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69-529: Sir Robert Sheffield MP (before 1462 – 10 August 1518) was an English lawyer and Member of Parliament . He was Speaker of the House of Commons between 1512–1513. Robert Sheffield was born before 1462 in Butterwick, Lincolnshire to Sir Robert Sheffield MP (1432 – 18 August 1502) of South Cave , Yorkshire and Jane Lounde, the daughter and coheir of Alexander Lownde of Butterwick, Lincolnshire . Sheffield

138-578: A civil contract rather than a religious institution. Catholic historians have claimed that there was an alliance between Joseph and anti-clerical Freemasons. The Kulturkampf (literally "culture struggle") refers to German policies in reducing the role and power of the Catholic Church in Prussia, enacted from 1871 to 1878 by the Prime Minister of Prussia , Otto von Bismarck . Bismarck accelerated

207-594: A five-year cycle, or when a snap election is called. Since the Dissolution and Calling of Parliament Act 2022 , Parliament is automatically dissolved once five years have elapsed from its first meeting after an election. If a vacancy arises at another time, due to death or resignation , then a constituency vacancy may be filled by a by-election. Under the Representation of the People Act 1981 any MP sentenced to over

276-469: A member of Parliament is to do what they think in their faithful and disinterested judgement is right and necessary for the honour and safety of Great Britain. The second duty is to their constituents, of whom they are the representative but not the delegate. Burke's famous declaration on this subject is well known. It is only in the third place that their duty to party organisation or programme takes rank. All these three loyalties should be observed, but there

345-496: A person must be at least 18 years old and be a citizen of the UK , a Commonwealth nation, or Ireland . A person is not required to be registered to vote, nor are there any restrictions regarding where a candidate is a resident. The House of Commons Disqualification Act 1975 outlaws the holders of various positions from being MPs. These include civil servants , regular police officers (but not special constables ), regular members of

414-547: A political force in the Centre party and revitalized Polish resistance. The Kulturkampf ended about 1880 with a new pope Leo XIII willing to negotiate with Bismarck. Bismarck broke with the Liberals over religion and over their opposition to tariffs; He won Centre party support on most of his conservative policy positions, especially his attacks against socialism . Anti-clericalism in Italy

483-547: A political party, they may act in the interests of that party, subordinate to the other two responsibilities. Anti-clericalism Some have opposed clergy on the basis of moral corruption, institutional issues and/or disagreements in religious interpretation, such as during the Protestant Reformation . Anti-clericalism became extremely violent during the French Revolution , because revolutionaries claimed

552-572: A prison sentence of a year or more. People in respect of whom a bankruptcy restrictions order has effect are disqualified from (existing) membership of the House of Commons (details differ slightly in different countries). Members are not permitted to resign their seats. In practice, however, they always can. Should a member wish to resign from the Commons , they may request appointment to one of two ceremonial Crown offices: that of Crown Steward and Bailiff of

621-498: A year in jail automatically vacates their seat. For certain types of lesser acts of wrongdoing, the Recall of MPs Act 2015 mandates that a recall petition be opened; if signed by more than 10% of registered voters within the constituency, the seat is vacated. In the past, only male adult property owners could stand for Parliament. In 1918, women acquired the right to stand for Parliament , and to vote. To be eligible to stand as an MP,

690-713: Is connected with reaction against the absolutism of the Papal States , overthrown in 1870. For a long time, the pope required Catholics not to participate in the public life of the Kingdom of Italy that had invaded the Papal States to complete the unification of Italy, prompting the pope to declare himself a "prisoner" in the Vatican . Some politicians that had played important roles in this process, such as Giuseppe Garibaldi and Camillo Benso, conte di Cavour , were known to be hostile to

759-498: Is more often spoken of regarding the history or current politics of Latin countries where the Catholic Church was established and where the clergy had privileges, Philip Jenkins notes in his 2003 book The New Anti-Catholicism that the U.S., despite the lack of Catholic establishments, has always had anti-clericals. Of the population of Latin America, about 71% acknowledge allegiance to the Catholic Church. Consequently, about 43% of

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828-414: Is no doubt of the order in which they stand under any healthy manifestation of democracy. Theoretically, contemporary MPs are considered to have two duties, or three if they belong to a political party. Their primary responsibility is to act in the national interest. They must also act in the interests of their constituents, where this does not override their primary responsibility. Finally, if they belong to

897-751: The "establishment" of the Anglican church. The vastly different religious backgrounds of the Reformers and rouges was one of the factors which prevented them from working together well during the era of two-party coalition government in Canada (1840–1867). By 1861, however, the two groups fused to create a united Liberal block. After 1867, this party added like-minded reformers from the Maritime provinces, but struggled to win power, especially in still strongly-Catholic Quebec. Once Wilfrid Laurier became party leader, however,

966-526: The 2005 Italian fertility laws referendum attracted criticism, and so did his opposition to a 2007 bill that would have provided recognition of same-sex unions in Italy . From the side of the Church, a right to express its opinions and a moral duty in guiding Christians on ethical questions is claimed. Your Movement is an anti-clerical party founded in 2011 by politician Janusz Palikot . Palikot's Movement won 10% of

1035-871: The Bishop of Durham 's liberty of Howden, Yorkshire from March 1493, Steward of the manor of Stoke Bardolph and others in Nottinghamshire from February 1508 until his death and Steward of the manor of Kirton, Lincolnshire and crown lands in Kingston-upon-Hull and elsewhere in Yorkshire from July 20, 1509 until his death. Sheffield served as Justice of the Peace in Lincolnshire from 1495-7 and 1510-16 or later, and in Nottinghamshire from 1511-16 or later. Sheffield served

1104-595: The Committee of Public Safety denounced the dechristianization campaign and tried to establish their own religion, without the superstitions of Catholicism. When Pope Pius VI took sides against the revolution in the First Coalition (1792–1797), Napoleon Bonaparte invaded Italy (1796). French troops imprisoned the Pope in 1797, and he died after six weeks of captivity. After a change of heart, Napoleon then re-established

1173-556: The Concordat of 1801 the Catholic Church enjoyed preferential treatment from the French state (formally along with the Jewish, Lutheran and Calvinist minority religions, but in practice with much more influence than those). During the 19th century, public schools employed primarily priests as teachers, and religion was taught in schools (teachers also lead the class to Mass ). This changed during

1242-551: The Curia . More than 500 of 1,188 monasteries in Austro-Slav lands (and a hundred more in Hungary) were dissolved, and 60 million florins taken by the state. This wealth was used to create 1,700 new parishes and welfare institutions. The education of priests was taken from the Church as well. Joseph established six state-run "General Seminaries". In 1783, a Marriage Patent treated marriage as

1311-556: The Fédération Nationale de la Libre-Pensée , now commonly associated with the anti-clerical far-left, maintains its strongly anti-clerical stance. Emperor Joseph II (emperor 1765–1790) opposed what he called "contemplative" religious institutions – reclusive Catholic institutions that he perceived as doing nothing positive for the community. His policy towards them is included in what is called Josephinism . Joseph decreed that Austrian bishops could not communicate directly with

1380-807: The Holy See and the Italian state was finally settled by Pope Pius XI and him: the Lateran Accords were finalised in 1929. After World War II, anti-clericalism was embodied by the Italian Communist (PCI) and Italian Socialist (PSI) parties, in opposition to the Vatican-backed party Christian Democracy (DC). Since the PSI joined DC-led coalition governments, the DC under Aldo Moro turned centre-left. In 1978, with support of

1449-528: The Kulturkampf , which did not extend to the other German states such as Bavaria (where Catholics were in a majority). As one scholar put it, "the attack on the church included a series of Prussian, discriminatory laws that made Catholics feel understandably persecuted within a predominantly Protestant nation." Jesuits , Franciscans , Dominicans and other orders were expelled in the culmination of twenty years of anti-Jesuit and antimonastic hysteria. In 1871,

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1518-461: The Quiet Revolution of the 1960s broke the hold of the church on provincial politics. The Quebec Liberal Party embraced formerly taboo social democratic ideas, and the state intervened in fields once dominated by the church, especially health and education, which were taken over by the provincial government. Quebec is now considered Canada's most secular province. Although anti-clericalism

1587-629: The Senedd (Welsh Parliament) or the Northern Ireland Assembly are also ineligible for the Commons according to the Wales and Northern Ireland (Miscellaneous Provisions) Acts respectively, passed in 2014 (but members of the Scottish Parliament are eligible). People who are bankrupt cannot stand to be MPs. The Representation of the People Act 1981 excludes persons who are currently serving

1656-877: The Tower of London on 10 August 1518. Sheffield was buried in the Augustinian church ( Blackfriars ), London . His will is in Testamenta Vetusta by Nicholas Harris Nicolas (p. 555). Member of Parliament (United Kingdom) King Charles III [REDACTED] William, Prince of Wales [REDACTED] Charles III ( King-in-Council ) [REDACTED] Starmer ministry ( L ) Keir Starmer ( L ) Angela Rayner ( L ) ( King-in-Parliament ) [REDACTED] Charles III [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] The Lord Reed The Lord Hodge Andrew Bailey Monetary Policy Committee In

1725-655: The Trienio Liberal (Spanish Civil War of 1820–1823). During riots in Catalonia , 20 clergymen were killed by members of the liberal movement in retaliation for the Church's siding with absolutist supporters of Ferdinand VII . In 1836 following the First Carlist War , the Ecclesiastical Confiscations of Mendizábal ( Spanish : Desamortización ) promulgated by Juan Álvarez Mendizábal , prime minister of

1794-702: The United Kingdom , a member of Parliament ( MP ) is an individual elected to serve in the House of Commons , the lower house of the Parliament of the United Kingdom . All 650 members of the UK House of Commons are elected using the first-past-the-post voting system in single member constituencies across the whole of the United Kingdom, where each constituency has its own single representative. All MP positions become simultaneously vacant for elections held on

1863-525: The armed forces (but not reservists), and some judges . Members of the House of Lords were not permitted to hold Commons seats until the passing of the House of Lords Reform Act 2014 , which allows retired or resigned members of the House of Lords to stand or re-stand as MPs. Members of legislatures outside of the Commonwealth are excluded, with the exemption of the Irish legislature . Additionally, members of

1932-643: The 1880s as several anti-clerical international gatherings took place in Paris, leading to the establishment of the Fédération nationale de la libre pensée , a strongly anti-clerical society regrouping socialists, anarchists and liberals. In 1881–1882 Jules Ferry 's government passed the Jules Ferry laws , establishing free education (1881) and excluded clerics and religious education from schools (1882). In 1880 and 1882 Benedictine teaching monks were effectively exiled. This

2001-436: The 18th-century benevolent despots in restricting or prohibiting the religious orders. As a result, a number of these liberal regimes expropriated Church property and tried to bring education, marriage and burial under secular authority. The confiscation of Church properties and changes in the scope of religious liberties (in general, increasing the rights of non-Catholics and non-observant Catholics, while licensing or prohibiting

2070-506: The Catholic Church comprised 36.5% of the population of the German Empire, including millions of Germans in the west and South, as well as the vast majority of Poles. In this newly founded Empire, Bismarck sought to appeal to liberals and Protestants (62% of the population) by reducing the political and social influence of the Catholic Church. Priests and bishops who resisted the Kulturkampf were arrested or removed from their positions. By

2139-680: The Catholic Church held a dominant role in pre-revolutionary France. During a two-year period known as the Reign of Terror , the episodes of anti-clericalism grew more violent than Europe would see until the rise of state atheism in communist Eastern Europe. The new revolutionary authorities suppressed the church; abolished the Catholic monarchy; nationalized church property; exiled 30,000 priests and killed hundreds more. Many churches were converted into "temples of reason", in which atheistical services were held. There has been much scholarly debate over whether

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2208-628: The Catholic Church in France with the signing of the Concordat of 1801 , and banned the Cult of the Supreme Being. Many anti-clerical policies continued. When Napoleonic armies entered a territory, monasteries were often sacked, and church property secularized. A further phase of anti-clericalism occurred in the context of the French Third Republic and its dissensions with the Catholic Church. After

2277-568: The Chiltern Hundreds , or that of Crown Steward and Bailiff of the Manor of Northstead . These offices are sinecures (that is, they involve no actual duties); they exist solely to permit the "resignation" of members of the House of Commons. The Chancellor of the Exchequer is responsible for making the appointment, and, by convention, never refuses to do so when asked by a member who desires to leave

2346-543: The Church as a result of their alliance to monarchists and other nationalist movements . Philippine anti-clericalism is rooted in the anti-clericalism of 19th-century Spain . José Rizal , a member of the ilustrado class during the Spanish colonial period and one of the most prominent of the Philippines' national heroes held anti-clerical views until his eventual recantation before his day of execution . The Katipunan ,

2415-608: The Church was purely personal and warned the otherwise uninvolved public against taking unethical action against the clergy. In French Canada following the Conquest, much like in Ireland or Poland under foreign rule, the Catholic Church was the sole national institution not under the direct control of the British colonial government. It was also a major marker of social difference from the incoming Anglo-Protestant settlers. French Canadian identity

2484-624: The French Republic "in jeopardy". Republicans ' anti-clericalism softened after the First World War as the Catholic right-wing began to accept the Republic and secularism, which aimed to prevent socialist parties. However, the issue of subsidized private schools in France , which are overwhelmingly Catholic but whose teachers draw pay from the state, remains a sensitive issue in French politics and

2553-523: The House of Commons. Members of Parliament are entitled to use the post-nominal initials MP. MPs are referred to as "honourable" as a courtesy only during debates in the House of Commons (e.g., "the honourable member for ..."), or if they are the children of peers below the rank of marquess ("the honourable [first name] [surname]"). Those who are members of the Privy Council use the form The Right Honourable ( The Rt Hon. ) Name MP. The first duty of

2622-631: The House, earning him the Cardinal's enmity. In 1516, he was charged with negligence as a justice of the peace and was summoned before the Star Chamber but negotiated a pardon. Six months later he was incarcerated in the Tower of London after complaining against Cardinal Wolsey , and brought before the Star Chamber again, and this time asked the King for mercy. However the pardon was revoked and Sheffield died in

2691-553: The Nationalist forces. Anti-clerical assaults called the Red Terror by Nationalists, included sacking and burning monasteries and churches and killing 6,832 members of the clergy. This number comprises: There are accounts of Catholic faithful being forced to swallow rosary beads, thrown down mine shafts and priests being forced to dig their own graves before being buried alive. The Catholic Church has canonized several martyrs of

2760-415: The PSI, the DC-led coalition government legalized abortion despite strong opposition from the Catholic Church and DC conservative factions. The revision of the Lateran treaties during the 1980s by the PSI Prime Minister Bettino Craxi , removed the status of " official religion " of the Catholic Church, but still granted a series of provisions in favour of the Church, such as the eight per thousand law,

2829-421: The Protestant Reformation, anti-clericalism resulted from opposition to the political and economic privileges of the clergy. The Civil Constitution of the Clergy was passed on July 12, 1790, requiring all clerics to swear allegiance to the French government and, by extension, to the increasingly anti-clerical National Constituent Assembly . All but seven of the 160 bishops refused the oath, as did about half of

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2898-485: The Shire for Lincolnshire in 1512 and 1513. During these years, he served as Speaker of the House of Commons . By 1516, Sheffield served as Custos rotulorum (keeper of the rolls) for Lincolnshire (Lindsey) . By 1485, Sheffield married Ellen Delves, the daughter and heir of Sir John Delves of Doddington, Cheshire . They had two sons and five daughters: After his first wife's death in or after 1509, Sheffield married secondly Anne Barley or Barlee (d. 1557 or 1558),

2967-427: The Spanish Civil War and beatified hundreds more. Prior to the Falangists joining Francisco Franco's unified alliance of right-wing parties, the party exhibited anti-clerical tendencies, and saw the Catholic Church as an elite institution that presented an obstacle to the Falangist's full control the state. Despite this, the Falangists had not been involved in any massacres of Catholics , and it went on to support

3036-421: The Spanish State, to which the Church had to pay rent and taxes continuously in order to use these properties. "Thus the Catholic Church is compelled to pay taxes on what was violently taken from her". Religious vestments, liturgical instruments, statues, pictures, vases, gems and other valuable objects were expropriated as well. During the Spanish Civil War of 1936–1939, Catholics largely supported Franco and

3105-424: The administrative offices of the Church) were hindering social progress in areas such as public education and economic development. Beginning in the 1820s, a succession of liberal regimes came to power in Latin America. Some members of these liberal regimes sought to imitate the Spain of the 1830s (and revolutionary France of a half-century earlier) in expropriating the wealth of the Catholic Church, and in imitating

3174-646: The church played a pivotal role in the systems of oppression which led to it. Many clerics were killed, and French revolutionary governments tried to put priests under the control of the state by making them employees. Anti-clericalism appeared in Catholic Europe throughout the 19th century, in various forms, and later in Canada, Cuba, and Latin America. According to the Pew Research Center several communist and post-communist states are current practitioners of political anti-clericalism, including Uzbekistan , Azerbaijan , Kazakhstan , Tajikistan , Kyrgyzstan , Turkmenistan , Vietnam , China and North Korea . During

3243-451: The country's previous president , has adopted a combative verbal stance toward the Church hierarchy and its staunchest supporters . In 2015, he blamed and cursed Pope Francis for the traffic congestion in the national capital ; he later apologized and clarified that it was the government 's fault and not the pope's. In 2019, he predicted the Church's temporal demise in 25 years. Duterte, however, has underscored that his animosity toward

3312-459: The country, but they had not been given their property back. Religious orders were expelled from the country, including 31 orders comprising members in 164 houses (in 1917 some orders were permitted to form again). Religious education was prohibited in both primary and secondary school. Religious oaths and church taxes were also abolished. The first instance of anti-clerical violence due to political conflict in 19th-century Spain occurred during

3381-512: The daughter of William Barley, of Albury, Hertfordshire . After Sheffield's death in 1518 his widow married secondly Sir John Grey of Blisworth , Northamptonshire , a younger son of Thomas Grey, 1st Marquess of Dorset by his second wife, Cecily Bonville , and thirdly Sir Richard Clement, of Ightham Mote , Kent . Anne (née Barlee) left a will dated 1 October 1557, proved 7 May 1558. In 1515, Sheffield helped Cardinal Wolsey in drafting legislation but later gave lead to anti-clerical forces in

3450-464: The government mandated the observance of a festival of the Cult of the Supreme Being. When anti-clericalism became a clear goal of French revolutionaries, counter-revolutionaries seeking to restore tradition and the Ancien Régime took up arms, particularly in the War in the Vendée (1793 to 1796). Local people often resisted dechristianization and forced members of the clergy who had resigned to conduct Mass again. Eventually, Maximilien Robespierre and

3519-415: The height of anti-Catholic measures, half of the Prussian bishops were in prison or in exile, a quarter of the parishes had no priest, half the monks and nuns had left Prussia, a third of the monasteries and convents were closed, 1800 parish priests were imprisoned or exiled, and thousands of laypeople were imprisoned for helping the priests. The Kulturkampf backfired, as it energized the Catholics to become

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3588-421: The more democratic politics that followed the rebellions, the more radical and anti-clerical tendency eventually formed the Parti rouge in 1848. At the same time in English Canada, a related phenomenon occurred where the primarily Nonconformist (mostly Presbyterian and Methodist ) Reform movement conflicted with an Anglican establishment. In Upper Canada, The Reform Movement began as protest against

3657-512: The movement was popularly motivated. As part of the campaign to dechristianize France , in October 1793 the Christian calendar was replaced with one reckoning from the date of the Revolution, and Festivals of Liberty, Reason and the Supreme Being were scheduled. New forms of moral religion emerged, including the deistic Cult of the Supreme Being and France's first established state sponsored atheistic Cult of Reason , with all churches not devoted to these being closed. In April and May 1794,

3726-446: The national vote at the 2011 Polish parliamentary election . In modern Polish media anti-clericalism is/was promoted by magazine NIE and Roman Kotliński 's newspaper Fakty i Mity  [ pl ] . The fall of the Monarchy in the Republican revolution of 1910 led to another wave of anti-clerical activity. Most church property was put under State control, and the church was not allowed to inherit property. The revolution and

3795-411: The new regime abolished the major Spanish Convents and Monasteries. Many years later the Radical Republican Party leader Alejandro Lerroux would distinguish himself by his inflammatory pieces of opinion. The Republican government which came to power in Spain in 1931 was based on secular principles. In the first years some laws were passed secularising education, prohibiting religious education in

3864-448: The parish priests. Persecution of the clergy and of the faithful was the first trigger of the rebellion; the second being conscription. Nonjuring priests were exiled or imprisoned and women on their way to Mass were beaten in the streets. The anti-clericalism during the French Revolution initially began with attacks on church corruption and the wealth of the higher clergy, an action with which even many Christians could identify, since

3933-612: The party dropped its anti-clerical stance and went on to dominate Canadian politics throughout most of the 20th century. Since that time, Liberal prime ministers have been overwhelmingly Catholic (St. Laurent, both Pierre and Justin Trudeau, Chrétien, Martin), but since the 1960s Liberals have again had a strained relationship with the Catholic church, and have increasingly parted with the Catholic church's teachings on sexual morality , as when Pierre Trudeau legalized homosexuality and streamlined divorce (as justice minister under Pearson), and Martin legalized same-sex marriage. In Quebec itself,

4002-513: The republic allegedly took a "hostile" approach to the issue of church and state separation , like that of the French Revolution , the Spanish Constitution of 1931 and the Mexican Constitution of 1917 . As part of the anti-clerical revolution, the bishops were driven from their dioceses, the property of clerics was seized by the state, wearing of the cassock was banned, all minor seminaries were closed and all but five major seminaries. A law of February 22, 1918, permitted only two seminaries in

4071-466: The schools, and expelling the Jesuits from the country. On Pentecost 1932, Pope Pius XI protested against these measures and demanded restitution . He asked the Catholics of Spain to fight with all legal means against the injustices. June 3, 1933, he issued the encyclical Dilectissima Nobis , in which he described the expropriation of all Church buildings, episcopal residences, parish houses, seminaries and monasteries. By law, they were now property of

4140-416: The secret society that spearheaded the Philippine Revolution after Rizal's execution, was also noted for its anti-clericalism. After Philippine independence was recognized by the United States , the inclusion of Rizal's novels Noli me tangere and El filibusterismo in the country's formal-education curricula was strongly opposed by the domestic Catholic Church hierarchy . Rodrigo Duterte ,

4209-403: The state in pre-Columbian culture made it relatively easy for the Spanish conquistadors to replace native religious structures with those of a Catholicism that was closely linked to the Spanish throne. Anti-clericalism was a common feature of 19th-century liberalism in Latin America. This anti-clericalism was often purportedly based on the idea that the clergy (especially the prelates who ran

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4278-408: The teaching of religion in schools, and other privileges. In recent years, the Italian society has got increasingly secularized and many contest the intervention of the Catholic Church in Italian politics, usually through voting instructions to the faithful and to Catholic parliamentarians on the legislative and regulatory action of the State. For example, the positions of Cardinal Camillo Ruini in

4347-589: The temporal and political power of the Church. Throughout the history of Liberal Italy, relations between the Italian government and the Church remained acrimonious, and anti-clericals maintained a prominent position in the ideological and political debates of the era. Tensions eased between church and state in the 1890s and early 1900s as a result of both sides' mutual hostility toward the burgeoning Socialist movement. Initially also anticlerical, fascist Benito Mussolini tempered such rhetoric to win support from Catholics and later as dictator, official hostility between

4416-419: The world's Catholics inhabit the 'Latin' countries of South, Central and North America. The slowness to embrace religious freedom in Latin America is related to its colonial heritage and to its post-colonial history. The Aztec , Maya and Inca cultures made substantial use of religious leaders to ideologically support governing authority and power. This pre-existing role of religion as ideological adjunct to

4485-413: Was a commander at the Battle of Blackheath during the Cornish Rebellion of 1497 , and was knighted by Henry VII on 17 June 1497 after the battle. Sheffield was joint keeper of Lincoln Castle from 10 February 1501 until his death. In 1508, Sheffield was listed as a "councillor". Sheffield became Governor of the Inner Temple in 1511, likely serving until his death. Sheffield was chosen Knight of

4554-400: Was almost entirely centred around Catholicism, and to a much lesser extent the French language. However, there was a small anti-clerical movement in French Canada in the early nineteenth drawing inspiration from American and French liberal revolutions. This group was one current (but by no means the dominant) one in the Parti canadien and its associated Lower Canada Rebellion of 1837. In

4623-477: Was discovered that the anti-clerical War Minister of the Combes government, General Louis André , was determining promotions based on the French Masonic Grand Orient's card index on public officials, detailing which were Catholic and who attended Mass, with a view to preventing their promotions. In the years following their relocations, boarding schools of congregants were accused by some senators of trying to "recruit" French youth from abroad, supposedly placing

4692-763: Was educated in law at Inner Temple . Sheffield served as Recorder of London from at least 21 September 1495 to April 1508 to 1508, and was thus an ex officio Member of Parliament for the City of London in 1495, 1497 and 1504. Bernard Andreas states that Sheffield resigned the recordership in April 1508. Sheffield held several governmental positions and commissions in Lincolnshire , Yorkshire and London , including commissioner of sewers in Lincolnshire from 1485 until his death, commissioner of oyer and terminer in London in 1495 and 1503, commissioner for benevolence in 1500, commissioner for subsidy in Lincolnshire in 1504, 1512, 1514 and 1515, and in London in 1504. Sheffield held several stewardships, including Steward of

4761-412: Was not completed until 1901. A law of 7 July 1904 preventing religious congregations from teaching any longer, and the so-called Law on the separation of the Churches and the State of 1905, were enacted under the government of Radical-Socialist Émile Combes . Alsace-Lorraine was not subjected to these laws as it was part of the German Empire then. In the Affaire des Fiches (1904-1905), it

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