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110-502: The Richardson Institute for Peace Studies was the first peace & conflict research centre in the UK and one of the first in the world. It is part of the Department of Politics, Philosophy, and Religion at Lancaster University , where its members publish research, hold lectures and workshops, and run academic outreach programmes. The Richardson Institute began as an independent organisation,

220-579: A basic text that became set reading for many introductory peace studies courses. As a result of this new activity, the institute was given the more general trade name of the Richardson Institute for Peace Studies . As the institute shared more of the Politics Department’s day-to-day teaching responsibilities, its other activities declined. With funding from the Arts and Humanities Research Council ,

330-543: A broad consensus (in developed world and the Global South) on the importance of human security , human rights, development, democracy, and a rule of law (though there is a vibrant debate ongoing about the contextual variations and applications of these frameworks). At the same time, the research field is characterized by a number of challenges including the tension between "the objective of doing critical research and being of practical relevance". Gender studies This

440-669: A bygone era. Most academics in the area argue that the accusations are incorrect that peace studies approaches are not objective, and derived from mainly leftist or inexpert sources, are not practical, support violence rather than reject it, or have not led to policy developments. The development of UN and major donor policies (including the EU, US, and UK, as well as many others including those of Japan, Canada, Norway, etc.) towards and in conflict and post-conflict countries have been heavily influenced by such debates. A range of key policy documents and responses have been developed by these governments in

550-513: A community based on reliable and useful information. The concepts of interim peace and sustainable peace is one approach for analyzing peace processes. Interim peace refers to agreements achieved under conditions of duress or imminent threat, providing only short-term cessation of hostilities without addressing underlying conflicts. In contrast, sustainable peace emerges from equitable agreements that consider long-term implications for all stakeholders, fostering lasting stability and justice. The case of

660-496: A conference organized by Quakers in Clarens, Switzerland. Among the original executive committee was Johan Galtung . The IPRA holds a biennial conference. Research presented at its conferences and in its publications typically focuses on institutional and historical approaches, seldom employing quantitative techniques. In 2001, the Peace and Justice Studies Association (PJSA) was formed as

770-462: A critical way, to develop gender studies. According to J. B. Marchand, "The gender studies and queer theory are rather reluctant, hostile to see the psychoanalytic approach." For Jean-Claude Guillebaud , gender studies (and activists of sexual minorities) "besieged" and consider psychoanalysis and psychoanalysts as "the new priests, the last defenders of the genital normality, morality, moralism or even obscurantism". Judith Butler 's worries about

880-609: A film club. Its present aim is to become an international partner of choice for universities and to improve the public understanding of peace. Since 2012 the institute has published on such diverse topics as Indo-Pak relations , sexuality in the Anglican Church , and maritime cyber operations , and the ESRC has rated its research as outstanding. Peace and conflict studies In contrast with strategic studies or war studies , which focus on traditionally realist objectives based on

990-524: A generation of feminist authors to reply with texts of their own". Griselda Pollock and other feminists have articulated Myth and poetry and literature, from the point of view of gender. The emergence of post-modernism theories affected gender studies, causing a movement in identity theories away from the concept of fixed or essentialist gender identity, to post-modern fluid or multiple identities. The impact of post-structuralism , and its literary theory aspect post-modernism, on gender studies

1100-514: A heavy importance of what defines a woman comes from the workforce. In these countries, "gender related challenges tend to be related to economic empowerment, employment, and workplace issues, for example related to informal sector workers, feminization of migration flows, work place conditions, and long term social security". However, in countries who are less economically stable, such as Papua New Guinea , Timor Leste , Laos , Cambodia , and some provinces in more remote locations, "women tend to bear

1210-475: A history of women's suffrage ) and social history , women's fiction , women's health , feminist psychoanalysis and the feminist and gender studies-influenced practice of most of the humanities and social sciences . Men's studies is an interdisciplinary academic field devoted to topics concerning men , gender , and politics . It often includes feminist theory, men's history and social history , men's fiction, men's health , feminist psychoanalysis and

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1320-612: A legitimate consideration in human rights protection and promotion. Gender studies programs were banned in Hungary in October 2018. In a statement released by Hungarian Prime Minister Viktor Orbán 's office, a spokesperson stated that "The government's standpoint is that people are born either male or female, and we do not consider it acceptable for us to talk about socially constructed genders rather than biological sexes." The ban has attracted criticism from several European universities which offer

1430-613: A liberal arts college associated with the Church of the Brethren . It was not until the late 1960s in the United States that student concerns about the Vietnam War forced ever more universities to offer courses about peace, whether in a designated peace studies course or as a course within a traditional major. Work by academics such as Johan Galtung and John Burton , and debates in fora such as

1540-533: A long-standing debate on disarmament issues, as well as attempts to investigate, catalogue, and analyse issues relating to arms production, trade, and their political impacts. There have also been attempt to map the economic costs of war, or of relapses into violence, as opposed to those of peace. Peace and conflict studies is now well established within the social sciences : it comprises many scholarly journals, college and university departments, peace research institutes, conferences, as well as outside recognition of

1650-452: A number of scholars and "statebuilding" by another is based largely on the work that has been carried out in this area. Many scholars in the area have advocated a more "emancipatory" form of peacebuilding, however, based upon a " Responsibility to Protect " (R2P), human security, local ownership and participation in such processes, especially after the limited success of liberal peacebuilding/ statebuilding in places as diverse as Cambodia ,

1760-1281: A peace studies program are the Quakers , Mennonites , Church of the Brethren , and United Church of Christ . One hundred fifteen of these programs are at the undergraduate level and 21 at the graduate level. Fifteen of these colleges and universities had both undergraduate and graduate programs." Other notable programs can be found at the University of Toronto , University of Manitoba , Lancaster University , Hiroshima University , University of Innsbruck , Universitat Jaume I , University of Sydney , University of Queensland , King's College (London) , Sault College , London Metropolitan , Sabanci , Marburg , Sciences Po , Université Paris Dauphine University of Amsterdam , Otago , St Andrews , Brandeis University's Heller School and York . Perhaps most importantly, such programs and research agendas have now become common in institutions located in conflict, post-conflict, and developing countries and regions such as (e.g., National Peace Council), Centre for Human Rights , University of Sarajevo , Chulalongkorn University , National University of East Timor , University of Kabul , on September 11, 2014 University of peshawar,

1870-494: A penis" (in Freud's terms a "deformity"). Lacan, however, organizes femininity and masculinity according to different unconscious structures. Both male and female subjects participate in the "phallic" organization, and the feminine side of sexuation is "supplementary" and not opposite or complementary. Lacan uses the concept of sexuation (sexual situation), which posits the development of gender-roles and role-play in childhood, to counter

1980-624: A result of a merger of two precursor organisations. The PJSA is the North American affiliate of IPRA and includes members from around the world with a predominance from the United States and Canada. The PJSA publishes a regular newsletter ( The Peace Chronicle ), and holds annual conferences on themes related to the organization's mission "to create a just and peaceful world" through research, scholarship, pedagogy, and activism. In 2008, Strategic Foresight Group presented its report on an innovative mechanism to find sustainable solution to conflicts in

2090-472: A shift from "negative peace" described as absence of violence against individuals to "positive peace" described as the absence of structural violence . This emerged rapidly at the end of the Cold War, and was encapsulated in the report of then-UN Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali , An Agenda for Peace . Indeed, it might be said that much of the machinery of what has been called "liberal peacebuilding" by

2200-484: A speciality within conflict studies, specifically examining the role of gender and interlocking systems of inequality in armed and other conflicts. The importance of considering the role of gender in post-conflict work was recognised by the United Nations Security Council resolution 1325 . Examples of feminist scholarship include the work of Carol Cohn and Claire Duncanson . Negative peace refers to

2310-528: A specialized set of concepts, and forums for discussion such as journals and conferences. Beginning in 1959, with the founding of the Peace Research Institute Oslo (PRIO), associated with Johan Galtung , a number of research institutes began to appear. In 1963, Walter Isard , the principal founder of regional science , assembled a group of scholars in Malmö , Sweden, for the purpose of establishing

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2420-433: A three-pillar method. Pillar one is partnering with middle-income countries and emerging middle-income countries to sustain and share gains in growth and prosperity. Pillar two supports the developmental underpinnings for peace, renewed growth and poverty reduction in the poorest and most fragile areas. The final pillar provides a stage for knowledge management, exchange and dissemination on gender responsive development within

2530-460: A variety of others. Relevant sub-disciplines of such fields, such as peace economics , may also be regarded as belonging to peace and conflict studies. The study of peace is also known as irenology. Peace and conflict studies is both a pedagogical activity, in which teachers transmit knowledge to students; and a research activity, in which researchers create new knowledge about the sources of conflict. Peace and conflict studies entails understanding

2640-532: A widely used 2002 textbook written by Charles P. Webel and David P. Barash which praised Vladimir Lenin because he "maintained that only revolution—not reform—could undo capitalism's tendency toward imperialism and thence to war." David Horowitz has argued that Webel and Barash's book implicitly supports violence for socialist causes, noting that the book states "the case of Cuba indicates that violent revolutions can sometimes result in generally improved living conditions for many people." Horowitz also argued that

2750-518: Is "ideological colonization" that threatens traditional families and fertile heterosexuality. France was one of the first countries where this claim became widespread when Catholic movements marched in the streets of Paris against the bill on gay marriage and adoption . Scholar of law and gender Bruno Perreau argues that this fear has deep historical roots, and that the rejection of gender studies and queer theory expresses anxieties about national identity and minority politics. Jayson Harsin argues that

2860-421: Is a strategy to use threats or limited force to dissuade an actor from escalating conflict, typically because the prospective attacker believes that the probability of success is low and the costs of attack are high. Cost of conflict is a approach which attempts to calculate the price of conflicts. The idea is to examine this cost, not only in terms of the deaths and casualties and the economic costs borne by

2970-492: Is an accepted version of this page Gender studies is an interdisciplinary academic field devoted to analysing gender identity and gendered representation . Gender studies originated in the field of women's studies , concerning women , feminism , gender , and politics . The field now overlaps with queer studies and men's studies . Its rise to prominence, especially in Western universities after 1990, coincided with

3080-421: Is an unscientific ideology, and that it causes needless disruption in the lives of children. Feminist philosopher Rosi Braidotti has criticized gender studies as "the take-over of the feminist agenda by studies on masculinity, which results in transferring funding from feminist faculty positions to other kinds of positions. There have been cases... of positions advertised as 'gender studies' being given away to

3190-696: Is hard to estimate, mostly because courses may be taught out of different departments and have very different names. The International Peace Research Association website gives one of the most authoritative listings available. A 2008 report in the International Herald Tribune mentions over 400 programs of teaching and research in peace and conflict studies, noting in particular those at the United World Colleges , Peace Research Institute Oslo , Universitat Jaume I in Castellón de la Plana/Spain ,

3300-529: Is important to distinguish the specific approach often defined as Critical Studies on Men. This approach was largely developed in the anglophone countries from the early 1980s – especially in the United Kingdom – centred then around the work of Jeff Hearn , David Morgan and colleagues. The influence of the approach has spread globally since then. It is inspired primarily by a range of feminist perspectives (including socialist and radical) and places emphasis on

3410-413: Is now a general consensus on the importance of peace and conflict studies among scholars from a range of disciplines in and around the social sciences, as well as from many influential policymakers around the world. Peace and conflict studies today is widely researched and taught in a large and growing number of institutions and locations. The number of universities offering peace and conflict studies courses

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3520-527: Is perceived as natural in the social imaginary. "Men's and Women's Beliefs About Gender and Sexuality" is an article written by authors Emily Kane and Mimi Schippers, which explicitly focuses on the social construct of social opposition between men and women. Parallel to Butler's argument, this article also argues that gender is constructed as "natural" within our society when in reality it contains arbitrary aspects. By pointing out distinct differences between gender aspects of both men and women, this article reveals

3630-553: Is studied. In politics, gender can be viewed as a foundational discourse that political actors employ in order to position themselves on a variety of issues. Gender studies is also a discipline in itself, incorporating methods and approaches from a wide range of disciplines. Many fields came to regard "gender" as a practice, sometimes referred to as something that is performative . Feminist theory of psychoanalysis, articulated mainly by Julia Kristeva and Bracha L. Ettinger , and informed both by Sigmund Freud , Jacques Lacan and

3740-476: Is the absence of tension" and "positive peace which is the presence of justice." These terms were perhaps first used by Jane Addams in a series of lectures about 'positive ideals of peace' begun in 1899 that took form in her book Newer Ideals of Peace where she switched to the term "newer ideals", but continued to contrast them to the term "negative peace"; she described them as we think of them today, as peace with "a sense of justice no longer outraged." The idea

3850-447: Is women having a weak voice when it comes to decision-making. One of the reasons for this is the "growing trend to decentralization [which] has moved decision-making down to levels at which women's voice is often weakest and where even the women's civil society movement, which has been a powerful advocate at national level, struggles to organize and be heard". East Asia Pacific's approach to help mainstream these issues of gender relies on

3960-774: The Journal of Peace Research in the 1960s reflected the growing interest and academic stature of the field. Growth in the number of peace studies programs around the world was to accelerate during the 1980s, as students became more concerned about the prospects of nuclear war. As the Cold War ended, peace and conflict studies courses shifted their focus from international conflict and towards complex issues related to political violence, human security , democratisation , human rights , social justice , welfare , development , and producing sustainable forms of peace. A proliferation of international organisations, agencies and international NGOs, from

4070-726: The Balkans , East Timor , Sierra Leone , Liberia , Nepal , Afghanistan , and Iraq . This approach includes the normatively oriented work that emerged in the peace studies and conflict research schools of the 1960s (e.g. Oslo Peace Research Institute on "Liberal Peace and the Ethics of Peacebuilding") and more critical theory ideas about peacebuilding that have recently developed in many European and non-western academic and policy circles. Conflict forecasts and early warnings can be sufficiently precise to be relevant for policy and evaluation of theories. Conflict escalation can be rational for one side of

4180-659: The Lancaster Peace Research Centre , in the North of England in 1959. The centre was incorporated first into the Politics Department at Lancaster University, and then in 1969 into a branch of the Conflict Research Society at the University of Kent . There the centre was renamed the Richardson Institute for Conflict and Peace Research in honour of the polymath and pacifist Lewis Fry Richardson , and

4290-520: The League of Nations . These moves, intended to ensure a peaceful future, were the background to a number of developments in the emergence of Peace and Conflict Studies as an academic discipline. The founding of the first chair in International Relations at Aberystwyth University , Wales , whose remit was partly to further the cause of peace, occurred in 1919. After World War II , the founding of

4400-646: The Malmö University of Sweden, the American University , University of Bradford , the UN mandated Peace University UPEACE in Ciudad Colón / Costa Rica , George Mason University , Lund University , University of Michigan , Notre Dame , University of Queensland , Uppsala University , Innsbruck School of Peace Studies / Austria , University of Virginia , and University of Wisconsin . The Rotary Foundation and

4510-523: The Soviet Invasion of Hungary in 1956 , and has described Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn and Andrei Sakharov as "persecuted elite personages". Galtung has also praised Mao Zedong for "endlessly liberating" China. Galtung has also stated that the United States is a "killer country" that is guilty of "neo-fascist state terrorism" and has reportedly stated that the destruction of Washington, D.C., could be justified by America's foreign policy. He has also compared

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4620-581: The UN University supports several international academic teaching and research programs. A 1995 survey found 136 United States colleges with peace studies programs: "Forty-six percent of these are in church-related schools, another 32% are in large public universities, 21% are in non-church related private colleges, and 1% are in community colleges. Fifty-five percent of the church-related schools that have peace studies programs are Roman Catholic . Other denominations with more than one college or university with

4730-475: The UN system provided a further stimulus for more rigorous approaches to peace and conflict studies to emerge. Many university courses in schools of higher learning around the world began to develop which touched upon questions of peace, often in relation to war, during this period. The first undergraduate academic program in peace studies in the United States was developed in 1948 by Gladdys Muir, at Manchester University

4840-464: The object relations theory , is very influential in gender studies. A number of theorists have influenced the field of gender studies significantly, specifically in terms of psychoanalytic theory. Among these are Sigmund Freud , Jacques Lacan , Julia Kristeva , and Bracha L. Ettinger . Gender studied under the lens of each of these theorists looks somewhat different. In a Freudian system, women are "mutilated and must learn to accept their lack of

4950-445: The state or individual unit level of analysis , peace and conflict studies often focuses on the structural violence , social or human levels of analysis. Disciplines involved may include philosophy , political science , geography , economics , psychology , communication studies , sociology , international relations , history , anthropology , religious studies , gender studies , law , and development studies as well as

5060-459: The 'bright boys'. Some of the competitive take-over has to do with gay studies. Of special significance in this discussion is the role of the mainstream publisher Routledge who, in our opinion, is responsible for promoting gender as a way of deradicalizing the feminist agenda, re-marketing masculinity and gay male identity instead." Calvin Thomas countered that, "as Joseph Allen Boone points out, 'many of

5170-598: The American Experiment , believes that Peace Studies programs are "dominated by people of a certain ideological bent, and [are] thus hard to take seriously." Robert Kennedy, a professor of Catholic studies and management at the University of St. Thomas , criticized his university's Peace Studies Program in an interview with Minneapolis Star Tribune in 2002, stating that the program employs several adjunct professors "whose academic qualifications are not as strong as we would ordinarily look for" and that "The combination of

5280-517: The Chairman of Brandeis University 's Peace, Conflict, and Coexistence Studies Program, who they claimed has justified Palestinian suicide-bombings against Israelis as "ways of inflicting revenge on an enemy that seems unable or unwilling to respond to rational pleas for discussion and justice." Katherine Kersten , who is a senior fellow at the Minneapolis-based conservative think tank Center of

5390-535: The French anti–'gender theory' movement demonstrates qualities of global right-wing populist post-truth politics . Teaching certain aspects of gender studies was banned in public schools in New South Wales after an independent review into how the state teaches sex and health education and the controversial material included in the teaching materials. In Central and Eastern Europe, anti-gender movements are on

5500-482: The Middle East. It also developed a new Water Cooperation Quotient, which is a measure of active cooperation by riparian countries in the management of water resources using 10 parameters including legal, political, technical, environmental, economic and institutional aspects. Institutions like Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI) are advancing the understanding of peace and development by analyzing

5610-471: The Mosul Arbitration in the early 20th century exemplifies the limitations of interim peace, as the imposed settlement failed to address root causes of instability, contributing to a century of unrest in the region. These distinctions underscore the need for holistic approaches in peacebuilding, ensuring durable and inclusive resolutions. Johan Galtung 's conflict triangle works on the assumption that

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5720-725: The Peace Research Society. The group of initial members included Kenneth Boulding and Anatol Rapoport . In 1973, this group became the Peace Science Society . Peace science was viewed as an interdisciplinary and international effort to develop a special set of concepts, techniques and data to better understand and mitigate conflict. Peace science attempts to use the quantitative techniques developed in economics and political science, especially game theory and econometrics , techniques otherwise seldom used by researchers in peace studies. The Peace Science Society website hosts

5830-518: The Politics Department. There its activities diversified into undergraduate and postgraduate teaching, ultimately leading to the creation of a studentship in 2006. Its early minor course in conflict & peace research proved particularly popular, and the institute became renowned for lecturing in "unashamedly behavioural " models of social science. In 1990 the members of the institute consolidated their work by publishing A Reader in Peace Studies ,

5940-554: The UN, Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe , European Union , and World Bank to International Crisis Group , International Alert , and others, began to draw on such research. Critical theory agendas relating to positive peace in European academic contexts were already widely debated in the 1960s. By the mid-1990s peace studies curricula in the United States had shifted "...from research and teaching about negative peace,

6050-512: The United States to Nazi Germany for bombing Kosovo during the 1999 NATO bombing of Yugoslavia . In the Summer 2007 edition of City Journal , Bruce Bawer sharply criticized Peace Studies. He noted that many Peace Studies programs in American Universities are run by Marxist or far-left Professors. More broadly, he argued that Peace Studies are dominated by the belief that "America ... is

6160-474: The absence of direct violence. Positive peace refers to the critical theory of conflict resolution and the absence of indirect and structural violence , and is the concept that most peace and conflict researchers adopt. This is often credited to Galtung but these terms were previously used by Martin Luther King Jr. in his " Letter from Birmingham Jail " in 1963, in which he wrote about "negative peace which

6270-465: The aegis of negative peace, whereas efforts toward positive peace involve elements of critical theory , peace building and peacemaking. Peace and conflict are widely studied by militaries. One approach by military to prevent conflict and conflict escalation is deterrence . Critical theory argues that military is overtly committed to combat in the article "Teaching Peace to the Military", published in

6380-464: The best way to define peace is to define violence, its opposite. It reflects the normative aim of preventing, managing, limiting and overcoming violence. Each corner of Galtung's triangle can relate to the other two. Ethnic cleansing can be an example of all three. A simplification of these can be phrased as: Appeasement in a strategy of making political, material, or territorial concessions to an aggressive power to avoid conflict. Deterrence

6490-534: The book "treats the Soviet Union as a sponsor of peace movements, and the United States as the militaristic, imperialist power that peace movements try to keep in check" and that "the authors justify Communist policies and actions while casting those of America and Western democracies in a negative light." Horowitz also claimed that the authors discuss the Cuban Missile Crisis without mentioning its cause (i.e.

6600-588: The categories of gender and sexuality. In gender studies, the term "gender" is often used to refer to the social and cultural constructions of masculinity and femininity , rather than biological aspects of the male or female sex ; however, this view is not held by all gender scholars. Gender is pertinent to many disciplines, such as literary theory , drama studies, film theory , performance theory , contemporary art history , anthropology, sociology, sociolinguistics and psychology . These disciplines sometimes differ in their approaches to how and why gender

6710-441: The cessation of violence, to positive peace, the conditions that eliminate the causes of violence." As a result, the topics had broadened enormously. By 1994, a review of course offerings in peace studies included topics such as: "north-south relations"; "development, debt, and global poverty"; "the environment, population growth, and resource scarcity"; and "feminist perspectives on peace, militarism, and political violence". There

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6820-489: The complex drivers of conflict and insecurity. Their approach acknowledges that conflicts are rarely caused by a single factor. Instead, a constellation of economic, social, political, and environmental factors, often reinforcing and exacerbating each other in ways that can lead to sustained violence or, conversely, pave pathways to peace. Peace and conflict studies along with its concepts of conflict analysis and conflict resolution can be classified as: There has been

6930-420: The concept of peace which is defined as political condition that ensures justice and social stability through formal and informal institutions, practices, and norms. Academics and students in the world's oldest universities have long been motivated by an interest in peace . American student interest in what we today think of as peace studies first appeared in the form of campus clubs at United States colleges in

7040-426: The conceptions of peace, sustainable peace must be regarded as an important factor for the future of prosperity. Sustainable peace must be the priority of global society where state actors and non-state actors do not only seek for the profits in a near future that might violate the stable state of peace. For a sustainable peace, nurturing, empowerment, and communications are considered to be the crucial factors throughout

7150-458: The conflict in some cases of asymmetric conflicts , appeasement or for Fait accompli , causing challenges to de-escalation . The normative aims of peace studies are conflict transformation and conflict resolution through mechanisms such as peacekeeping , peacebuilding (e.g., tackling disparities in rights, institutions and the distribution of world wealth) and peacemaking (e.g., mediation and conflict resolution). Peacekeeping falls under

7260-553: The cost of conflict. The democratic peace theory claims that democracy causes peace, while the territorial peace theory disagrees and claims that peace causes democracy. The capitalist peace theory claims economic interdependence contributes to peace. Other explanations for peace include institutional liberalism , alliances , Pax Americana and political stability . Realism and liberal internationalism are claimed by some to lead in some cases to more wars and in other cases to fewer wars. Critical theory argues for

7370-535: The cost of social and domestic conflicts and natural disasters". Places such as India and Polynesia have widely identified third-gender categories. For example, the hijra /kinnar/kinner people of India are often regarded as being a third-gender. Hijra is often considered an offensive term, so the terms kinnar & kinner are often used for these individuals. In places such as India and Pakistan, these individuals face higher rates of HIV infection, depression, and homelessness. Polynesian languages are also consistent with

7480-403: The data shows that the large majority of armed conflicts in recent decades have been ended through negotiations, not military solutions. In the contemporary world, violence is less effective than diplomacy in ending armed conflict. Nothing is 100% effective to reduce tyranny and violence, but domestic and foreign strategy needs to be based on evidence, rather than assumptions and misconceptions from

7590-467: The early 1990s with the Matrixial feminine-maternal and prematernal Eros of borderlinking (bordureliance), borderspacing (bordurespacement) and co-emergence. The matrixial feminine difference defines a particular gaze and it is a source for trans-subjectivity and transjectivity in both males and females. Ettinger rethinks the human subject as informed by the archaic connectivity to the maternal and proposes

7700-515: The fact that gender is socially constructed does not undo the fact that there are strata of oppression between genders. The history of gender studies looks at the different perspectives of gender. This discipline examines the ways in which historical, cultural, and social events shape the role of gender in different societies. The field of gender studies, while focusing on the differences between men and women, also looks at sexual differences and less binary definitions of gender categorization. After

7810-409: The feminist and gender studies-influenced practice of most of the humanities and social sciences . Timothy Laurie and Anna Hickey-Moody suggest that there 'have always been dangers present in the institutionalisation of "masculinity studies" as a semi-gated community', and note that 'a certain triumphalism vis-à-vis feminist philosophy haunts much masculinities research'. Within studies on men, it

7920-445: The field, such as the one between second wave feminists and queer theorists. The line drawn between these two camps lies in the problem as feminists see it of queer theorists arguing that everything is fragmented and there are not only no grand narratives but also no trends or categories. Feminists argue that this erases the categories of gender altogether but does nothing to antagonize the power dynamics reified by gender. In other words,

8030-779: The first doctoral program for a potential PhD in gender studies in the United States was approved in November 2005. In 2015, Kabul University became the first university in Afghanistan to offer a master's degree course in gender and women's studies. After the Taliban took over the Afghan capital , the university fell under their control and banned women from attending. Women's studies is an interdisciplinary academic field devoted to topics concerning women , feminism , gender , and politics . It often includes feminist theory , women's history (e.g.

8140-627: The idea of a Demeter-Persephone Complexity. Feminist theorists such as Juliet Mitchell , Nancy Chodorow , Jessica Benjamin , Jane Gallop , Bracha L. Ettinger , Shoshana Felman , Griselda Pollock , Luce Irigaray and Jane Flax have developed a Feminist psychoanalysis and argued that psychoanalytic theory is vital to the feminist project and must, like other theoretical traditions, be criticized by women as well as transformed to free it from vestiges of sexism (i.e. being censored ). Shulamith Firestone , in The Dialectic of Sex , calls Freudianism

8250-443: The idea of a third-gender or non-binary gender. The Samoan term fa'afafine , meaning "in the manner of a woman", is used to refer to a third-gender/non-binary role in society. These sexualities are expressed across a spectrum, although some literature has suggested that fa'afafine individuals do not form sexual relations with one another. One issue that remains consistent throughout all provinces in different stages of development

8360-474: The idea that gender identity is innate or biologically determined. According to Lacan, the sexuation of an individual has as much, if not more, to do with their development of a gender identity as being genetically sexed male or female. Kristeva contends that patriarchal cultures, like individuals, have to exclude the maternal and the feminine so that they can come into being. Bracha L. Ettinger transformed subjectivity in contemporary psychoanalysis since

8470-464: The ideological bite and the maybe less-than-full academic credentials of the faculty would probably raise some questions about how scholarly the program is." Such views have been strongly opposed by scholars who claim that these criticisms underestimate the development of detailed interdisciplinary, theoretical, methodological, and empirical research into the causes of violence and dynamics of peace that has occurred via academic and policy networks around

8580-702: The institute was re-launched in September 2012. In 2013 it began the Richardson Institute Internship Programme, a year-long, multidisciplinary research placement with such partners as the Institute for Strategic Dialogue and the Ministry of Defence , and in 2016 it opened a course in the political theology of peace as the first in a number of distance learning modules on positive politics. The institute also hosts an annual peace lecture series and runs

8690-609: The issue of men's relations with children as a key site for the development of men's masculinity formations – men's relations with women and men's relations with other men being the two sites which are heavily researched by comparison. Certain issues associated with gender in Eastern Asia and the Pacific Region are more complex and depend on location and context. For example, in China , Vietnam , Thailand , Philippines and Indonesia ,

8800-510: The journal Peace Review , James Page argues for five principles that ought to undergird this undertaking, namely, respect but do not privilege military experience, teach the just war theory, encourage students to be aware of the tradition and techniques of nonviolence, encourage students to deconstruct and demythologize, and recognize the importance of military virtue. A number of criticisms have been aimed at critical theory in peace and conflict studies, often but not necessarily from outside

8910-549: The last decade and more, and in UN (or related) documentation such as "Agenda for Peace", "Agenda for Development", "Agenda for Democratization", the Millennium Development Goals , Responsibility to Protect , and the "High Level Panel Report". They have also been significant for the work of the World Bank, international development agencies, and a wide range of nongovernmental organisations. It has been influential in

9020-455: The men in the academy who are feminism's most supportive 'allies' are gay,'" and that it is "disingenuous" to ignore the ways in which mainstream publishers such as Routledge have promoted feminist theorists. Gender studies, and more particularly queer studies within gender studies, has been criticized by Catholic Church bishops and cardinals as an attack on human biology. Pope Francis has said that teaching about gender identity in schools

9130-425: The misguided feminism and discusses how Freudianism is almost completely accurate, with the exception of one crucial detail: everywhere that Freud writes "penis", the word should be replaced with "power". Critics such as Elizabeth Grosz accuse Jacques Lacan of maintaining a sexist tradition in psychoanalysis. Others, such as Judith Butler , Bracha L. Ettinger and Jane Gallop have used Lacanian work, though in

9240-703: The need for research and practice to explicitly challenge men's and boys' sexism. Although it explores a very broad range of men's practices, it tends to focus especially on issues related to sexuality and/or men's violences. Although originally largely rooted in sociology, it has since engaged with a broad range of other disciplines including social policy, social work, cultural studies, gender studies, education and law. In more recent years, Critical Studies on Men research has made particular use of comparative and/or transnational perspectives. Like Men's Studies and Masculinity Studies more generally, Critical Studies on Men has been critiqued for its failure to adequately focus on

9350-419: The people involved, but also the social, developmental, environmental and strategic costs of conflict. The approach considers direct costs of conflict, for instance human deaths, expenditure, destruction of land and physical infrastructure; as well as indirect costs that impact a society, for instance migration, humiliation, growth of extremism and lack of civil society. The price of unjust peace can be higher than

9460-421: The performance of gender, sex, and sexuality is about power in society. They locate the construction of the "gendered, sexed, desiring subject" in "regulative discourses". A part of Butler's argument concerns the role of sex in the construction of "natural" or coherent gender and sexuality. In their account, gender and heterosexuality are constructed as natural because the opposition of the male and female sexes

9570-535: The placement of the Soviet missiles in Cuba) and blame John F. Kennedy while praising Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev for "be[ing] willing to back down". Finally, Horowitz criticized the author's use of Marxist writers, such as Andre Gunder Frank and Frances Moore Lappe , as the sole basis on which to study "poverty and hunger as causes of human conflict." Kay and Bawer also specifically criticized Professor Gordon Fellman,

9680-559: The program, among them the Budapest-based Central European University , whose charter was revoked by the government, and is widely seen as part of the Hungarian ruling party 's move away from democratic principles. The Central People's Government supports studies of gender and social development of gender in history and practices that lead to gender equality. Citing Mao Zedong 's philosophy, "Women hold up half

9790-559: The provincial capital of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province in Pakistan established an Institute with prime objective of offering peace education to the youth who suffered it most since 1979 Afghan war. It is called Institute of Peace and Conflict Studies (IPCS). Although individual thinkers such as Immanuel Kant had long recognised the centrality of peace (see Perpetual Peace ), it was not until the 1950s and 1960s that peace studies began to emerge as an academic discipline with its own research tools,

9900-614: The psychoanalytic outlook under which sexual difference is "undeniable" and pathologizing any effort to suggest that it is not so paramount and unambiguous ...". According to Daniel Beaune and Caterina Rea, the gender-studies "often criticized psychoanalysis to perpetuate a family and social model of patriarchal, based on a rigid and timeless version of the parental order". Psychoanalytically oriented French feminism focused on visual and literary theory all along. Virginia Woolf 's legacy as well as " Adrienne Rich 's call for women's revisions of literary texts, and history as well, has galvanized

10010-550: The realms of university system, including that peace studies: In 1980, political scientist J. David Singer criticized peace research on three fronts: Barbara Kay , a columnist for the National Post , specifically criticized the views of Norwegian professor Johan Galtung , who is considered to be a leader in modern peace research. Kay wrote that Galtung has written on the "structural fascism" of "rich, Western, Christian" democracies, admires Fidel Castro , opposed resistance to

10120-533: The region to begin. These programs have already been established, and successful in, Vietnam , Thailand , China , as well as the Philippines , and efforts are starting to be made in Laos , Papua New Guinea , and Timor Leste as well. These pillars speak to the importance of showcasing gender studies. Philosopher and gender studies Judith Butler's work Gender Trouble discussed gender performativity. In Butler's terms

10230-493: The rise of deconstruction . Disciplines that frequently contribute to gender studies include the fields of literature , linguistics , human geography , history , political science , archaeology , economics , sociology , psychology , anthropology , cinema , musicology , media studies , human development , law, public health , and medicine. Gender studies also analyzes how race , ethnicity , location , social class , nationality , and disability intersect with

10340-539: The rise, especially in Hungary, Poland, and Russia. In Russia, gender studies is currently tolerated; however, state-supported practices follow the traditional gender perspectives of those in power. The law related to prosecuting and sentencing domestic violence, for instance, was greatly limited in 2017. Since 2010, the Russian government has also been leading a campaign at the UNHRC to recognise Russian " traditional values " as

10450-482: The same way that women were looking at femininity, and developed an area of study called "men's studies". It was not until the late 1980s and 1990s that scholars recognized a need for study in the field of sexuality. This was due to the increasing interest in lesbian and gay rights, and scholars found that most individuals will associate sexuality and gender together, rather than as separate entities. Although doctoral programs for women's studies have existed since 1990,

10560-535: The second edition of the Correlates of War , one of the most well-known collections of data on international conflict. The society holds an annual conference, attended by scholars from throughout the world, and publishes two scholarly journals: Journal of Conflict Resolution and Conflict Management and Peace Science . In 1964, the International Peace Research Association was formed at

10670-520: The sky", this may be seen as continuation of equality of men and women introduced as part of Cultural Revolution . The Romanian Senate approved by broad majority in June 2020 an update of National Education Law that would ban theories and opinions on gender identity according to which gender is a separate concept from biological sex. In December 2020, the Constitutional Court of Romania overturned

10780-399: The source of opposition that Butler mentions, arguing that "men and women share a variety of interests based on personal circumstances and on social locations other than gender, but men's and women's gender interests do tend to differ." Historian and theorist Bryan Palmer argues that gender studies' current reliance on post-structuralism – with its reification of discourse and avoidance of

10890-415: The structures of oppression and struggles of resistance – obscures the origins, meanings, and consequences of historical events and processes, and he seeks to counter current trends in gender studies with an argument for the necessity to analyze lived experiences and the structures of subordination and power. Psychologist Debra W. Soh postulates that gender studies is composed of dubious scholarship, that it

11000-614: The universal suffrage revolution of the twentieth century, the women's liberation movement of the 1960s and 1970s promoted a revision from the feminists to "actively interrogate" the usual and accepted versions of history as it was known at the time. It was the goal of many feminist scholars to question original assumptions regarding women's and men's attributes, to actually measure them, and to report observed differences between women and men. Initially, these programs were essentially feminist, designed to recognize contributions made by women as well as by men. Soon, men began to look at masculinity

11110-434: The utility of peace and conflict studies as a method. Peace Studies allows one to examine the causes and prevention of war, as well as the nature of violence, including social oppression, discrimination and marginalization. Through peace studies one can also learn peace-making strategies to overcome persecution and transform society to attain a more just and equitable international community. Feminist scholars have developed

11220-439: The wellspring of the world's problems" and that while Professors of Peace Studies argue "that terrorist positions deserve respect at the negotiating table," they "seldom tolerate alternative views" and that "(p)eace studies, as a rule, rejects questioning of its own guiding ideology." Regarding his claim that Peace Studies supports violence in the pursuit of leftist ideology, Bawer cited a quote from Peace and Conflict Studies ,

11330-515: The work of, among others, the UN, UNDP, UN Peacebuilding Commission , UNHCR , World Bank , EU , Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe , for national donors including USAID, DFID, CIDA, NORAD, DANIDA, Japan Aid, GTZ, and international NGOs such as International Alert or International Crisis Group , as well as many local NGOs. Major databases have been generated by the work of scholars in these areas. Finally, peace and conflict studies debates have generally confirmed, not undermined,

11440-551: The world. In reply to Barbara Kay 's article, a group of Peace Studies experts in Canada responded that "Kay's...argument that the field of peace studies endorses terrorism is nonsense" and that "(d)edicated peace theorists and researchers are distinguished by their commitment to reduce the use of violence whether committed by enemy nations, friendly governments or warlords of any stripe." They also argued that: ...Ms. Kay attempts to portray advocates for peace as naive and idealistic, but

11550-455: The world. Firstly, nurturing is necessary to encourage psychological stability and emotional maturity. The significance of social value in adequate nurturing is important for sustainable peace. Secondly, in order to achieve real security and sustainable peace, inner security must be secured along with arranged social systems and protection based on firm foundation. Lastly, communications are necessary to overcome ignorance and isolation and establish

11660-508: The years immediately following the American Civil War . Similar movements appeared in Sweden in the last years of the 19th century, as elsewhere soon after. These were student-originated discussion groups, not formal courses included in college curricula. The first known peace studies course in higher education was offered in 1888 at Swarthmore College , a Quaker school. The First World War

11770-409: Was a turning point in Western attitudes to war. At the 1919 Peace of Paris —where the leaders of France, Britain, and the United States, led by Georges Clemenceau , David Lloyd George , and Woodrow Wilson respectively, met to decide the future of Europe—Wilson proposed his famous Fourteen Points for peacemaking. These included breaking up European empires into nation states and the establishment of

11880-1266: Was further popularized by then-UN Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali in his 1992 report An Agenda for Peace , published in the aftermath of the Cold War. Several conceptions, models, or modes of peace have been suggested in which peace research might prosper. There have been many offerings on these various forms of peace. These range from the well known works of Kant , Locke , Rousseau , Paine , on various liberal international and constitutional and plans for peace. Variations and additions have been developed more recently by scholars such as Raymond Aron, Edward Azar, John Burton, Martin Ceadal, Wolfgang Dietrich , Kevin Dooley, Johan Galtung , Robert L. Holmes , Michael Howard, Vivienne Jabri , John-Paul Lederach, Roger Mac Ginty, Pamina Firchow, Hugh Miall, David Mitrany, Oliver Ramsbotham, Anatol Rapoport , Mikkel Vedby Rasmussen, Oliver Richmond, S.P. Udayakumar , Tom Woodhouse, others mentioned above and many more. Democratic peace , liberal peace, sustainable peace, civil peace, hybrid peace, post-liberal peace, everyday peace, trans-rational peace(s) and other concepts are regularly used in such work. Under

11990-559: Was most prominent in its challenge of grand narratives. Post-structuralism paved the way for the emergence of queer theory in gender studies, which necessitated the field expanding its purview to sexuality. In addition to the expansion to include sexuality studies, under the influence of post-modernism gender studies has also turned its lens toward masculinity studies , due to the work of sociologists and theorists such as R. W. Connell , Michael Kimmel , and E. Anthony Rotundo. These changes and expansions have led to some contentions within

12100-593: Was moved to 158 North Gower St, London, which it shared with the Women’s Research and Resources Centre . During this time the Institute not only published academic papers, but also released an animated film about the nature of human communication in the United States. On 1 October 1978, with funding from the Joseph Rowntree Foundation , the institute returned to Lancaster University as an autonomous body of

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