roland held no less than 22 world records. During 1928, Luft Hansa replaced three of its Rolands with new machines of slightly different design. Designated Ro VIIIa , these had

583-447: A single compass. Special apparatus, such as a specialised altimeter for night flights, a gyroscopic inclinometer , and an onboard search light , were available for installation at customer request. Illuminated instrumentation was provided, along with landing and position lights. The cockpit was typically accessed via an exterior walkway that ran along the top of the fuselage to the tail; it could also be accessed via an interior door to

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636-461: A substantially updated Roland for Luft Hansa. These featured a major redesign of the flight deck, and a new wing design. Dubbed the Roland II , these aircraft continued in service with the airline until 1936 on its Hamburg – Malmö and Berlin – Munich routes. Luft Hansa sold at least three of these aircraft to Deruluft upon retirement. The Luftwaffe acquired another one, armed it and operated it at

689-430: A variety of items, including clothing, footwear, handbags, furniture, tools and sports equipment, and lasts for decades. Leather making has been practiced for more than 7,000 years and the leading producers of leather today are China and India. Critics of tanneries claim that they engage in unsustainable practices that pose health hazards to the people and the environment near them. The leather manufacturing process

742-628: A wet cloth or soaking the leather in water. Various treatments are available such as conditioners . Saddle soap is used for cleaning, conditioning, and softening leather. Leather shoes are widely conditioned with shoe polish . Due to its high resistance to abrasion and wind, leather found a use in rugged occupations. The enduring image of a cowboy in leather chaps gave way to the leather-jacketed and leather-helmeted aviator . When motorcycles were invented, some riders took to wearing heavy leather jackets to protect from road rash and wind blast; some also wear chaps or full leather pants to protect

795-416: Is a process that stabilizes the proteins , particularly collagen , of the raw hide to increase the thermal, chemical and microbiological stability of the hides and skins, making it suitable for a wide variety of end applications. The principal difference between raw and tanned hides is that raw hides dry out to form a hard, inflexible material that, when rewetted, will putrefy , while tanned material dries to

848-534: Is also used for falconry jesses, soccer footwear, (e.g. Adidas Copa Mundial ) and boxing speed bags. Although originally raised for their feathers in the 19th century, ostriches are now more popular for both meat and leather. Ostrich leather has a characteristic "goose bump" look because of the large follicles where the feathers grew. Different processes produce different finishes for many applications, including upholstery, footwear, automotive products, accessories, and clothing. In Thailand , stingray leather

901-411: Is called bating. Lipases are used in the degreasing operation to hydrolyze fat particles embedded in the skin. Amylases are used to soften skin, to bring out the grain, and to impart strength and flexibility to the skin. These enzymes are rarely used. The natural fibers of leather break down with the passage of time. Acidic leathers are particularly vulnerable to red rot , which causes powdering of

954-405: Is divided into three fundamental subprocesses: preparatory stages, tanning, and crusting. A further subprocess, finishing, can be added into the leather process sequence, but not all leathers receive finishing. The preparatory stages are when the hide is prepared for tanning. Preparatory stages may include soaking, hair removal, liming , deliming , bating , bleaching , and pickling . Tanning

1007-452: Is one of the most exploited reptile species in the world in the leather trade. However, it is not endangered and while monitored, trade is legal in most South American countries. Kangaroo leather is used to make items that must be strong and flexible. It is the material most commonly used in bullwhips . Some motorcyclists favor kangaroo leather for motorcycle leathers because of its light weight and abrasion resistance. Kangaroo leather

1060-415: Is the first occasion on which it leaves the ground under its own power. The same term is also used for the first launch of rockets . In the early days of aviation it could be dangerous, because the exact handling characteristics of the aircraft were generally unknown. The maiden flight of a new type is almost invariably flown by a highly experienced test pilot . Maiden flights are usually accompanied by

1113-545: Is used in wallets and belts. Stingray leather is tough and durable. The leather is often dyed black and covered with tiny round bumps in the natural pattern of the back ridge of an animal. These bumps are then usually dyed white to highlight the decoration. Stingray rawhide is also used as grips on Chinese swords, Scottish basket hilted swords, and Japanese katanas . Stingray leather is also used for high abrasion areas in motorcycle racing leathers (especially in gloves, where its high abrasion resistance helps prevent wear through in

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1166-592: The Luftwaffe , the latter opting to arm the type and operated it from its clandestine school at Lipetsk to train bomber crews. During his 1932 election campaign, Adolf Hitler hired a Rohrbach Ro VIII Roland aeroplane from Deutsche Luft Hansa for his two first series of campaign flights in March and July; this aircraft was named Immelmann I after the First World War -era pilot Max Immelmann . The Rohrbach Ro VIII Roland

1219-589: The 1970s and 80s) are well known for wearing leather clothing. Extreme metal bands (especially black metal bands) and Goth rock groups have extensive black leather clothing. Leather has become less common in the punk community over the last three decades, as there is opposition to the use of leather from punks who support animal rights . Many cars and trucks come with optional or standard leather or "leather faced" seating. In countries with significant populations of individuals observing religions which place restrictions on material choices, vendors typically clarify

1272-576: The Rohrbach system of construction, which included extensive use of duralumin , accommodation for easy inspection and replacement of all components, and a relatively strength-to-weight ratio. The aircraft had a rectangular-shaped fuselage with rounded upper edges; the wing was also rectangular in shape, except for its rounded wingtips. The aircraft was capable of flying for up to five hours while carrying its maximum capacity of ten passengers. The undercarriage arrangement consisted of hinged axles that attached to

1325-399: The aircraft to achieve an impressive range when configured appropriately. The exterior covering was duralumin sheeting. In 1926, Deutsche Luft Hansa purchased the prototype Roland, followed by five production examples over that year and the next. The production machines were built with open flight decks, although they were later enclosed, as on the prototype. These were put to work servicing

1378-406: The cabin. The forward portion of the passenger cabin could be used to carry a spare engine. A baggage compartment was present in the rear of the fuselage, which was also accessible from the passenger cabin as well as via an exterior hatch. The aircraft was typically powered by three BMW Va in-line engines; two of these were positioned on steel girders suspended from the wings while the third engine

1431-548: The clandestine school at Lipetsk to train bomber crews. During his 1932 election campaign, Adolf Hitler hired a Rohrbach Ro VIII Roland aeroplane from Deutsche Luft Hansa for his two first series of campaign flights in March and July. The aeroplane was named Immelmann I after the First World War -era pilot Max Immelmann . Hitler switched to a Ju 52 in November 1932. The Spanish amusement park Tibidabo in Barcelona got

1484-413: The era. An above-average oil supply was provided for along with a dedicated oil cooler. Piping ran within the wings, along with the rest of the interior wing structure, could be easily inspected as the trailing edge of the wing, which was hinged, could be readily swung open. The control rods for the ailerons ran just aft of the forward spar while the rods to actuate the elevators and rudder ran within

1537-679: The event of an accident). For a given thickness, fish leather is typically much stronger due to its criss-crossed fibers. Leather produces some environmental impact, most notably due to: Estimates of the carbon footprint of bovine leather range from 65 to 150 kg of CO 2 equivalent per square meter of production. One ton of hide or skin generally produces 20 to 80 m of waste water, including chromium levels of 100–400 mg/L, sulfide levels of 200–800 mg/L, high levels of fat and other solid wastes, and notable pathogen contamination. Producers often add pesticides to protect hides during transport. With solid wastes representing up to 70% of

1590-452: The following grades: The term "genuine leather" does not describe a specific grade. The term often indicates split leather that has been extensively processed, and some sources describe it as synonymous with bicast leather, or made from multiple splits glued together and coated. In some countries, when it is the description on a product label the term means nothing more than "contains leather"; depending on jurisdiction, regulations limit

1643-420: The fuselage and had joints at several intervals. The aircraft's wing has a visible dihedral and a single cable than ran between each half of the wing to the underside of the fuselage. The meeting point between the fuselage and the wings incorporated a patented design produced by Dr Rohrback; specially, beyond the standard two attachment points, it used a third point that was intentionally angled differently to

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1696-440: The leather. Chemical damage can also occur from exposure to environmental factors, including ultraviolet light, ozone, acid from sulfurous and nitrous pollutants in the air, or through a chemical action following any treatment with tallow or oil compounds. Both oxidation and chemical damage occur faster at higher temperatures. There are few methods to maintain and clean leather goods properly such as using damp cloth and avoid using

1749-407: The levels of each tank. Exterior visibility was favourable in all directions, even to the rear, both above and below the wing. Electricity was supplied by a windmill -driven generator and several 12v storage batteries. Standard instrumentation included three revolution counters (one for each engine), six thermometers (for both oil and coolant), an altimeter , air-speed meter, three chronometers, and

1802-399: The liquor's pH in a process called basification, which fixes the tanning material to the leather. The more tanning material fixed, the higher the leather's hydrothermal stability and shrinkage temperature resistance. Crusting is a process that thins and lubricates leather. It often includes a coloring operation. Chemicals added during crusting must be fixed in place. Crusting culminates with

1855-480: The lower body. Leather's flexibility allows it to be formed and shaped into balls and protective gear. Subsequently, many sports use equipment made with leather, such as baseball gloves and the ball used in cricket and gridiron football . Leather fetishism is the name popularly used to describe a fetishistic attraction to people wearing leather, or in certain cases, to the garments themselves. Many rock groups (particularly heavy metal and punk groups in

1908-403: The lower fuselage's longeron , which was held in place by a single horizontal strut that was also hinged to the same longeron in a slightly more forward position. It was also connected with the wing via a vertical spring strut. Spiral springs were present on the vertical struts that functioned as shock absorbers . The wheels consisted of rubber tyres, steel rims, and wire spokes. The cockpit

1961-400: The natural oils remaining in the leather itself, which can be washed out through repeated exposure to water. Frequent oiling of leather, with mink oil , neatsfoot oil , or a similar material keeps it supple and improves its lifespan dramatically. Tanning processes largely differ in which chemicals are used in the tanning liquor. Some common types include: In general, leather is produced in

2014-399: The other two. The aircraft was fitted with an adjustable stabiliser, although such adjustments could only be performed on the ground; the vertical fin was not adjustable. The tailplanes and the wings shared similar construction, being build in longitudinal sections with a hollow middle section. All sections of the wing provided spare internal volume for the fitting of fuel tanks, which enabled

2067-417: The passenger cabin. The passenger cabin featured numerous luxurious fittings for the era; these included leather upholstering around the window sills and cloth set above, openable windows (controlled via hand cranks), plywood flooring, racks for hand baggage, overhead ventilation, cabin heating (drawn from the engines), electric lighting, emergency exits via openings in the ceiling, and an toilet aft of

2120-530: The regulations currently in force in some countries." In Kanpur , the self-proclaimed "Leather City of World"—with 10,000 tanneries as of 2011 and a city of three million on the banks of the Ganges —pollution levels were so high, that despite an industry crisis, the pollution control board decided to shut down 49 high-polluting tanneries out of 404 in July 2009. In 2003 for instance, the main tanneries' effluent disposal unit

2173-468: The shell. It is prized for its mirror-like finish and anti-creasing properties. Lamb and deerskin are used for soft leather in more expensive apparel. Deerskin is widely used in work gloves and indoor shoes. Reptilian skins, such as alligator , crocodile, and snake , are noted for their distinct patterns that reflect the scales of their species. This has led to hunting and farming of these species in part for their skins. The Argentine black and white tegu

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2226-537: The source of leather in their products. Such labeling helps facilitate religious observance, so, for example, a Muslim will not accidentally purchase pigskin or a Hindu can avoid cattleskin. Such taboos increase the demand for religiously neutral leathers such as ostrich and deer . Judaism forbids the comfort of wearing leather shoes on Yom Kippur , Tisha B'Av , and during mourning. Also, see Leather in Judaism , Teffilin and Torah Scroll . Jainism prohibits

2279-400: The surface and a change in consistency. Damage from red rot is aggravated by high temperatures and relative humidities. Although it is chemically irreversible, treatments can add handling strength and prevent disintegration of red rotted leather. Exposure to long periods of low relative humidities (below 40%) can cause leather to become desiccated, irreversibly changing the fibrous structure of

2332-440: The term's use in product labelling. Today, most leather is made of cattle (cow) hides, which constitute about 65% of all leather produced. Other animals that are used include sheep (about 13%), goats (about 11%), and pigs (about 10%). Obtaining accurate figures from around the world is difficult, especially for areas where the skin may be eaten. There are significant regional differences in leather production: i.e. goat leather

2385-609: The three withdrawn aircraft were quickly acquired by the Spanish airline, Iberia and used on its inaugural service between Madrid and Barcelona . In 1929, Rohrbach produced nine examples of a substantially updated Roland for Luft Hansa, which featured a major redesign of the flight deck, and a new wing design. Referred to as the Roland II , these aircraft continued in service with the airline until 1936 on its Hamburg – Malmö and Berlin – Munich routes. Luft Hansa's Rowlands were sold onto numerous other operations, including Deruluft and

2438-457: The weekend of 8 April 2017 in the neighborhood. The higher cost associated with the treatment of effluents than to untreated effluent discharging leads to illegal dumping to save on costs. For instance, in Croatia in 2001, proper pollution abatement cost US$ 70–100 per ton of raw hides processed against $ 43/t for irresponsible behavior. In November 2009, one of Uganda's main leather making companies

2491-724: The wet weight of the original hides, the tanning process represents a considerable strain on water treatment installations. Leather biodegrades slowly—taking 25 to 40 years to decompose . However, vinyl and petrochemical-derived materials take 500 or more years to decompose. Tanning is especially polluting in countries where environmental regulations are lax, such as in India, the world's third-largest producer and exporter of leather. To give an example of an efficient pollution prevention system, chromium loads per produced tonne are generally abated from 8 kg to 1.5 kg. VOC emissions are typically reduced from 30 kg/t to 2 kg/t in

2544-515: Was a semi- cantilever monoplane trimotor aircraft. It was loosely based on the Zeppelin-Staaken E-4/20 , an earlier aircraft that had also been designed by Adolf Rohrbach . It had a fully enclosed flight deck and passenger cabin along with fixed conventional undercarriage. Power was supplied by three engines, one in the nose, and two mounted in nacelles on the wings. Metal construction was present throughout. The aircraft conformed with

2597-544: Was caught directly dumping waste water into a wetland adjacent to Lake Victoria . Enzymes like proteases , lipases , and amylases have an important role in the soaking, dehairing, degreasing, and bating operations of leather manufacturing. Proteases are the most commonly used enzymes in leather production. The enzyme must not damage or dissolve collagen or keratin , but should hydrolyze casein , elastin , albumin , globulin -like proteins, and nonstructural proteins that are not essential for leather making. This process

2650-576: Was dumping 22 tonnes of chromium-laden solid waste per day in the open. In the Hazaribagh neighborhood of Dhaka in Bangladesh , chemicals from tanneries end up in Dhaka's main river. Besides the environmental damage, the health of both local factory workers and the end consumer is also negatively affected. After approximately 15 years of ignoring high court rulings, the government shut down more than 100 tanneries

2703-546: Was historically called "Turkey" or "Morocco" due to its association with the Middle East, while pig skin had historically been used the most in Germany. Other animals mentioned below only constitute a fraction of a percent of total leather production. Horse hides are used to make particularly durable leathers. Shell cordovan is a horse leather made not from the outer skin but from an under layer, found only in equine species, called

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2756-419: Was installed within the aircraft's nose. Engine start-up was typically achieved via the use of three large cylinders containing compressed air ; exterior air cylinders could also be plugged directly into the starting lines of the aircraft via a connection point on the fuselage. The engines were relatively accessible for the era. Several radiators were used to cool the engines; the nose-mounted engine made use of

2809-440: Was located in the forward portion of the fuselage. Each of the two pilots were provided with adjustable seats, complete with armrests and straps, positioned in a side-by-side arrangement. Dual flight controls were provisioned, which consisted of wheels and rudder bars. Certain controls, such as the throttle, were arranged so that they could be manipulated either jointly or individually. Separate fuel gauges were installed to indicate

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