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90-511: Manually coded English (MCE) is the result of language planning efforts in multiple countries, especially the United States in the 1970s. Four systems were developed in attempts to represent spoken English manually; Seeing Essential English (also referred to as Morphemic Signing System (MSS) or SEE-1), Signing Exact English (SEE-2 or SEE), Linguistics of Visual English (LOVE) , or Signed English (SE). System developers and educators disagree on

180-601: A subscript version of a katakana symbol that begins with the desired consonant. An example of an original script includes the development of the Armenian script in 405 AD by St. Mesrop Mashtots . Though the script was modeled after the Greek alphabet , it distinguished Armenian from the Greek and Syriac alphabets of the neighboring peoples. Likewise, in the early 19th century, Sequoyah (Cherokee) designed an orthography for Cherokee in

270-475: A "spatially restricted, sequential structure along with a strict word order". Although some research suggests that experience can improve the degree to which the information coded in English (morphologically as well as syntactically) is successfully communicated manually, especially by learners who are hearing and/or already fluent in spoken English, multiple studies have identified a number of potential concerns about

360-664: A blend of ASL and other forms of MCE. Perhaps the closest type of MCE to written English, the Rochester method involves fingerspelling every word. It was originated by Zenas Westervelt in 1878, shortly after he opened the Western New York Institute for Deaf-Mutes (presently known as the Rochester School for the Deaf ). Use of the Rochester method continued until approximately the 1970s, and there are still deaf adults from

450-432: A change in government planning, but again reinstated in 1996. Even with national intercultural bilingual education programs, teachers at local schools and members of the community often prefer using Spanish, destabilizing support for bilingual education. This underscores the importance of community support as a goal for the education sector as mentioned earlier. Some believe that due to Spanish's higher national prestige, it

540-426: A complete picture of Old French Sign Language, but ongoing research continues to uncover more pieces of the puzzle. It is not known how the language was acquired or how long the language had been developing before Épée established his school. However, evidence suggests that whenever a large enough population of deaf people exists, a sign language will spontaneously arise (cf. Nicaraguan Sign Language ). As Paris had been

630-477: A contemporary of the Abbe de l'Épée, partially described Old French Sign Language in what was possibly the first book ever to be published by a deaf person (1779). The language certainly used of the possibilities of a spatial grammar. One of the grammatical features noted by Desloges was the use of directional verbs , such as the verb "to want". From the few descriptions that exist, modern linguists are unable to build up

720-473: A distinction. British Signed English borrows signs from British Sign Language and combines them with fingerspelling in order to include bound morphemes not used in BSL such as -ed and -ing . Sign-supported English (SSE) is differentiated from Signed English (SE) by some scholars by saying that SSE does not include inflectional morphology required by spoken English, instead, "keywords" of sentences are signed while

810-444: A diverse literacy program gives students diverse perspectives on life, which could only enhance their educational experience. Before 1975, Peru had bilingual education programs, but Quechua was not taught as a subject in primary and secondary schools. After the 1975 education reform, Quechua and Spanish both had standing in bilingual programs, but only in restricted speech communities. These experimental programs were then canceled due to

900-401: A few. For example, if a government chooses to raise the status level of a certain language or change its level of prestige, it can establish a law which requires teachers to teach only in this language or that textbooks are written using only this language's script. This, in turn, would support the elevation of the language's status or could increase its prestige. In this way, acquisition planning

990-564: A form of MCE when conversing with someone whose dominant language is English, or when quoting something from English, although contact signing may be more common. MCE is also sometimes favored by some hearing people, for whom a manual version of their own language is perceived as easier to learn than a deaf sign language. However, multiple studies suggest that many hearing users of MCE systems may struggle to communicate effectively or comprehensively using these systems. The different forms of manually coded English were originally developed for use in

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1080-401: A half times the amount of time necessary to transmit the same information in either spoken English or American Sign Language. Researchers suggest that this may significantly disrupt communication using these systems, as it may lead to an excessive load on the short term memory compared to natural languages. In English-speaking countries, some users of Deaf sign languages will code-switch into

1170-431: A language adequately but with no standard spoken form. If one dialect is chosen, it comes to be perceived as supra-dialectal and the 'best' form of the language. Choosing the standard language has important social consequences, as it benefits the speakers whose spoken and written dialect conforms closest to the chosen standard. The chosen standard is generally spoken by the most powerful social group within society, and it

1260-400: A language that determine its status. Their respective frameworks differ slightly, but they emphasize four common attributes: William Stewart outlines ten functional domains in language planning: Robert Cooper outlines two additional functional domains (mass media and work) and distinguishes three sub-types of official functions: Corpus planning refers to the prescriptive intervention in

1350-437: A language. The use of writing in a speech community can have lasting sociocultural effects, which include easier transmission of material through generations, communication with greater numbers of people, and a standard against which varieties of spoken language are often compared. Linguist Charles A. Ferguson made two key observations about the results of adopting a writing system. First, the use of writing adds another form of

1440-594: A large vocabulary of English words, including word endings and verb tenses. The signs do not correspond to natural signs of the Deaf community . The system was widespread in Deaf schools in the UK from the 1960s to the 1980s, but since the emergence of British Sign Language and the BSL-based Signed English in deaf education, its use is now largely restricted to the field of speech and language disorder. They tend to follow

1530-579: A loose logic of sound rather than the strict phonetic structure of Cued Speech . For example, in Australian Signed English 'uncomfortable' is represented in signs meaning 'un', 'come', 'for', and 'table'. A visual sign taken from a deaf sign language may be generalised to represent homonyms of the English word – for example, the Auslan sign for a 'fly' (insect) may be used in Signed English for

1620-501: A new one. The Ainu of Japan chose to adopt the Japanese language 's katakana syllabary as the writing system for the Ainu language . Katakana is designed for a language with a basic CV syllable structure , but Ainu contains many CVC syllables which cannot easily be adapted to this syllabary. Therefore, Ainu uses a modified katakana system, in which syllable-final codas are consonants by

1710-439: A normative orthography , grammar , and dictionary for the guidance of writers and speakers in a non-homogeneous speech community" (p. 8 ). Along with language ideology and language practices, language planning is part of language policy  – a typology drawn from Bernard Spolsky's theory of language policy. According to Spolsky, language management is a more precise term than language planning. Language management

1800-427: A part of natural deaf sign languages, for some proper nouns , loanwords , for emphasis or distinction of relevant words, or when a signer is unsure of the signed equivalent of a spoken language word. Exclusive fingerspelling is rarely used for communication. It still has some possible currency in some deafblind settings (see tactile signing ). Exclusive fingerspelling has a place in the history of deaf education; in

1890-531: A provincial language since 1979. Today, Quechua also serves a limited international function throughout South America in Argentina , Bolivia , Brazil , Chile , Colombia , and Ecuador ; communities of Quechua speakers outside Peru enable communication in Quechua across borders. Still, because of Quechua's low status, Spanish is almost always used as the lingua franca instead. Recently, Quechua has also gained ground in

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1980-559: A single dominant language can bring economic benefits to minorities but is also perceived to facilitate their political domination. It involves the establishment of language regulators , such as formal or informal agencies, committees, societies or academies to design or develop new structures to meet contemporary needs. Four overarching language ideologies are proposed to explain motivations and decisions. Eleven language planning goals have been recognized (Nahir 2003): Language planning has been divided into three types: Status planning

2070-574: A three-vowel system was more faithful to the phonology of Quechua. After years of debate and disagreement, in 1985 Quechua linguists proposed the Pan-Quechua alphabet as an accurate representation of the language, and this was adopted in intercultural bilingual education programs and textbooks. However, the Peruvian Academy and the SIL both refused to adopt it and continued to propose new alphabets, leaving

2160-545: A unified alphabet reflects the process of standardization. Unlike other cases of standardization, in Quechua this has been applied only to the written language, not to the spoken language, and no attempt was made to change the spoken language of native speakers, which varied by regions. Rather, standardization was needed to produce a uniform writing system to provide education to Quechua speakers in their native language. Language planners in Peru have proposed several varieties to serve as

2250-526: Is a zero copula language, so does not have lexical signs corresponding to English copulas like "is" and "are". In SEE1, all compound words are formed as separate signs – instead of using the ASL sign for "butterfly", SEE1 places the signs for "butter" and "fly" in sequential order. Many signs from ASL are initialized in SEE1 – the ASL sign for "have" is signed with the B handshape in SEE1. Nielson et al. argue that SEE-1/MSS

2340-439: Is a corruption of it. Written language is viewed as more conservative, while the spoken form is more susceptible to language change. Isolated relic areas of the spoken language may be less innovative than the written form, or the written language may have been based on a divergent variety of the spoken language. In establishing a writing system for a language, corpus planners have the option of using an existing system or designing

2430-488: Is a poor representation of English because it has only 14 bound morphemes in its citation form, noting that it has not been well-studied since the 1990s, and as of the paper's publishing in 2016, was only in use in Amarillo, Texas. Signing Exact English (SEE) is the most commonly studied and taught manual code for American English. SEE incorporates a large number of signs which are borrowed from ASL. Signing exact English (SEE2)

2520-421: Is a type of language planning in which a national, state or local government system aims to influence aspects of language, such as language status, distribution and literacy through education. Acquisition planning can also be used by non-governmental organizations, but it is more commonly associated with government planning. Acquisition planning is often integrated into a broader language planning process in which

2610-412: Is controversial. Contemporary deaf education can follow one or a number of educational philosophies and reform efforts, including education in the local natural deaf sign language, education in a colonial sign language, bilingual-bicultural , Total Communication , a manually coded system based on the ambient spoken language (such as MCE), or oralism . One major obstacle to the utility and enforcement of

2700-452: Is defined as "the explicit and observable effort by someone or some group that has or claims authority over the participants in the domain to modify their practices or beliefs" (p. 4) Language planning is often associated with government planning, but is also used by a variety of non-governmental organizations such as grass-roots organizations as well as individuals. Goals of such planning vary. Better communication through assimilation of

2790-403: Is essential. Therefore, it is important that government goals be organized and planned carefully. There is also growing concern over the treatment of multilingualism in education, especially in many countries which were once colonized. Choosing the language of instruction which would be most beneficial to effective communication on the local and state level requires thoughtful planning, and it

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2880-463: Is imposed upon other groups as the form to emulate, making the standard norm necessary for socioeconomic mobility. In practice, standardization generally entails increasing the uniformity of the norm, as well as the codification of the norm. By contrast, English has become standardized without any planning. The process began when William Caxton introduced the printing press in England in 1476. This

2970-406: Is more socially and economically beneficial to learn and speak Spanish. It is debatable whether these education programs will benefit education or raise the status of Quechua. Old French Sign Language Old French Sign Language ( French : Vieille langue des signes française , often abbreviated as VLSF ) was the language of the deaf community in 18th-century Paris at the time of

3060-426: Is not consistently encouraged in schools. Peru's education system is instead based on Spanish, the nation's official language. Despite its low prestige, Quechua is still spoken by millions of indigenous Peruvians, a great deal of whom are bilingual in Quechua and Spanish. There is a desire to preserve the uniqueness of Quechua as a language with its own attributes and representations of culture. Some argue that promoting

3150-610: Is often used to promote language revitalization , which can change a language's status or reverse a language shift , or to promote linguistic purism. In a case where a government revises a corpus, new dictionaries and educational materials will need to be revised in schools in order to maintain effective language acquisition. The education ministry or education sector of government is typically in charge of making national language acquisition choices based on state and local evaluation reports. The duties of education sectors vary by country; Robert B. Kaplan and Richard B. Baldauf describe

3240-423: Is surrounded by debate. Some states prefer to teach only in the official language, but some aim to foster linguistic and thus social diversity by encouraging teaching in several (native) languages . The use of a single language of instruction supports national unity and homogeneity whereas the incorporation of different languages may help students to learn better by offering alternative perspectives. In addition to

3330-555: Is the allocation or reallocation of a language or dialect to functional domains within a society, thus affecting the status, or standing, of a language. Language status is distinct from, though intertwined with, language prestige and language function. Language status is the given position (or standing) of a language against other languages. A language garners status according to the fulfillment of four attributes, described in 1968 by two different authors, Heinz Kloss and William Stewart . Both Kloss and Stewart stipulated four qualities of

3420-430: Is the expansion of the lexicon , which allows the language to discuss topics in modern semantic domains . Language planners generally develop new lists and glossaries to describe new technical terms, but it is also necessary to ensure that the new terms are consistently used by the appropriate sectors within society. While some languages, such as Japanese and Hungarian , have experienced rapid lexical expansion to meet

3510-621: Is widely used in deaf schools in Singapore, and is taught as the preferred form of sign language by the Singapore Association for the Deaf. The natural sign language used in Singapore, Singapore Sign Language , is thought to have been influenced by Shanghainese Sign Language , American Sign Language , and SEE2. The Kenyan government uses Kenya Signed English, though the University of Nairobi backs Kenyan Sign Language . ^b Denotes

3600-472: The French language . The term "Old French Sign Language" has occasionally been used to describe Épée's "systematised signs", and he has often been (erroneously) cited as the inventor of sign language. Épée, however, influenced the language of the deaf community, and modern French Sign Language can be said to have emerged in the schools that Épée established. As deaf schools inspired by Épée's model sprung up around

3690-644: The Philippines . Both one and two-handed alphabets are used in South Africa . These English-speaking countries do not all have the same sign language either. See Sign language § not speech based . Rather than being a form of MCE, contact sign is a blend of a local Deaf Sign Language and English. This contact language can take place anywhere on a continuum of intermediate stages, from very 'English-like' to very 'Deaf-language-like'; signers from these two different language backgrounds will often meet somewhere in

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3780-417: The alphabet . As with written versions of spoken language, certain linguistic and paralinguistic elements such as intonation are not represented. Although fingerspelling is not a form of MCE, but rather a feature borrowed from deaf sign languages, it is often the first 'point of contact' for a hearing person before learning the lexicon of a sign language. Fingerspelling is primarily used by Deaf people as

3870-646: The supradialectal spoken norm. Some saw Qusqu-Qullaw as the natural choice for a standard since it is recognized as the form which is most similar to that spoken by the Incas. Others favor Ayacucho Quechua since it is more conservative, whereas Qusqu-Qullaw has been influenced by contact with the Aymara language . Rodolfo Cerrón Palomino proposed a literary standard, Southern Quechua that combines features of both dialects. This norm has been accepted by many institutions in Peru. Lexical modernization has also been critical to

3960-466: The 16th century with Spanish colonization . When the Spanish first arrived in Peru, Quechua served as a language of wider communication, a lingua franca, between Spaniards and Peruvian natives. As the years passed, Spaniards asserted the superiority of the Spanish language; as a result, Spanish gained prestige, taking over as a language of wider communication and the dominant language of Peru. In 1975, under

4050-633: The ASL sign, as with butterfly . The term 'Signed English' refers to a much simpler system than SEE1, SEE2, or LOVE. Signed English (occasionally referred to as Siglish ) uses ASL signs in English word order, but only 14 grammatical markers. The most common method of Signed English in the US is that created by Harry Bornstein , who worked on the Gallaudet Signed English Project to develop children's books written in both illustrated signs and written English . Linguistics of Visual English (LOVE)

4140-561: The MCE signing serving as a support for the reception of speech. Signs are borrowed from the local deaf sign language and/or are artificial signs invented by educators of the deaf. The terms SSS and SimCom are now often used synonymously with total communication (TC), though the original philosophy of TC is quite different. Cued speech is not traditionally referred to as a form of MCE, in part because it does not use borrowed or invented signs in an attempt to convey English. Rather, cued speech employs

4230-450: The Rochester area who were taught with the Rochester method. It has fallen out of favor because it is a tedious and time-consuming process to spell everything manually, though it is still used in some deafblind settings (see tactile signing ). Signed English (SE) is one form of MCE used in Britain. The term is used interchangeably with Sign-supported English (see below) although others make

4320-462: The Southeast of the present-day United States. It uses some Latin characters but also introduces new ones. The process of standardization often involves one variety of a language taking precedence over other social and regional dialects of a language. Another approach, where dialects are mutually intelligible, is to introduce a poly-phonemic written form that is intended to represent all dialects of

4410-648: The US it is known as the Rochester method (see below). Elderly deaf people in the UK and Australia may also use a lot of fingerspelling relative to their younger counterparts as a result of their education. Note that different regions use different manual alphabets to represent English – a two-handed system is used in the UK , Australia , and New Zealand , and one-handed systems are used in North America (see ASL alphabet ), Ireland (see Irish Sign Language ), Singapore and

4500-405: The academic world, both as a school subject and a topic of literary interest. The three main types of corpus planning are all evident in the development of Quechua languages in Peru since the colonial era. Graphization has been in process since the arrival of the Spanish in the region, when the Spanish imperialists attempted to describe the exotic sounds of the language to Europeans. When Quechua

4590-462: The acquisition of Irish in schools, thus "de-Anglicizing" Ireland. Immediately after The Irish Free State gained independence in 1922, the League declared that Irish must be the language of instruction for at least one hour in primary schools in the state. Irish-speaking teachers were recruited, and preparatory colleges were established to train new teachers. The program implementation was mostly left to

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4680-505: The code, fewer have attempted to evaluate whether it is equivalently suitable for first language acquisition, given the frequency of morpheme deletion or ellipsis. In a study of prelingually deaf children taught exclusively using MCE, S. Supalla documented that these individuals displayed spontaneous (without prior exposure), ASL-like innovations. Specifically, rather than using the MCE morphemes designed to mark case , tense , and gender as they are in English, these children demonstrated

4770-402: The competence of hearing teachers of the deaf in MCE communication do not evaluate the extent to which deaf students understand what their teachers are expressing. These teachers reported avoiding using spoken English words or constructions that they did not know how to express in MCE, limiting their overall language use. While many studies have found MCE to be comprehensible to those familiar with

4860-544: The complete sentence is spoken. The Paget Gorman Sign System , also known as Paget Gorman signed speech (PGSS) or Paget Gorman systematic sign language, was originated in Britain by Sir Richard Paget in the 1930s and developed further by Lady Grace Paget and Dr Pierre Gorman to be used with children with speech or communication difficulties, such as deaf children. It is a grammatical sign system which reflects normal patterns of English. The system uses 37 basic signs and 21 standard hand postures, which can be combined to represent

4950-508: The contexts they are bound to in English and placing them elsewhere in a construction, producing sentences that are judged as ungrammatical by hearing English users. Notably, neither typically developing hearing children acquiring spoken English nor deaf children acquiring ASL as a first language display these patterns of anomalous syntactic acquisition. Another potential issue with MCE is the rate of information flow . Studies on rate of signing MCE suggest that some systems may take up to two and

5040-682: The demands of modernization, other languages, such as Hindi and Arabic , have failed to do so. Such expansion is aided by the use of new terms in textbooks and professional publications. Issues of linguistic purism often play a significant role in lexical expansion, but technical vocabulary can be effective within a language, regardless of whether it comes from the language's own process of word formation or from extensive borrowing from another language. While Hungarian has almost exclusively used language-internal processes to coin new words, Japanese has borrowed extensively from English to derive new words as part of its modernization. Acquisition planning

5130-417: The development of Quechua. Language planners have attempted to coin new Quechua words by combining Quechua morphemes to give new meanings. Generally, loanwords are considered only when the words cannot be developed through existing Quechua structures. If loanwords are adopted, linguists may adjust them to match typical Quechua phonology. Since Quechua is no longer an official language of Peru, Quechua literacy

5220-405: The dissemination of this dialect as the cultural norm for the English language. Modernization occurs when a language needs to expand its resources to meet functions. Modernization often occurs when a language undergoes a shift in status, such as when a country gains independence from a colonial power or when there is a change in the language education policy . The main force in modernization

5310-603: The education of deaf children in English-speaking countries, based on the assumption that a signing system that was closer to English would make it easier for deaf children to communicate in written and/or spoken English, which many parents and educators perceive as superior or more desirable to using a Deaf sign language. MCE was proposed to improve the speed and capacity of deaf children's reading, as their literacy in written English has been typically low compared to their hearing peers. An early form of this educational method

5400-648: The education sector, there are non-governmental sectors or organizations that have a significant effect on language acquisition, such as the Académie française of France or the Real Academia Española of Spain. These organizations often write their own dictionaries and grammar books, thus affecting the materials which students are exposed to in schools. Although these organizations do not hold official power, they influence government planning decisions, such as with educational materials, affecting acquisition. Before

5490-669: The establishment of the first deaf schools. The earliest records of the language are in the work of the Abbé de l'Épée , who stumbled across two sisters communicating in signs and, through them, became aware of a signing community of 200 deaf Parisians. Records of the language they used are scant. Épée saw their signing as beautiful but primitive, and rather than studying or recording it, he set about developing his own unique sign system ( "langage de signes méthodiques" ), which borrowed signs from Old French Sign Language and combined them with an idiosyncratic morphemic structure which he derived from

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5580-552: The first letter of the intended English word. Analogous variation in ASL (where multiple ASL signs all translate to a single English word) is not distinguished in SEE. For example in ASL, three distinct signs represent distinct meanings of English "right" ('correct,' 'opposite of left,' and 'entitlement') but SEE uses a single sign. Initializations and grammatical markers are also used in SEE2, but compound words with an equivalent ASL sign are used as

5670-656: The forms of a language, whereby planning decisions are made to engineer changes in the structure of the language. Corpus planning activities often arise as the result of beliefs about the adequacy of the form of a language to serve desired functions. Unlike status planning, which is mostly undertaken by administrators and politicians, corpus planning is generally the work of individuals with greater linguistic expertise. There are three traditionally recognized types of corpus planning: graphization, standardization, and modernization. Graphization refers to development, selection and modification of scripts and orthographic conventions for

5760-520: The individual schools, which did not consistently carry it out. Additionally, educating a generation is a long process, for which the League was not prepared. There was no consensus as to how the Irish language should be reinstituted; the League and schools did not develop a system assessment plan to monitor progress. Thus the movement lost strength, and the number of native Irish speakers has been in steady decline. Peru 's history of language planning begins in

5850-439: The initializations and grammatical markers used in other forms of MCE, but retains basic English word order. In the US, ASL features often seen in contact sign include the listing of grouped items and the repetition of some pronouns and verbs. Sign-supported speech (SSS) involves voicing everything as in spoken English, while simultaneously signing a form of MCE. The vocabulary , syntax and pragmatics of English are used, with

5940-476: The issue unsettled. For more information, see Quechua writing system and Quechuan and Aymaran spelling shift . Another disagreement was about how to reflect the phonological differences apparent in different dialects of Quechua. For example, some distinct dialects utilize aspirated and glottalized versions of the voiceless uvular stop /q/ , while others do not and some language planners found it important to reflect these dialectal differences. The search for

6030-409: The language to the community's repertory. Although written language is often viewed as secondary to spoken language, the vocabulary , grammatical structures and phonological structures of a language often adopt characteristics in the written form that are distinct from the spoken form. Second, the use of writing often leads to a folk belief that the written language is the 'real' language, and speech

6120-503: The leadership of President Juan Velasco Alvarado , the revolutionary government of Peru declared Quechua an official language of the Peruvian state, "coequal with Spanish." Four years later, the law was reversed. Peru's 1979 constitution declares Spanish the only official language of the state; Quechua and Aymara are relegated to "official use zones," equivalent to Stewart's provincial function described above. Quechua has officially remained

6210-523: The manipulation of a minority groups' language in order to enforce learning of the majority language onto children from that minority group. Many hearing parents are encouraged to expose their child to MCE instead of ASL, which delays a child's access to a natural sign language. Additionally, cognitive delays and lower academic achievement may result from or be exacerbated by a lack of complete or comprehensible input by teachers using MCE instead of ASL. Fingerspelling uses different signs for each letters of

6300-460: The middle. Because of contact sign's standing as a bridge between two distinct languages, it is used differently by each individual depending on their knowledge of English and of the deaf sign language. The term contact sign has largely replaced the earlier name Pidgin Sign English (PSE) because this form of signing does not display the features linguists expect of a pidgin . Contact sign drops

6390-401: The natural development of sign language and restructuring signs in accordance with the grammar of spoken language was not revived again until the popularization of MCE in the 1970s." Education is still the most common setting where manually coded English is used; not only with deaf students, but also children with other kinds of speech or language difficulties. The use of MCE in deaf education

6480-443: The number (if known) of languages within the family. No further information is given on these languages. Language planning In sociolinguistics , language planning (also known as language engineering ) is a deliberate effort to influence the function, structure or acquisition of languages or language varieties within a speech community . Robert L. Cooper (1989) defines language planning as "the activity of preparing

6570-461: The partition of Ireland , a movement began which aimed at the restoration of Irish , as the nation's primary language, based on a widespread sentiment for Irish nationalism and cultural identity. During and after colonisation, Irish had competed with English and Scots ; the movement to restore the language gained momentum after the Irish War of Independence . The Gaelic League was founded to promote

6660-681: The relative accuracy and appropriateness of these four representations. MCE is different from American Sign Language , which is a natural language with a distinct morphology, lexicon, and syntax. Rather, North American varieties of MCE borrow some lexical items of American Sign Language (although meanings and morphology may be significantly constrained or altered) while attempting to strictly follow English morphology, syntax, and word order. Deaf sign languages make use of non-sequential morphology, spatial relationships, facial expression, and body positioning, while MCE does not take advantage of Deaf sign language features which do not exist in spoken English, with

6750-605: The sectors' six principal goals: Although acquisition planning can be useful to governments, there are problems which must be considered. Even with a solid evaluation and assessment system, the effects of planning methods can never be certain; governments must consider the effects on other aspects of state planning, such as economic and political planning. Some proposed acquisition changes could also be too drastic or instituted too suddenly without proper planning and organization. Acquisition planning can also be financially draining, so adequate planning and awareness of financial resources

6840-422: The statuses of languages are evaluated, corpuses are revised and the changes are finally introduced to society on a national, state or local level through education systems, ranging from primary schools to universities. This process of change can entail an alteration in student textbook formatting, a change in methods of teaching an official language, or the development of a bilingual language program, only to name

6930-473: The use of deictic pointing and spatial modification of verbs, linguistic features not part of MCE because they are considered unique to signed languages. Finally, the ethics of MCE use is also a matter of contention. ASL is a minority language in North America. The majority of deaf people are born to hearing parents, and are not exposed to ASL from a young age. Many culturally Deaf adults raise issues with

7020-405: The use of "cuems" (eight handshapes intended to represent consonant phonemes and four placements around the face intended to represent vowel phonemes, combined with mouth movements) to represent auditory elements of the language being cued in a visual manner. Cued languages are a distinct class of visual communication. Cued speech has been adapted for languages and dialects around the world. SEE-1

7110-417: The use of MCE is the criteria used to evaluate it. Multiple researchers note that MCE use by deaf children acquiring it as a first language is typically evaluated according to its adherence to citation forms of spoken English (i.e., MCE utterances are evaluated as if they were spoken English utterances) rather than its intelligibility as a form of communication or a language. Moreover, many studies which evaluate

7200-581: The use of MCE systems in place of a natural language. The morphological structure of nearly all MCE systems is very different from the structure of documented sign languages. As a result, deaf children exposed only to MCE acquire the artificially created English-like bound morphology of MCE systems later than their hearing peers. Additionally, deaf children being taught MCE show an "anomalous" pattern of use with these morphemes. For example, they are frequently analyze morphemes that are bound in English, such as "-ing," as free morphemes, separating these morphemes from

7290-532: The verb (to) 'fly'. In Australia, 'Signed English' was developed by a committee in the late 1970s, who took signs from Auslan (especially the southern dialect), invented new signs, and borrowed a number of signs from American Sign Language that have now made their way into everyday use in Auslan. It is still used in many schools. Australasian Signed English is also in use in New Zealand . Signing Exact English (SEE2)

7380-556: The vowel system. Representatives from the Peruvian Academy of the Quechua language and the Summer Institute of Linguistics wanted to represent allophones of the vowels /i/ and /u/ with separate letters <e> and <o>, which creates an apparent five-vowel system. They argued that this makes the language easier to learn for people who are already familiar with written Spanish. However, other Quechua linguists argued that

7470-447: The world, the language was to influence the development of many other sign languages, including American Sign Language . From the dictionaries of "systematised signs" that the Abbé de l'Épée and his successor, Abbé Roch-Ambroise Cucurron Sicard , published, one can see that many of the signs described have direct descendants in sign languages today. Pierre Desloges , who was deaf himself and

7560-517: Was designed to encourage students to sign in the syntax of French . These constructed "Methodical Signs," however, had already fallen out of use by the 1830s, as the school's third director, Roche-Ambrose Bébian, wrote about their structural failings - especially the distortion of sign language structure - relative to "Natural Signs" and ended their use within the school. "Methodical Signs" fell out of favor in Europe and America, and "the idea of intervening in

7650-409: Was developed by Gerilee Gustason , a deaf teacher of the deaf , Esther Zawolkow , a CODA and educational interpreter, and Donna Pfetzing , a parent of a deaf child, in the early 1970s. Where English differs lexically from ASL (such as concepts with multiple near-synonymous words in English but only one or two corresponding ASL signs) the handshape of the ASL sign was generally modified to reflect

7740-484: Was followed by the adoption of the south-east Midlands dialect, spoken in London , as the print language. Because of the dialect's use for administrative, government, business, and literary purposes, it became entrenched as the prestigious variety of English. After the development of grammars and dictionaries in the 18th century, the rise of print capitalism , industrialization , urbanization , and mass education led to

7830-478: Was made an official language in Peru in 1975, the introduction of the language into the education and government domains made it essential to have a standard written language. The task of adopting a writing system proved to be a point of contention among Quechua linguists. Although most agreed to use the Latin alphabet , linguists disagreed about how to represent the phonological system of Quechua, particularly in regards to

7920-477: Was popularized by Abbé Charles-Michel de l'Epee who in the 1790s developed a method using hand-signs to teach a form of the French language to deaf children. L'Epee distinguished signs used in Institut National de Jeunes Sourds de Paris , the school he founded, into two categories: "Natural Signs," or Old French Sign Language , the language used by his students in the community, and "Methodical Signs," which

8010-528: Was the first American manual English code, developed in the 1960s and 70s by David Anthony, a teacher of deaf and disabled children. Anthony identified a list of proposed basic English words, less than half of which he identified American Sign Language (ASL) signs for, as well as a number of slightly different English words which ASL represented similarly with "only minor" stress and movement variations. Conversely, some English words could be expressed with multiple different ASL signs. Additionally, ASL, unlike English,

8100-493: Was the name of a morpheme list published by Dennis Wampler in 1971. While most forms of ASL and MCE are transcribed using English glosses , LOVE is written using the notation system developed by William Stokoe in describing the linguistic features of American Sign Language . CASE appears to be used to refer to different terms depending on context and/or author. The CDC describes CASE as another term for Pidgin Signed English , an older term for contact signing , and considers it

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