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102-727: The Tecolutla River is a river in the state of Veracruz in Mexico , and the main drainage of the historical and cultural region of Totonacapan . It is principally fed by four rivers that rise in the Sierra Norte de Puebla : from north to south, they are the Necaxa , the Lajajalpan (or Laxaxalpan), the Tecuantepec and the Apulco . These rivers converge in the municipality of Espinal, Veracruz , and from here

204-405: A bit about how houses were organized. Wendt studied refuse throughout the site, using that information to infer the layout of buildings. Clutter refuse, that is, refuse that is potentially valuable or hazardous, was studied and progressed through several stages of disposal: discarded along areas near house walls, then moved to dumps or pits. When people abandon a house, they usually leave refuse that

306-663: A central patio area. Various types of Olmec style pottery and figurines originating in San Lorenzo area were exported to other areas in Mesoamerica. For example, at the Canton Corralito site in coastal Chiapas state, very large numbers were found. Over 5,000 objects produced in the early Olmec style were found at Canton Corralito. In fact, many more Initial Olmec (1250-1150 BCE) and Early Olmec (1150-1000 BCE) type objects were found at Canton Corralito than at San Lorenzo area. For

408-405: A large fishing industry, producing one-fifth of Mexico's catch. Most of the country's mojarra , oysters and shrimp come from here. Other major fish catches include crab, sea bass and red snapper . San Lorenzo Tenochtitl%C3%A1n San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán or San Lorenzo is the collective name for three related archaeological sites —San Lorenzo, Tenochtitlán and Potrero Nuevo—located in

510-1129: A large mixture of climates, from cold, snow-topped mountain peaks to hot, humid tropical areas on the coast. 32% of the state is classified as hot and humid, 52% as hot and semi humid, 9% is warm and humid, 6% as temperate and humid and 1% is classified as cold. Hot and humid and hot and semi-humid climates dominate from sea level to about 1,000 m (3,281 ft) above sea level. Average annual temperature ranges from 22 to 26 °C (72 to 79 °F) with precipitation varying from 2,000 mm (79 in) to just over 3,500 mm (138 in) per year. Cooler and humid climates are found at elevations between 1,000 and 1,600 m (3,281 and 5,249 ft). These have an average temperature of between 18 and 22 °C (64 and 72 °F) with precipitation varying between 2,000 and 2,500 mm (79 and 98 in). Temperate climates are found at higher altitudes, between 1,600 and 2,800 m (5,249 and 9,186 ft). Temperatures here vary from 12 to 18 °C (54 to 64 °F) with precipitation varying more, between 500 and 2,500 mm (20 and 98 in). Cold climates are found at

612-408: A long coastline and forest containing a wide variety of trees and other plants. There is about 1 million hectares of cultivable land, half of which is in private hands and 43% is ejido or communal land. The rest is occupied by human settlements. There are 3,620 ejidos parceled out to 270,000 ejido members. 52.5% of agricultural land is used for the growing of crops or used as pasture and 43.1%

714-561: A mean natural surface runoff of 6,098 hm (2.153 × 10 cu ft) per year. The first important hydroelectric facilities in Mexico were built in the Tecolutla watershed on the Necaxa River. Nevertheless, the Tecolutla is considered one of the most well-preserved rivers in the state of Veracruz and its floodplains are agriculturally productive. Vanilla may have been first cultivated by

816-457: A plan to land a few miles south of Veracruz, which surrendered after a 20-day siege , defeated General Santa Anna 's forces at the Battle of Cerro Gordo , and marched inland through Xalapa towards Mexico City, led by General Winfield Scott . Mexico surrendered shortly after. The municipalities of Tuxpan and Chicontepec belonged to Puebla until 1853, when they were annexed to Veracruz to give

918-455: A regressor. Global spatial autocorrelation is found especially literacy at the macro-regional level which is an area for further research beyond this study. Improved literacy bolsters both the informal and formal economies in Veracruz indicating policies designed to further literacy are vital for growing the regional economy. While indigenous people are relatively poor, little evidence was found that

1020-695: Is 11,700 hectares of pine and oyamel forest, which was created in 1937. The Los Tuxtlas Biosphere Reserve covers the municipalities of Ángel R. Cabada , Santiago Tuxtla , San Andres Tuxtla , Catemaco , Soteapan , Mecayapan , Pajapan and Tatahuicapan for a total of 155,122 ha (383,314.8 acres). It contains various volcanos such as San Martín and Santa Marta and rich biodiversity as it stretches from sea level to higher elevations, with 16 climate regions groups into four climate types. Forest types range from evergreen tropical rainforest to pine. 75% of species here are also found in Central America and there

1122-445: Is a total of 2,368 plant species. Some, such as Costus dirzoi , Daphnopsis megacarpa , Eugenia sotoesparzae , Inga sinacae , Miconia ibarrae , Mormodes tuxtlensis , and Thelypteris rachyflexuosa , are native only to this area. Wildlife includes 102 mammal species, 49 amphibian, 109 reptilian, 561 bird species and more. Species in danger of extinction include the jaguar, spider monkey and anteater . The Veracruz Reef System

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1224-606: Is also considered to be a national park and is mostly off the coast of Veracruz city, Boca del Río and Alvarado . The area includes coral reefs, seaweed beds and other marine vegetation, covering an area of 52,239 ha (129,085.4 acres). There are seventeen reefs in total, some of which jut above the surface to form small islands. This system links with the reef systems of Campeche and Yucatán . Veracruz has one of Mexico's leading economies, based on agriculture and petroleum. Using relatively recent night light data and electricity consumption in comparison with Gross County Product,

1326-639: Is centered between the Cazones River and the Papaloapan River in the north of the state. Pre-Columbian Totonacs lived from hunting, fishing and agriculture, mostly of corn, beans, chili peppers and squash. This is also the native region of the vanilla bean . Clay sculptures with smiling faces are indicative of this culture. The major site is El Tajín , located near Papantla , but the culture reached its apogee in Cempoala (about five miles (8.0 km) inland from

1428-522: Is forest or rainforest. Chief agricultural products include coffee, vanilla, sugarcane, tobacco, bananas, coconuts, and vegetables, but local farmers depend mainly on corn and beans. Two corn crops per year are generally produced, planted on 644,936 hectares with a production of 1,114,325 tons. The state is the leading national producer of coffee, sugarcane, corn, and rice. Coffee is grown on 152,993 hectares producing 400,575 tons. Export earnings from this crop are about US$ 232 million annually. Most coffee

1530-400: Is grown in the mountain areas of Córdoba-Huatusco, Coatepec-Teocelo-Cosautlán and Misantla-Tlapacoyan-Atzalan. Sugarcane is cultivated on 254,000 hectares, producing 16,867,958 tons annually. Veracruz is the largest producer of rice with 24,000 hectares producing 120,000 tons. Much is this crop is protected by import bans from Asia. The state grows half of the country's citrus fruit and grows

1632-511: Is informal. Programs in the past that might move economic activity from the informal to the formal sector have not succeeded suggesting public finance issues such as tax evasion will continue to plague the state with low government revenues. The primary sector of the economy (agriculture, forestry and fishing) has been important since pre-Hispanic times and continues to be important both as a source of income as well as culturally. The state has abundant rainfall and extremely fertile soils, as well as

1734-463: Is of great importance for many plant and animal species. It is a center of plant endemism and has two separate endemic bird areas. The northern part of the state as well as the higher mountain areas, are convergence zones between lowland evergreen tropical forests and more temperate flora and fauna. It is also the northernmost occurrence of subhumid tropical forest in Mexico, although little of this remains, mostly on steep slopes. The tropical forests of

1836-441: Is only one significant lake, called Lake Catemaco . Off the coast are the islands of Isla de Lobos, Isla de los Burros, Isla de Sacrificios , Isla de Salmendina, Isla del Idolo, Isladel Toro, Isla Frijoles, Isla Juan A Ramirez, Isla Pajaros and Isla Terrón and the ocean reefs called Blanquilla, Medio, Tangüillo, Tuxpan, Gualleguilla, Gallega, Anegada de Adento Anegada de Afuera and Cabezo. The large variation of altitude results in

1938-474: Is out of mind: behind large furniture, in corners, or outside on the periphery. Using this information, Wendt determined the likely architectural organization of the site. The data suggested that the architectural organization most likely followed the solar pattern of highland Maya house-lots. The solar pattern is unrestricted in space and has separate areas designated for separate activities, i.e. sleeping, cooking, etc. All these detached structures are built around

2040-586: Is the Arroyo Zapata, located 20 kilometres (12 mi) north of Huamantla , Tlaxcala at an elevation of 3,500 metres (11,500 ft). This arroyo flows into the Coyuca River, which in turn drains into the Apulco. The total length of the river measured from this source is 375 kilometres (233 mi). The watershed drained by the Tecolutla covers an area of 7,903 square kilometres (3,051 sq mi) and has

2142-443: Is the manila variety, which is preferred in Mexico. 95% of this crop is consumed fresh within Mexico although exports to Canada have begun. Vanilla beans are native to the state, which is the primary producer for Mexico. Most of this crop is grown in an area known as Totonacapan in and around Papantla. Livestock raising is an important activity. There are over 300,000 units of production most of which raise cattle, with Veracruz being

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2244-407: Is well known for the multitude of stone sculptures displayed. Some of these sculptures depict supernatural deities, while others the flesh-and-blood embodiments on earth. Up to 124 stone sculptures have been discovered, and it is suspected that many more remain buried. The sculptures range in size, with the gigantic Colossal Heads weighing up to 28 tons. All the basalt used in this artwork originated at

2346-577: The Aztec capital located within Mexico City . Administrative names were translated into Aztec/Nahuatl and spread alongside Catholic names during the European conquest, replacing any original locality names, as the original Olmec name was lost. The earliest evidence for Olmec culture is found at nearby El Manatí , a sacrificial bog with artifacts dating to 1600 BCE or earlier. Sedentary agriculturalists had lived in

2448-605: The Maya are similar; however, only a few buildings and ceramics remain from the early Huastec culture. This culture also reached its peak between 1200 and 1519, when it was conquered by the Spanish. During the 15th and very early 16th century, the Aztecs came to dominate much of the state and dividing it into tributary provinces, of Tochtepec, Cuetlaxtlan, Cempoallan, Quauhtochco, Jalapa, Misantla, and Tlatlauhquitepec. The Aztecs were interested in

2550-904: The Mexican Drug War . Within the state the Gulf Cartel and Los Zetas have battled for control. Additionally, this has led to journalists being targeted and killed within the state. The state is a crescent-shaped strip of land wedged between the Sierra Madre Oriental to the west and the Gulf of Mexico to the east. Its total area is 78,815 km (30,431 sq mi), accounting for about 3.7% of Mexico's total territory. It stretches about 650 km (403.9 mi) north to south, but its width varies from between 212 and 36 km (132 and 22 mi), with an average of about 100 km (62 mi) in width. Veracruz shares common borders with

2652-515: The Sierra de Los Tuxtlas . Major peaks include Pico de Orizaba (5,636 m; 18,491 ft), Cofre de Perote (4,282 m; 14,048.6 ft), Cerro de Tecomates (3,227 m; 10,587 ft), Cerro del Vigía Alta (3,055 m; 10,023 ft) and Cerro de 3 Tortas (2,997 m; 9,833 ft). The Pico de Orizaba is covered in snow year round; the Cofre de Perote is covered in winter. Major valleys include

2754-480: The Totonac in this area and has been an important part of their culture for centuries. Veracruz Veracruz has a significant share of the coastline of the Gulf of Mexico on the east of the state. The state is noted for its mixed ethnic and indigenous populations. Its cuisine reflects the many cultural influences that have come through the state because of the importance of the port of Veracruz . In addition to

2856-820: The Tuxtlas Region, the Central Region, the Laguna del Castillo Region, the Pueblo Viejo-Tamiahua Region and the Laguna de Alvarado Region. The topography changes drastically, rising from the narrow coastal plains to the highlands of the eastern Sierra Madre. Elevation varies from sea level to the Pico de Orizaba , Mexico's highest peak at 5,636 m (18,491 ft) above sea level. The coast consists of low sandy strips interspersed with tidewater streams and lagoons. Most of

2958-543: The Veracruz moist forests ecoregion are situated in the northeastern coastal plain and extend into southern Tamaulipas state, on the east side of the Sierra Madre Oriental . The soils here are volcanic and shallow, but with rich organic matter. Species that predominate include Mayan breadnut ( Brosimum alicastrum ), sapodilla ( Manilkara zapota ), rosadillo ( Celtis monoica ), Bursera simaruba , Dendropanax arboreus , and Sideroxylon capiri . This ecoregion extends into

3060-547: The colossal stone heads . These ceremonial sites were the most complex of that early time period. For this reason, many anthropologists consider the Olmec civilization to be the mother culture of the many Mesoamerican cultures that followed it. By 300 BCE, this culture was eclipsed by other emerging civilizations in Mesoamerica. Another major group was the Totonacs, who have survived to the present day. Their region, called Totonacapan ,

3162-651: The " mestizo " or mixed European/indigenous ethnicities began, which is a large part of Mexican cultural identity. Arriving with the Spanish conquerors, new diseases made their first appearance in the continent. European diseases decimated the native population of the province, prompting the importation of African slaves during the colonial period, starting in the 16th century. The Spanish imported between 500,000 and 1,000,000 West African slaves into Mexico between 1535 and 1767 ( miscegenation between indigenous and African populations began almost immediately). New Spain did not have any laws prohibiting interracial marriage, hence

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3264-415: The 10th century BCE. Coe and Diehl originally suggested internal revolt or external conquest, but Diehl has since changed his mind. He now believes that the monuments were frequently recarved and reused before the collapse and the "mutilation" was simply the middle of that process. Warfare, environmental changes, economic decline, and the emergence of rival centers have all been suggested as possible causes for

3366-962: The Acultzingo, Córdoba, Maltrata, Orizaba and San Andrés. More than 40 rivers and tributaries provide water for irrigation and hydroelectric power; they also carry rich silt down from the eroding highlands, which is deposited in the valleys and coastal areas. All of the rivers and streams that cross the state begin in the Sierra Madre Oriental or in the Central Mesa, flowing east to the Gulf of Mexico. The important ones include: Actopan River , Acuatempan river, Río Blanco , Cazones River , Coatzacoalcos River , Río de La Antigua, Ayyappan River, Jamapa River , Nautla River, Pánuco River , Papaloapan River , Tecolutla River , Tonalá River , Tuxpan River and Xoloapa River . The largest in terms of water discharge are

3468-554: The Aztec Empire by Hernán Cortés and his expedition members. They founded Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz on May 18, 1519, as the first Spanish town in what is now Mexico. By doing so, Cortés threw off the authority of the Governor of Cuba, Diego Velázquez , claiming authority directly from the Spanish crown. A small contingent of the expedition remained at Veracruz, while the main body of conquerors moved inland. The Totonacs were some of

3570-718: The Cerro Cintepec volcano in the Tuxtla mountains. These sculptures were not only done for aesthetic beauty, but also symbolized the awe-inspiring way that the Olmec viewed their deities. It also showed the power the rulers had, because a successfully delivery of a stone or finished sculpture involved complex organization and the ability to order extreme amounts of labor. In the 1960s, Michael Coe and Richard Diehl conducted excavations on San Lorenzo and surrounding sites, and defined eight major phases of occupation. The Ojochi (ca. 1750–1550 BCE) and Bajío (ca. 1550–1450 BCE) phases constituted

3672-649: The Coatzacoalcos basin, areas to the east (such as the area where La Venta would rise to prominence) and north-northwest (such as the Tuxtla Mountains ) were home to independent polities. Built on some 700 hectares (1,700 acres) of high ground between then-active tributaries, the core of San Lorenzo covers 55 hectares (140 acres) that were further modified through extensive filling and leveling; by one estimate 500,000 to 2,000,000 cubic metres (18,000,000 to 71,000,000 cu ft) of earthen fill were needed, moved by

3774-469: The Cuadros phase (Early Olmec horizon), 15 percent of the carved pottery (Calzadas Carved) and nine percent of the incised pottery (Limón Incised) was imported from San Lorenzo area. At the same time, none of the San Lorenzo objects examined so far were found to be imports from any other area. The cause of San Lorenzo's demise and later replacement with La Venta is unknown, although it most certainly occurred in

3876-455: The French pushed on to establish the reign of Maximilian I of Mexico . However, this was short-lived and the French were expelled through Veracruz in 1866/67. In 1863, the state was officially named Veracruz-Llave. After the French were expelled, the state government was in the port of Veracruz. In 1878, the capital was transferred to Orizaba. It was later moved to Xalapa in 1885. By the end of

3978-566: The Late Formative Remplás phase (ca. 300–50 BCE), and while there was occupation in the surrounding area during the Early and Middle Classic periods, the site itself was not reoccupied until late in the Villa Alta phase (800–1000 CE). At the top of the plateau of San Lorenzo, massive thrones, colossal heads, and smaller sculptures of humans, felines, birds, and supernatural monsters proclaimed

4080-630: The Olmec history into four stages: Formation stage (1700–1300 BCE), Integration stage (1300–900 BCE) Expansion stage (900–300 BCE) and Disintegration stage (300 BCE – 200 CE). Another term archaeologists use is for categorizing the Olmecs is the Formative Period, meaning the pivotal years that laid the ground work for state-level complex societies. Formative Mesoamerica can be divided into three periods: Early Formative (1800–900 BCE), Middle Formative (900–400 BCE) and Late Formative (400 BCE – 200 CE). San Lorenzo

4182-658: The Pánuco, Tuxpan, Papaloapan, Coazocoalcos and Uxpanapa . The Panuco, Tuxpan, Papaloapan and Coatzacoalcos are navigable. Two of Mexico's most polluted rivers, the Coatzacoalcos and the Río Blanco are located in the state. Much of the pollution comes from industrial sources, but the discharge of sewerage and uncontrolled garbage disposal are also major contributors. The state has very few sewage treatment plants, with only 10% of sewage being treated before discharge. The state also has ten major waterfalls and ten major coastal lagoons. There

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4284-559: The Revolution, agrarian reform, including the redistribution of land and the creation of ejidos took place here. The oil companies in the north of the state were nationalized and consolidated into PEMEX in the 1930s by Lázaro Cárdenas . In the 1950s, more road construction, such as the Mexico City- Poza Rica, Veracruz-Alvarado- Coatzacoalco and Tinajas-Ciudad Aleman-Tlacoatalpan highways were constructed. The Universidad Veracruzana

4386-581: The Rio Blanco area. However, the gravest of these occurred in the Orizaba area, where there were about 500 fugitive slaves. In 1609, a leader named Gaspar Yanga led an insurrection against the Spanish but was defeated in battle. Unrest continued, eventually forcing the government to sign an amnesty pact and giving the Africans the right to form their own community, exacting as a condition that bandits be suppressed. This

4488-425: The Spanish crown rather than individual encomenderos . During the colonial era, Veracruz was the main port of entry for immigrants from Spain, African slaves , and all types of luxury goods for import and export. The first group of Franciscans arrived in Veracruz in 1524, walking barefoot to the capital of the Spanish colony of New Spain . The route between Veracruz and the Spanish capital of Mexico City, built on

4590-575: The Tecolutla flows about 100 kilometres (62 mi) east through the coastal plain and the municipalities of Papantla and Gutiérrez Zamora to its mouth at the town of Tecolutla on the Gulf of Mexico , On its south bank the Tecolutla receives the Joloapan River near Paso del Correo , and the Chichicatzapan River via the Ostiones estuary near its mouth. The furthest source of the Tecolutla

4692-643: The United States under the Monroe Doctrine , however, that nation was occupied with a Civil War at the time, and the European powers believed that the Americans could not act. In December, Spanish troops commanded by general Manuel Gasset occupied the port of Veracruz, without any local resistance, followed a month later by French and British forces. The Spanish and the British withdrew after making deals with Juárez, but

4794-461: The area for centuries before San Lorenzo developed into a regional center. San Lorenzo was the first Olmec site that demonstrates state level complexity. The site dominated the gulf coast lowlands, creating Olmec cultural diffusion throughout the rest of Mesoamerica. The iconic finds at the site are the famous colossal heads. The colossal heads stand up to 340 centimetres (130 in) tall. According to archaeological finds, archaeologists have divided

4896-516: The area's vegetation and crops such as cedars, fruit, cotton, cacao, corn, beans and vanilla. However, the Totonacs chafed under Aztec rule, with Aztec rulers from Axayacatl to Moctezuma II having to send soldiers to quell rebellions. The Huastecs were subjugated more successfully by the Aztecs and relegated to the provinces of Atlan and Tochpan. Veracruz played an important part in the Spanish conquest of

4998-492: The basketload. The rulers of San Lorenzo played a crucial role in integrating a population that changed the natural environment into sacred and secular landscapes for the glorification of the San Lorenzo polity. Archaeologists Michael Coe and Richard Diehl calculated that the 77 square kilometres (30 sq mi) area of San Lorenzo that they studied could produce approximately 500 metric tons (490 long tons; 550 short tons) of maize annually, enough to feed 5,556 people, more than

5100-422: The building of the fort of San Juan de Ulúa , a site Juan de Grijalva visited in 1518, and the fortification of the city overall. Much of Totonac and Huastec culture have survived the colonial period into the present day. Much of the reason for this is that the north of Veracruz is rugged with thick vegetation and relatively little of the resources the Spanish were looking for. Veracruz is considered to be where

5202-551: The capital city, the state's largest cities include Veracruz, Coatzacoalcos , Córdoba , Minatitlán , Poza Rica , Boca Del Río and Orizaba . The full name of the state is Veracruz de Ignacio de la Llave. Veracruz was named after the city of Veracruz (From Latin Vera Crux , " True Cross "), which was originally called the Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz . The suffix is in honor of Ignacio de la Llave y Segura Zevallos (1818–1863), who

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5304-582: The central part of the state, with vegetation changing to include mahogany ( Swietenia macrophylla ), sapodilla ( Manilkara zapota ), Bernoullia flammea , and Astronium graveolens . In the central part of the state, the Veracruz dry forests extend from the Sierra to the coast, south of the Sierra de Chiconquiaco . The Petén–Veracruz moist forests occupy the southern part of the state, and extend eastwards through neighboring Chiapas and Tabasco states into Guatemala. Veracruz has been described as having one of

5406-545: The century, many infrastructure improvements, such as roads and railways (especially the Ferrocarril Interoceánico ) had been completed with the major cities being Veracruz, Orizaba, Xalapa, Córdoba, Jalacingo , Chicontepec and Tantoyuca . The discovery of oil in the north of the state attracted foreign firms, which brought machinery needed for its extraction. These companies included Huasteca Company Petroleum and El Aguila along with American and English firms. During

5508-433: The correct term is Afro-Mestizo, which includes all 3 ethnicities: Indigenous, African, and Spanish. Runaway slaves ( cimarrones ) became problematic to public order since they frequently formed robber bands that attacked travelers on highways. Crown efforts against these groups began in earnest in the late sixteenth century, but a major rebellion broke out in 1606 in the areas of Villa Rica, Nueva Veracruz, Antón Lizardo, and

5610-537: The current port of Veracruz), when it was conquered by the Aztecs. When the Spaniards arrived in 1519, the territory was still home to a population of about 250,000 people living in fifty population centers and speaking four Totonac dialects. 25,000 were living in Cempoala alone. The Huastecs are in the far north of the Veracruz and extend into parts of Tamaulipas, Hidalgo, San Luis Potosí, Querétaro and Puebla. The language and agricultural techniques of these people and

5712-450: The deterioration of the forest areas, it is still an important stopover for migratory birds as well. Many endangered mammal species can be found here including two endemic rodents ( Peromyscus ochraventer and Neotoma angustapalata ), the jaguar ( Panthera onca ), ocelot ( Leopardus pardalis ), jaguarundi ( Herpailurus yaguarondi ) and white-nosed coati ( Nasua narica ). The endangered Baird's tapir may occasionally be spotted in

5814-402: The early conquest era, Cortés distributed the labor of indigenous settlements to particular conquerors in an institution known as encomienda . The indigenous ruler of the settlement was charged with mobilization labor and tribute that was due to the holder of the encomienda . Veracruz had a number of encomiendas that changed hands a number of times, but early on came under the direct control of

5916-430: The estimated population at the time. Residents of San Lorenzo also consumed domestic dog, snook, tarpon, mojarra, catfish, and turtles. Although some claim that manioc was cultivated here, no evidence for this has been found. San Lorenzo also boasted an elaborate drainage system which used buried, covered, channeled stones as a type of "pipe". Fresh spring water was available on the elevated lands, but not as available in

6018-568: The first people with whom the Spanish had contact on the American mainland. The very first contact was with Captain Juan de Grijalva on the coastline north of the present-day city of Veracruz. Still chafing under Aztec rule, Totonac ruler Tlacochcalcatl welcomed Hernán Cortés and promised 50,000 warriors to help defeat Tenochtitlan . The Spanish helped the Totonacs expel Aztec tribute collectors and seize control of some Aztec outposts. The Spanish founded

6120-567: The first time in the 1838, in what became the Pastry War . The port was blockaded. Efforts to defend the country were coordinated from Xalapa. The port was bombarded, but eventually a settlement was reached. During the Mexican–American War , the port was blockaded again, this time by the Americans. Initial American attempts in 1847 to land in Alvarado were checked, but the Americans then made

6222-622: The highest elevations, reaching up to the Cofre de Perote and the Pico de Orizaba. There is a small semiarid region around the city of Perote and the west of the Huasteca area. This is due to a rain shadow caused by the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt and the Sierra Madre Oriental , which do not permit the flow of moist Gulf air to this region. Various types of forest cover the state, but evergreen tropical forest dominate. The state's ecology

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6324-498: The independence movement in 1824. During the Mexican War of Independence , there was support for the insurgents in many parts of the state, with skirmishes erupting in various parts as early as 1811. A major conspiracy against the colonial government was discovered in the port in 1812, with rebels taking Ayahualulco and Ixhuacán during the same year. This forced royalist troops to withdraw to Xalapa. Eventually, this city along with

6426-408: The informal economy is a higher percentage of total economic activity in a municipio with a high share of indigenous people. While the formal economy might have been expanding relative to the informal economy in 2000, by 2006 this process had been reversed with growing informality. While rural municipios have smaller economies, they are not different from urban municipios in the share of the economy that

6528-569: The informal sector of the local economy in Veracruz state is shown to have grown during the period of the Fox Administration though the regional government remained PRI. The assumption that the informal economy of Mexico is a constant 30% of total economic activity is not supported at the local level. The small amount of local spatial autocorrelation that was found suggests a few clusters of high and low literacy rates amongst municipios in Veracruz but not enough to warrant including an I-statistic as

6630-543: The job. The governor, Teodora A. Dehesa, unsuccessfully tried to negotiate a settlement. The strike went on for months until the strikers won. This victory encouraged more actions, until strikes at the factories in Rio Blanco, Nogales, Santa Rosa and Contón de Orizaba resulted in dramatic violence in January 1907 . No major battles of the Mexican Revolution were fought in the state, though there were skirmishes and attacks on

6732-596: The landscape around San Lorenzo also include causeways or dikes. The two largest ones bordered ancient river courses at Potrero Nuevo and El Azuzul, respectively. These may have provided some measure of flood control and possible served as wharfs for loading and unloading canoes. Further archaeological study was conducted at the El Bajio section of El Remolino, a site in North San Lorenzo, by Carl J. Wendt. This, coupled with studies of more central San Lorenzo, revealed quite

6834-523: The last of the Spanish held on in San Juan de Ulúa, Agustín de Iturbide had been declared the emperor of Mexico in 1822. However, his reign quickly encountered resistance from those favoring a republican form of government, including from Antonio López de Santa Anna from his stronghold in Veracruz state. Months later, Iturbide would go into exile and Santa Anna would eventually hold nine terms as president. The French intervened in Mexico through Veracruz for

6936-594: The logging is due to commercial timber, search for tropical hardwoods and the clearing of land for local farmers, especially for cattle grazing. Only 20% of Veracruz's original ecosystem remains, with 64% transformed by human exploitation. Despite some efforts at conservation and reclamation, exploitation continues to put pressure on remaining wild areas. The state has 31 environmentally protected areas in 21 different municipalities. Nine are urban parks, three are national parks ( Pico de Orizaba , Cofre de Perote and San José de los Molinos ). The Cofre de Perote National Park

7038-411: The long coastline is narrow and sandy with unstable dunes, small shifting lagoons, and points. The mountains are of the Sierra Madre Oriental and the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt . Mountain ranges include the Sierra de Topila, Sierra de Otontepec, Sierra de Huayacocotla, Sierra de Coxquihui, Sierra de Chiconquiaco , Sierra de Jalacingo, Sierra de Axocuapan, Sierra de Huatusco, Sierra de Zongolica , and

7140-442: The lowlands. Long lines of U-shaped drain stones directed water to the edges of the plateau, which reflected how the rulers directed and controlled this precious resource. Some researchers have inferred that the purpose of this system was not only to provide drinking water for the population but for ritual purposes as well, and that the rulership was "intimately linked to the figure of a patron water supernatural". Matthew Stirling

7242-600: The main beef producer for the country at 14% of the total. In addition to beef cattle, dairy cattle, pigs, sheep, goats, horses, domestic fowl, and bees are raised. From the tropical forests of the inland regions come dyewoods , hardwoods, and rubber. About 20% of the state's territory is forested, with 220,000 of temperate forest and 1,200,000 hectares of tropical forests. Logging in the state produces 128,254 m3 of wood products per year. The most exploited species include pine, oyamel, cypress and oak. Some tropical hardwoods are harvested as well. Veracruz's long coastline supports

7344-413: The midst of a large agricultural area. San Lorenzo seems to have been largely a ceremonial site, a town without city walls, centered in the midst of a widespread medium-to-large agricultural population. The ceremonial center and attendant buildings could have housed 5,500 while the entire area, including hinterlands, could have reached 13,000. It is thought that while San Lorenzo controlled much or all of

7446-488: The modern village of the same name at the northern end of the island, and Potero Nuevo occupies a hill east of the plateau. Another large site occupies the Loma del Zapote, a long ridge extending southward from the plateau, which includes the locality known as El Azuzul at its southern tip. The archaeological sites of San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán can be visited Monday to Sunday, from 8:00 to 15:00 hours local time. The San Lorenzo site

7548-406: The most kinds. This occupies 180,577 hectares and produces 2,575,140 tons annually. Varieties include oranges, tangerines, mandarins , limes and grapefruit. Most citrus is grown in the north of the state, and much of the lime crop is exported, supporting a packing and shipping industry. Veracruz is the largest mango producer in the country, grown on 31,640 hectares producing 287,000 tons. Most of this

7650-473: The nearby present-day villages, and refers to the entire complex of sites. Matthew Stirling gave the name San Lorenzo Tenochtitlan to a cluster of three settlements on an island in the swamps and marshes west of the Coatzacoalcos. San Lorenzo proper occupies the slopes and summit of a plateau that rises 50 m above the floodplain of the Coatzacoalcos River. The archaeological site of Tenochtitlán lies within

7752-525: The north, while the Totonacs resided in the north-center. The Olmecs , one of the oldest cultures in the Americas, became dominant in the southern part of Veracruz. Remains of these past civilizations can be found in archeological sites such as Pánuco, Castillo de Teayo , El Zapotal, Las Higueras, Quiahuiztlán, El Tajín , Cempoala , Tres Zapotes and San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán . The first major civilization in

7854-572: The port city of Veracruz on the coast, as the first municipality under the direct control of the king of Spain. Cortés then began his march inland to Tenochtitlan. During the Conquest , the rest of the Totonac peoples allied themselves with the Spanish, but the Huastecs, despite also being under Aztec rule, fought against them. After the fall of Tenochtitlan, Cortés sent a regiment to subdue the Huastecs. During

7956-400: The port more important than it had been, and led to increased prosperity for the inhabitants. Outside of the port, in other areas of the province, the economy was based on agriculture, livestock, and commerce. In 1720, Xalapa organized the first trade fair, making it the center for trade between inland Mexican goods and those from abroad. This would lead to its eventual status as the capital of

8058-491: The port were cut off from Mexico City. Most of the state remained in rebel hands during the rest of the war although the commercial class of the port did not support the effort. In 1821, Juan de O'Donojú , the last viceroy of New Spain, came to the port to leave for Spain. However, until 1823, Spanish troops continued to occupy San Juan de Ulúa Fort. In 1826, the city would receive the first of its four titles of "heroic city" for confronting these remaining Spanish troops. While

8160-465: The port. By 1914 rebel Cándido Agular occupied a number of municipalities in the state and in 1917, Venustiano Carranza transferred the federal government here temporarily. On April 21, 1914, an incident involving U.S. sailors in Tampico led President Woodrow Wilson to land American troops in Veracruz, where they remained for six months. Mexico later responded by severing diplomatic relations. After

8262-456: The power of its rulers and its sacred source. Most of these sculptures were carved from imported basalt. The elites of San Lorenzo lived in large structures raised on low clay platforms amid the monuments that legitimized their authority. An elite residence named the "Red Palace" had earthen walls and floors, which were plastered with sand stained by hematite. Massive columns that were 4 metres (13 ft) tall and carved out of basalt supported

8364-695: The pre-Olmec Initial Formative sequence. In the Early Formative Chicharras phase (ca. 1450–1400 BCE) more characteristically Olmec artifacts appear on the site. San Lorenzo rose to the height of its power in the San Lorenzo phase (ca. 1400–1000 BCE). However, it suffered a decline in the beginning of the Middle Formative period. This period encompasses the Nacaste (ca. 1000–800 BCE) and the Palangana (ca. 800–400 BCE) phases. Its population declined further in

8466-583: The purely indigenous population continued to fall to a fraction of pre-Conquest levels (due now to mixing, rather than disease). Almost all trade in and out of New Spain had to be with Spain except for some limited trade authorized with England and other Spanish colonies. This would stay in place until 1778, when the Decreto de Libre Comercio , allowing a limited free trade within Spanish-held realms, lifted many of these restrictions on trade with Europe. This would make

8568-667: The richest varieties of wildlife in the western hemisphere. There is an especially diverse array of endemic insects like the conspicuous Arsenura armida . As well as insects, the state is known for its many arachnids, and features over 25 species of tarantula (Theraphosidae), of which many are endemic. The state is part of Birdlife International ’s Endemic Bird Area(EBA) project due to the number of endemic birds here. Some of these include green-cheeked amazon ( Amazona viridigenalis ), Tamaulipas crow ( Corvus imparatus ), Altamira yellowthroat ( Geothlypis flavovelata ) and crimson-collared grosbeak ( Rhodothraupis celaeno ). Despite much of

8670-524: The same time period, uprisings against the government under Porfirio Díaz in the agricultural south of the state were brutally repressed. Unrest against the Díaz regime continued until the outbreak of the Mexican Revolution ousted him from power. The major event leading up to this war in Veracruz was the cigar-makers strike of 1905, when more than 5,000 workers of the "El Valle Nacional" company walked off

8772-414: The second volume of his book silenced his critics. The archaeological work recommenced in 1990, putting emphasis on the establishment pattern of community and regional levels (" en el patrón de asentamiento en los niveles de comunidad y de región ". The original Olmec name of the area, like all of the Olmec language, is unknown. The name "San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán" was coined by Stirling in 1955, taken from

8874-517: The site of the Aztec capital Tenochtitlan , was the key trade route during the colonial era. Much of the history of the state is involved with the port city that Cortés founded in 1519. Veracruz became the principal and often only port to export and import goods between the colony of New Spain and Spain itself. To ensure the port's monopoly, it came to have control over almost all of New Spain's Gulf coastline. New Spain's silver and cochineal red dye, were

8976-438: The slopes of the plateau, stepping down to a level 40 m below the summit. Their houses were thatched wattle–and-daub houses. Impressive amounts of labor went into building the San Lorenzo terraces. One of these terraces was held in place by a 7-metre (23 ft) high retaining wall. It is unclear if these terraces and houses were ordered to be constructed by rulers, or initiated by a group of commoners. Landscape modifications to

9078-581: The southeast portion of the Mexican state of Veracruz . Along with La Venta and Tres Zapotes , it was one of the three major cities of the Olmec , and the major center of Olmec culture from 1400 BCE to 900 BCE. San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán is best known today for the colossal stone heads unearthed there, the greatest of which weigh 28 metric tons (28 long tons; 31 short tons) or more and are 3 metres (9.8 ft) high. The site isn’t to be confused with Tenochtitlan ,

9180-530: The state but were repelled from both the port and Xalapa. The Reform War wrecked Mexico's economy and it found itself unable to pay debts it owed to Europe. As a result, Juárez cancelled Mexico's foreign debt. Spain, Britain and France, all outraged by this action, decided in October 1861 to force repayment of their loans by the occupation of the Mexican Gulf Coast. Normally, this move would have been blocked by

9282-640: The state its final form. In 1855, the State Government Palace was constructed. During the Reform War , the major player was Ignacio de la Llave whose name is part of the state's official designation. In 1858, the port became the site for the liberal government under Benito Juárez after he was forced out of Mexico City during the Reform War. Their control of this port and its customs duties allowed liberal forces to gather resources. Conservative forces attacked

9384-435: The state's southern jungle regions, such as Biósfera Los Tuxtlas . This region is also the northernmost extent of the primate Alouatta palliata , or mantled howler . Most of Veracruz's native forests have been destroyed and replaced by scrub and secondary communities of trees. From 1900 to 1987, over 18,553 km (7,163.4 sq mi) of forest had been logged, resulting in the loss of habitat and biodiversity. Much of

9486-476: The state. In 1746, the state was divided into the civil jurisdictions of Pánuco, Tampico, Huayacocotla, Huauchinango, Papantla, Misantla, Xalapa, Jalacingo, Veracruz, Córdoba, Orizaba, Cosamaloapan, Tuxtla, and Cotaxtla. The port city of Veracruz, and the fort of San Juan de Ulúa, where Cortés landed three hundred years earlier, was where the loyalist soldiers of the Spanish Crown made their last stand against

9588-586: The states of Tamaulipas (to the north), Oaxaca and Chiapas (to the south), Tabasco (to the southeast), and Puebla , Hidalgo , and San Luis Potosí (on the west). Veracruz has 690 km (429 mi) of coastline with the Gulf of Mexico. The natural geography can be categorized into nine regions: The Sierra de Zongolica , the Tecolutla Region, the Huayacocotla Region, the Metlac River area,

9690-559: The structure's roof, and L-shaped basalt benches are thought to have been used as step coverings. Blocks of bentonite clay and limestone have been found in the debris, and may have been used in the walls. Several structures had walls that were made of thick mud and 40 centimetres (16 in) thick, and lacked post-molds. They were evidently constructed using a rammed earth technique. Other structures employed bentonite masonry fixed with mud mortar. Floors were made of gravel or packed earth, or paved with bentonite blocks. The common folk lived on

9792-531: The territory of the current state was that of the Olmecs. The Olmecs lived in the Coatzacoalcos River region and it became the center of Olmec culture. The main ceremonial center here was San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán. Other major centers in the state include Tres Zapotes in the city of Veracruz and La Venta in Tabasco. The culture reached its height about 2600 years ago, with its best-known artistic expression being

9894-456: The two most important exports from the port, along with chocolate, vanilla, chili peppers, and much more were exported. Imported were livestock (sheep, cows, goats, horses), wheat and other cultivars. From the Caribbean, slaves, pineapple, and sugar cane were introduced. This made the port a highly prized target for pirates during the colonial period, with attacks and sackings frequent. This led to

9996-421: Was called San Lorenzo de Zerral but today it is known as the municipality of Yanga . This was the first time slavery was abolished in the Americas. In the first half of the seventeenth century, cities such as Córdoba , Orizaba , and Xalapa were formed or expanded to protect the trade route between Mexico City and the port of Veracruz. During this time, the Spanish and mixed-ethnicities population increased as

10098-585: Was expanded as well. In 1960, the Museum of Anthropology in Xalapa was inaugurated as well as the Coatzacoalco- Salina Cruz highway. The Veracruz city international airport was opened in the 1970s. In the ten years after 2006, at least 3,600 people have disappeared within the state. Multiple mass graves have been found within the state. This is seen as part of the over 28,000 missing individuals related to

10200-399: Was the first to begin excavations on the site after a visit in 1938. Between 1946 and 1970, four archaeological projects were undertaken, including one Yale University study headed by Michael Coe and Richard Diehl conducted between 1966 and 1968, followed by a lull until 1990. Coe's research faced criticism from ecologically minded archaeologists, although his ecological study of San Lorenzo in

10302-461: Was the governor of Veracruz from 1861 to 1862. The state's seal was authorized by the state legislature in 1954, adapting the one used for the port of Veracruz and created by the Spanish in the early colonial days of the 16th century. The history of the native peoples of the state of Veracruz is complex. In the pre-Columbian period, the modern-day state of Veracruz was inhabited primarily by four indigenous cultures. The Huastecs and Otomis occupied

10404-407: Was the largest city in Mesoamerica from roughly 1200 BCE until 900 BCE, at which time it had begun to be overtaken by the Olmec center of La Venta . By 800 BCE, there was little or no population, although there was an important recolonization of the San Lorenzo plateau from 600 to 400 BCE and again from circa 800 to 1000 CE. In contrast to La Venta's swamp-like environs, San Lorenzo was situated in

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