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52-546: The Rincon Valley Formation is a geologic formation found in the Rincon Valley of New Mexico . It preserves fossils dating back to the Miocene epoch and records a time when the valley was a closed basin , just before being integrated into the ancestral Rio Grande River . The formation consists of pink to reddish-brown gypsiferous claystone and siltstone ; conglomerate ; and conglomeratic sandstone . The thickness

104-442: A petrographic microscope . Microstructural analysis finds application also in multi-scale statistical analysis, aimed to analyze some rock features showing scale invariance. Geologists use rock geometry measurements to understand the history of strain in rocks. Strain can take the form of brittle faulting and ductile folding and shearing. Brittle deformation takes place in the shallow crust, and ductile deformation takes place in

156-406: A changed structure. Elastic deformation refers to a reversible deformation. In other words, when stress on the rock is released, the rock returns to its original shape. Reversible, linear, elasticity involves the stretching, compressing, or distortion of atomic bonds. Because there is no breaking of bonds, the material springs back when the force is released. This type of deformation is modeled using

208-514: A combination of structural geology and geomorphology . In addition, areas of karst landscapes which reside atop caverns, potential sinkholes, or other collapse features are of particular importance for these scientists. In addition, areas of steep slopes are potential collapse or landslide hazards. Environmental geologists and hydrogeologists need to apply the tenets of structural geology to understand how geologic sites impact (or are impacted by) groundwater flow and penetration. For instance,

260-401: A fold axial plane is measured in strike and dip or dip and dip direction. Lineations are measured in terms of dip and dip direction, if possible. Often lineations occur expressed on a planar surface and can be difficult to measure directly. In this case, the lineation may be measured from the horizontal as a rake or pitch upon the surface. Rake is measured by placing a protractor flat on

312-637: A framework to analyze and understand global, regional, and local scale features. Structural geologists use a variety of methods to (first) measure rock geometries, (second) reconstruct their deformational histories, and (third) estimate the stress field that resulted in that deformation. Primary data sets for structural geology are collected in the field. Structural geologists measure a variety of planar features ( bedding planes , foliation planes , fold axial planes, fault planes , and joints), and linear features (stretching lineations, in which minerals are ductilely extended; fold axes; and intersection lineations,

364-430: A hydrogeologist may need to determine if seepage of toxic substances from waste dumps is occurring in a residential area or if salty water is seeping into an aquifer . Plate tectonics is a theory developed during the 1960s which describes the movement of continents by way of the separation and collision of crustal plates. It is in a sense structural geology on a planet scale, and is used throughout structural geology as

416-491: A letter (S A , for instance). In cases where there is a bedding-plane foliation caused by burial metamorphism or diagenesis this may be enumerated as S0a. If there are folds, these are numbered as F 1 , F 2 , etc. Generally the axial plane foliation or cleavage of a fold is created during folding, and the number convention should match. For example, an F 2 fold should have an S 2 axial foliation. Deformations are numbered according to their order of formation with

468-453: A linear relationship between stress and strain, i.e. a Hookean relationship. Where σ denotes stress, ϵ {\displaystyle \epsilon } denotes strain, and E is the elastic modulus , which is material dependent. The elastic modulus is, in effect, a measure of the strength of atomic bonds. Plastic deformation refers to non-reversible deformation. The relationship between stress and strain for permanent deformation

520-442: A material's resistance to cracking. During plastic deformation, a material absorbs energy until fracture occurs. The area under the stress-strain curve is the work required to fracture the material. The toughness modulus is defined as: Where σ U T S {\displaystyle \sigma _{UTS}} is the ultimate tensile strength, and ϵ f {\displaystyle \epsilon _{f}}

572-526: A newly designated formation could not be named the Kaibab Formation, since the Kaibab Limestone is already established as a formation name. The first use of a name has precedence over all others, as does the first name applied to a particular formation. As with other stratigraphic units, the formal designation of a formation includes a stratotype which is usually a type section . A type section

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624-1074: A particular area with respect to regionally widespread patterns of rock deformation (e.g., mountain building , rifting ) due to plate tectonics . The study of geologic structures has been of prime importance in economic geology , both petroleum geology and mining geology . Folded and faulted rock strata commonly form traps that accumulate and concentrate fluids such as petroleum and natural gas . Similarly, faulted and structurally complex areas are notable as permeable zones for hydrothermal fluids, resulting in concentrated areas of base and precious metal ore deposits. Veins of minerals containing various metals commonly occupy faults and fractures in structurally complex areas. These structurally fractured and faulted zones often occur in association with intrusive igneous rocks . They often also occur around geologic reef complexes and collapse features such as ancient sinkholes . Deposits of gold , silver , copper , lead , zinc , and other metals, are commonly located in structurally complex areas. Structural geology

676-594: A permanent natural or artificial feature of the geographic area in which they were first described. The name consists of the geographic name plus either "Formation" or a descriptive name. Examples include the Morrison Formation , named for the town of Morrison, Colorado , and the Kaibab Limestone , named after the Kaibab Plateau of Arizona. The names must not duplicate previous formation names, so, for example,

728-442: A rake, and annotated as to the indication of throw on the fault. Generally it is easier to record strike and dip information of planar structures in dip/dip direction format as this will match all the other structural information you may be recording about folds, lineations, etc., although there is an advantage to using different formats that discriminate between planar and linear data. The convention for analysing structural geology

780-522: A region or predict likely locations for buried mineral resources. The boundaries of a formation are chosen to give it the greatest practical lithological consistency. Formations should not be defined by any criteria other than lithology. The lithology of a formation includes characteristics such as chemical and mineralogical composition, texture, color, primary depositional structures , fossils regarded as rock-forming particles, or other organic materials such as coal or kerogen . The taxonomy of fossils

832-454: A single lithology (rock type), or of alternating beds of two or more lithologies, or even a heterogeneous mixture of lithologies, so long as this distinguishes them from adjacent bodies of rock. The concept of a geologic formation goes back to the beginnings of modern scientific geology. The term was used by Abraham Gottlob Werner in his theory of the origin of the Earth, which was developed over

884-440: A subscript S, for example L s1 to differentiate them from intersection lineations, though this is generally redundant. Stereographic projection is a method for analyzing the nature and orientation of deformation stresses, lithological units and penetrative fabrics wherein linear and planar features (structural strike and dip readings, typically taken using a compass clinometer ) passing through an imagined sphere are plotted on

936-431: A two-dimensional grid projection, facilitating more holistic analysis of a set of measurements. Stereonet developed by Richard W. Allmendinger is widely used in the structural geology community. On a large scale, structural geology is the study of the three-dimensional interaction and relationships of stratigraphic units within terranes of rock or geological regions. This branch of structural geology deals mainly with

988-449: Is not a valid lithological basis for defining a formation. The contrast in lithology between formations required to justify their establishment varies with the complexity of the geology of a region. Formations must be able to be delineated at the scale of geologic mapping normally practiced in the region; the thickness of formations may range from less than a meter to several thousand meters. Geologic formations are typically named after

1040-698: Is 610 meters (2,000 ft). The formation is exposed in the badlands bordering the Rio Grande valley north of Las Cruces, New Mexico . It grades below into the Hayner Ranch Formation and unconformably underlies the Camp Rice Formation . It is interbedded with flows of the Selden Basalt Member with a radiometric age of 9.6 million years. The formation consists of two facies representing different depositional environments. The first

1092-475: Is a critical part of engineering geology , which is concerned with the physical and mechanical properties of natural rocks. Structural fabrics and defects such as faults, folds, foliations and joints are internal weaknesses of rocks which may affect the stability of human engineered structures such as dams , road cuts, open pit mines and underground mines or road tunnels . Geotechnical risk, including earthquake risk can only be investigated by inspecting

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1144-409: Is a fine-grained gypsiferous slope-forming facies interpreted as playa deposits in a closed basin. This contains gypsum beds up to 2 feet (0.61 m) thick. The second facies, which forms the upper 180 feet (55 m) of the formation, is a more resistant poorly sorted conglomerate interpreted as piedmont deposits, eroded from the uplifts that bordered the basin. The formation is interpreted as

1196-406: Is a measure of the elastic energy absorbed of a material under stress. In other words, the external work performed on a material during deformation. The area under the elastic portion of the stress-strain curve is the strain energy absorbed per unit volume. The resilience modulus is defined as: where σ y {\displaystyle \sigma _{y}} is the yield strength of

1248-423: Is absolute. Dip direction is measured in 360 degrees, generally clockwise from North. For example, a dip of 45 degrees towards 115 degrees azimuth, recorded as 45/115. Note that this is the same as above. The term hade is occasionally used and is the deviation of a plane from vertical i.e. (90°-dip). Fold axis plunge is measured in dip and dip direction (strictly, plunge and azimuth of plunge). The orientation of

1300-503: Is also used informally to describe the odd shapes (forms) that rocks acquire through erosional or depositional processes. Such a formation is abandoned when it is no longer affected by the geologic agent that produced it. Some well-known cave formations include stalactites and stalagmites . Structural geology Structural geology is the study of the three-dimensional distribution of rock units with respect to their deformational histories. The primary goal of structural geology

1352-444: Is becoming increasingly important. 2D and 3D models of structural systems such as anticlines, synclines, fold and thrust belts, and other features can help better understand the evolution of a structure through time. Without modeling or interpretation of the subsurface, geologists are limited to their knowledge of the surface geological mapping. If only reliant on the surface geology, major economic potential could be missed by overlooking

1404-560: Is central to the geologic discipline of stratigraphy , and the formation is the fundamental unit of stratigraphy. Formations may be combined into groups of strata or divided into members . Members differ from formations in that they need not be mappable at the same scale as formations, though they must be lithologically distinctive where present. The definition and recognition of formations allow geologists to correlate geologic strata across wide distances between outcrops and exposures of rock strata . Formations were at first described as

1456-455: Is ideally a good exposure of the formation that shows its entire thickness. If the formation is nowhere entirely exposed, or if it shows considerably lateral variation, additional reference sections may be defined. Long-established formations dating to before the modern codification of stratigraphy, or which lack tabular form (such as volcanic formations), may substitute a type locality for a type section as their stratotype. The geologist defining

1508-420: Is nonlinear. Stress has caused permanent change of shape in the material by involving the breaking of bonds. One mechanism of plastic deformation is the movement of dislocations by an applied stress. Because rocks are essentially aggregates of minerals, we can think of them as poly-crystalline materials. Dislocations are a type of crystallographic defect which consists of an extra or missing half plane of atoms in

1560-480: Is the strain at failure. The modulus is the maximum amount of energy per unit volume a material can absorb without fracturing. From the equation for modulus, for large toughness, high strength and high ductility are needed. These two properties are usually mutually exclusive. Brittle materials have low toughness because low plastic deformation decreases the strain (low ductility). Ways to measure toughness include: Page impact machine and Charpy impact test . Resilience

1612-437: Is to identify the planar structures , often called planar fabrics because this implies a textural formation, the linear structures and, from analysis of these, unravel deformations . Planar structures are named according to their order of formation, with original sedimentary layering the lowest at S0. Often it is impossible to identify S0 in highly deformed rocks, so numbering may be started at an arbitrary number or given

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1664-406: Is to use measurements of present-day rock geometries to uncover information about the history of deformation ( strain ) in the rocks, and ultimately, to understand the stress field that resulted in the observed strain and geometries. This understanding of the dynamics of the stress field can be linked to important events in the geologic past; a common goal is to understand the structural evolution of

1716-441: Is uniform in composition and structure, then the surface of the material is only a few atomic layers thick, and measurements are of the bulk material. Thus, simple surface measurements yield information about the bulk properties. Ways to measure hardness include: Indentation hardness is used often in metallurgy and materials science and can be thought of as resistance to penetration by an indenter. Toughness can be described best by

1768-487: The deeper crust, where temperatures and pressures are higher. By understanding the constitutive relationships between stress and strain in rocks, geologists can translate the observed patterns of rock deformation into a stress field during the geologic past. The following list of features are typically used to determine stress fields from deformational structures. For economic geology such as petroleum and mineral development, as well as research, modeling of structural geology

1820-550: The essential geologic time markers, based on their relative ages and the law of superposition . The divisions of the geological time scale were described and put in chronological order by the geologists and stratigraphers of the 18th and 19th centuries. Geologic formations can be usefully defined for sedimentary rock layers, low-grade metamorphic rocks , and volcanic rocks . Intrusive igneous rocks and highly metamorphosed rocks are generally not considered to be formations, but are described instead as lithodemes . "Formation"

1872-464: The final filling of the closed basin. During its deposition, tectonic deformation continued along the Rio Grande rift , of which the basin was a part. Some 854 meters (2,802 ft) of displacement occurring along the Caballo Mountains border faults on the west side of the basin. The Sierra de las Uvas and Dona Ana Mountains to the south and southeast were first thrown during deposition of

1924-522: The formation is expected to describe the stratotype in sufficient detail that other geologists can unequivocally recognize the formation. Although formations should not be defined by any criteria other than primary lithology, it is often useful to define biostratigraphic units on paleontological criteria, chronostratigraphic units on the age of the rocks, and chemostratigraphic units on geochemical criteria, and these are included in stratigraphic codes. The concept of formally defined layers or strata

1976-467: The formation of structure of rock under the earth are the stress and strain fields. Stress is a pressure, defined as a directional force over area. When a rock is subjected to stresses, it changes shape. When the stress is released, the rock may or may not return to its original shape. That change in shape is quantified by strain, the change in length over the original length of the material in one dimension. Stress induces strain which ultimately results in

2028-584: The formation, of Hemphillian age, in agreement with the age of the formation from radiometric dating. The formation was first defined by W.R. Seager and coinvestigators in 1971, and assigned to the Santa Fe Group . Formation (geology) A formation must be large enough that it can be mapped at the surface or traced in the subsurface. Formations are otherwise not defined by the thickness of their rock strata, which can vary widely. They are usually, but not universally, tabular in form. They may consist of

2080-551: The formation, with a displacement of about 549 meters (1,801 ft) on the bounding fault of the Sierra de las Ulvas block. Study of this and other Cenozoic formations in the region has helped provide evidence for four episodes of block faulting in the Rio Grande rift in the last 35 million years. The formation is largely devoid of fossils. However, a single carpal bone of the rhinoceros Teleoceras fossiger has been recovered from

2132-580: The intersection lineation of a S 1 cleavage and bedding is the L 1-0 intersection lineation (also known as the cleavage-bedding lineation). Stretching lineations may be difficult to quantify, especially in highly stretched ductile rocks where minimal foliation information is preserved. Where possible, when correlated with deformations (as few are formed in folds, and many are not strictly associated with planar foliations), they may be identified similar to planar surfaces and folds, e.g.; L 1 , L 2 . For convenience some geologists prefer to annotate them with

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2184-401: The letter D denoting a deformation event. For example, D 1 , D 2 , D 3 . Folds and foliations, because they are formed by deformation events, should correlate with these events. For example, an F 2 fold, with an S 2 axial plane foliation would be the result of a D 2 deformation. Metamorphic events may span multiple deformations. Sometimes it is useful to identify them similarly to

2236-631: The nature of rocks imaged to be in the deep crust. Rock microstructure or texture of rocks is studied by structural geologists on a small scale to provide detailed information mainly about metamorphic rocks and some features of sedimentary rocks , most often if they have been folded. Textural study involves measurement and characterisation of foliations , crenulations , metamorphic minerals, and timing relationships between these structural features and mineralogical features. Usually this involves collection of hand specimens, which may be cut to provide petrographic thin sections which are analysed under

2288-478: The oil, gas and mineral exploration industries as structures such as faults, folds and unconformities are primary controls on ore mineralisation and oil traps. Modern regional structure is being investigated using seismic tomography and seismic reflection in three dimensions, providing unrivaled images of the Earth's interior, its faults and the deep crust. Further information from geophysics such as gravity and airborne magnetics can provide information on

2340-448: The orientation, deformation and relationships of stratigraphy (bedding), which may have been faulted, folded or given a foliation by some tectonic event. This is mainly a geometric science, from which cross sections and three-dimensional block models of rocks, regions, terranes and parts of the Earth's crust can be generated. Study of regional structure is important in understanding orogeny , plate tectonics and more specifically in

2392-475: The period from 1774 to his death in 1817. The concept became increasingly formalized over time and is now codified in such works as the North American Stratigraphic Code and its counterparts in other regions. Geologic maps showing where various formations are exposed at the surface are fundamental to such fields as structural geology , allowing geologists to infer the tectonic history of

2444-414: The periodic array of atoms that make up a crystal lattice. Dislocations are present in all real crystallographic materials. Hardness is difficult to quantify. It is a measure of resistance to deformation, specifically permanent deformation. There is precedent for hardness as a surface quality, a measure of the abrasiveness or surface-scratching resistance of a material. If the material being tested, however,

2496-406: The planar surface, with the flat edge horizontal and measuring the angle of the lineation clockwise from horizontal. The orientation of the lineation can then be calculated from the rake and strike-dip information of the plane it was measured from, using a stereographic projection . If a fault has lineations formed by movement on the plane, e.g.; slickensides , this is recorded as a lineation, with

2548-428: The rock went through to get to that final structure. Knowing the conditions of deformation that lead to such structures can illuminate the history of the deformation of the rock. Temperature and pressure play a huge role in the deformation of rock. At the conditions under the earth's crust of extreme high temperature and pressure, rocks are ductile . They can bend, fold or break. Other vital conditions that contribute to

2600-402: The structural and tectonic history of the area. The mechanical properties of rock play a vital role in the structures that form during deformation deep below the earth's crust. The conditions in which a rock is present will result in different structures that geologists observe above ground in the field. The field of structural geology tries to relate the formations that humans see to the changes

2652-465: The structural features for which they are responsible, e.g.; M 2 . This may be possible by observing porphyroblast formation in cleavages of known deformation age, by identifying metamorphic mineral assemblages created by different events, or via geochronology . Intersection lineations in rocks, as they are the product of the intersection of two planar structures, are named according to the two planar structures from which they are formed. For instance,

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2704-534: The trace of a planar feature on another planar surface). The inclination of a planar structure in geology is measured by strike and dip . The strike is the line of intersection between the planar feature and a horizontal plane, taken according to the right hand convention, and the dip is the magnitude of the inclination, below horizontal, at right angles to strike. For example; striking 25 degrees East of North, dipping 45 degrees Southeast, recorded as N25E,45SE. Alternatively, dip and dip direction may be used as this

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