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85-498: Richard Lawrence Garwin (born April 19, 1928) is an American physicist , best known as the author of the first hydrogen bomb design. In 1978, Garwin was elected a member of the National Academy of Engineering for contributing to the application of the latest scientific discoveries to innovative practical engineering applications contributing to national security and economic growth. Garwin received his bachelor's degree from

170-538: A Presidential Medal of Freedom . Garwin also received 1988 AAAS Award for Scientific Freedom and Responsibility and the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement in 1997. Physicist Physicists can apply their knowledge towards solving practical problems or to developing new technologies (also known as applied physics or engineering physics ). The study and practice of physics

255-700: A master's degree like MSc, MPhil, MPhys or MSci. For research-oriented careers, students work toward a doctoral degree specializing in a particular field. Fields of specialization include experimental and theoretical astrophysics , atomic physics , biological physics , chemical physics , condensed matter physics , cosmology , geophysics , gravitational physics , material science , medical physics , microelectronics , molecular physics , nuclear physics , optics , particle physics , plasma physics , quantum information science , and radiophysics . The three major employers of career physicists are academic institutions, laboratories, and private industries, with

340-637: A bi-national Fulbright Commission administers and oversees the Fulbright Program. In countries without a Fulbright Commission but that have an active program, the Public Affairs Section of the US Embassy oversees the Fulbright Program. More than 360,000 persons have participated in the program since it began. Fifty-four Fulbright alumni have won Nobel Prizes ; eighty-two have won Pulitzer Prizes . The National Security Language Initiative (NSLI-Y)

425-607: A civilian workforce, and normally uses the Foreign Service personnel system for positions that require service abroad. Employees may be assigned to diplomatic missions abroad to represent the United States, analyze and report on political, economic, and social trends; adjudicate visas; and respond to the needs of US citizens abroad. The US maintains diplomatic relations with about 180 countries and maintains relations with many international organizations, adding up to 273 posts around

510-428: A consultant to Los Alamos National Laboratory working on nuclear weapons. Garwin was the author of the actual design used in the first hydrogen bomb (code-named Mike ) in 1952. He was assigned the job by Edward Teller , with the instructions that he was to make it as conservative a design as possible in order to prove the concept was feasible. He also worked on the development of the first spy satellites , for which he

595-548: A curriculum vitae, a statement of interest and a written essay. Opportunity is provided to upload letters of recommendations and nominations to support one's application. The Franklin Fellows Program was established in 2006 by the DoS to bring in mid-level executives from the private sector and non-profit organizations to advise the department and to work on projects. Fellows may also work with other government entities, including

680-678: A member of the JASON Defense Advisory Group since 1966. As a member of the Institute for Defense Analyses' Jason Division of U.S. university scientists. on Sat. February 3, 1968, Garwin “traveled to Vietnam” with Henry Way Kendall and several other scientists “to check on the operation of the electronic barrier” he and other Jason scientists developed for the Pentagon to utilize in Indochina, according to The Jasons by Ann Finkbeiner . And, in

765-570: A merit-based system of promotions. The Rogers Act also created the Board of the Foreign Service, which advises the Secretary of State on managing the Foreign Service, and the Board of Examiners of the Foreign Service, which administers the examination process. The post-Second World War period saw an unprecedented increase in funding and staff commensurate with the US's emergence as a superpower and its competition with

850-452: A minimum, the owner must possess a three-year bachelors or equivalent degree in physics or a related field and an additional minimum of six years' experience in a physics-related activity; or an Honor or equivalent degree in physics or a related field and an additional minimum of five years' experience in a physics-related activity; or master or equivalent degree in physics or a related field and an additional minimum of three years' experience in

935-555: A physics-related activity; a Doctorate or equivalent degree in Physics or a related field; or training or experience which, in the opinion of the Council, is equivalent to any of the above. Physicists may be a member of a physical society of a country or region. Physical societies commonly publish scientific journals, organize physics conferences and award prizes for contributions to the field of physics. Some examples of physical societies are

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1020-416: A professional practice examination must also be passed. An exemption can be granted to a candidate that has practiced physics for at least seven years and provide a detailed description of their professional accomplishments which clearly demonstrate that the exam is not necessary. Work experience will be considered physics-related if it uses physics directly or significantly uses the modes of thought (such as

1105-472: A single person responsible for that duty. A mail division was established in 1872 and the office of Keeper of Rolls was made independent of the Chief Clerk's Bureau in 1873. Congress legally recognized the bureau system and provided official salaries for some bureau positions in 1873. Following Congressional recognition, several acts of Congress modified the structure of the bureaus between 1874 and 1882. At

1190-525: Is a US Department of State ECA competitive merit-based scholarship to develop the foreign language skills of American high school students in eight critical-need languages. Korean , Mandarin , Russian , Arabic , Hindi , Bahasa Indonesian , Tajiki , and Turkish are all taught in summer and academic year programs abroad, as well as in online classes. NSLI-Y is the most prestigious foreign language program available to American high schoolers and has nearly 9,200 alumni. The Jefferson Science Fellows Program

1275-494: Is among a select few scientists to have been elected to all three U.S. National Academies : the National Academy of Sciences (elected 1966), the National Academy of Medicine (1975), and the National Academy of Engineering (1978). He was also a member of both the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1969) and the American Philosophical Society (1979). In 2016, President Barack Obama honored Garwin with

1360-688: Is based on an intellectual ladder of discoveries and insights from ancient times to the present. Many mathematical and physical ideas used today found their earliest expression in the work of ancient civilizations, such as the Babylonian astronomers and Egyptian engineers , the Greek philosophers of science and mathematicians such as Thales of Miletus , Euclid in Ptolemaic Egypt , Archimedes of Syracuse and Aristarchus of Samos . Roots also emerged in ancient Asian cultures such as India and China, and particularly

1445-512: Is currently IBM Fellow Emeritus at the Thomas J. Watson Research Center in Yorktown Heights, New York. During his career Garwin divided his time between applied research, basic science, and consulting to the U.S. Government on national-security matters. Parallel to his appointment at IBM, at different periods he held an adjunct professorship in physics at Columbia University ; an appointment as

1530-544: Is currently a member of the National Academies' Committee on International Security and Arms Control and has served on 27 other National Academies committees. In 2017, science journalist Joel N. Shurkin published a biography of Garwin, True Genius: The Life and Work of Richard Garwin, in which Shurkin writes about "the most influential scientist you never heard of." Garwin received the National Medal of Science ,

1615-501: Is managed by a senior official. The senior official in most bureaus is an Assistant Secretary of State , with some senior officials having other titles such as Director or Ambassador-at-Large . The final tier of senior leadership below Assistant Secretary is Deputy Assistant Secretary, of which there are several dozen. Staff below the Deputy Assistant Secretary rank are generally considered "working level." Officials from

1700-589: Is the Nobel Prize in Physics , awarded since 1901 by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences . National physical societies have many prizes and awards for professional recognition. In the case of the American Physical Society , as of 2023, there are 25 separate prizes and 33 separate awards in the field. Chartered Physicist (CPhys) is a chartered status and a professional qualification awarded by

1785-520: Is thus sometimes used as a metonym . Established in 1789 as the first administrative arm of the U.S. executive branch , the State Department is considered among the most powerful and prestigious executive agencies. It is headed by the U.S. secretary of state , who reports directly to the U.S. president and is a member of the Cabinet . Analogous to a foreign minister , the secretary of state serves as

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1870-577: The American Physical Society , the Institute of Physics , with the oldest physical society being the German Physical Society . United States Department of State The United States Department of State ( DOS ), or simply the State Department , is an executive department of the U.S. federal government responsible for the country's foreign policy and relations . Equivalent to

1955-598: The Andrew D. White Professor-at-Large at Cornell University ; and a professorship in public policy, and in physics, at Harvard University . He has also been the Philip D. Reed Senior Fellow at the Council on Foreign Relations in New York, NY. Garwin served on the U.S. President's Science Advisory Committee from 1962–65 and 1969–72, under Presidents Kennedy, Johnson, and Nixon. He has been

2040-586: The Case Institute of Technology in 1947, and two years later his Doctor of Philosophy from the University of Chicago under the supervision of Enrico Fermi at the age of 21. Another of Fermi's students, Marvin L. Goldberger , claims that Fermi said that "Garwin was the only true genius he had ever met". After graduating from the University of Chicago, Garwin joined the physics faculty there and spent summers as

2125-631: The Institute of Physics . It is denoted by the postnominals "CPhys". Achieving chartered status in any profession denotes to the wider community a high level of specialised subject knowledge and professional competence. According to the Institute of Physics, holders of the award of the Chartered Physicist (CPhys) demonstrate the "highest standards of professionalism, up-to-date expertise, quality and safety" along with "the capacity to undertake independent practice and exercise leadership" as well as "commitment to keep pace with advancing knowledge and with

2210-539: The Islamic medieval period , which saw the development of scientific methodology emphasising experimentation , such as the work of Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) in the 11th century. The modern scientific worldview and the bulk of physics education can be said to flow from the scientific revolution in Europe, starting with the work of astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus leading to the physics of Galileo Galilei and Johannes Kepler in

2295-521: The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People's Republic of China . It also manages the U.S. Foreign Service , provides diplomatic training to U.S. officials and military personnel, exercises partial jurisdiction over immigration , and provides various services to Americans, such as issuing passports and visas , posting foreign travel advisories, and advancing commercial ties abroad. The department administers

2380-668: The State, War, and Navy Building in 1875. Since May 1947, the State Department has been based in the Harry S. Truman Building , which originally was intended to house the Department of Defense; it has since undergone several expansions and renovations, most recently in 2016. Previously known as the "Main State Building" , in September 2000 it was renamed in honor of President Harry S. Truman , who

2465-803: The Treasury Building and then the Seven Buildings at 19th Street and Pennsylvania Avenue. The State Department moved several times throughout the capital in the ensuing decades, including six buildings in September 1800; the War Office Building west of the White House the following May; the Treasury Building once more from September 1819 to November 1866; the Washington City Orphan Home from November 1866 to July 1875; and

2550-517: The census . President Washington signed the new legislation on September 15. Most of these domestic duties gradually were transferred to various federal departments and agencies established in the 19th century. However, the secretary of state still retains a few domestic responsibilities, such as serving as keeper of the Great Seal and being the officer to whom a president or vice president wishing to resign must deliver an instrument in writing declaring

2635-611: The ministry of foreign affairs of other nations, its primary duties are advising the U.S. president on international relations, administering diplomatic missions , negotiating international treaties and agreements, and representing the U.S. at the United Nations . The department is headquartered in the Harry S Truman Building , a few blocks from the White House , in the Foggy Bottom neighborhood of Washington, D.C. ; "Foggy Bottom"

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2720-655: The 1960s, "Jason scientist Richard Garwin, a nuclear physicist who, years before, helped design the Castle Bravo hydrogen bomb, held a seminar on the SADEYE cluster bomb and other munitions that would be most effective when accompanying the sensors" of the electronic barrier in Vietnam, according to page 205 of Annie Jacobsen's book, "The Pentagon's Brain: An Uncensored History of DARPA, America's Top Secret Military Research Agency," that Little Brown & Company, NY published in 2015. During

2805-666: The 1980s and 1990s he advocated anti-ballistic missile concepts such as the bed of nails defense , a plan that was never implemented. From 1993 to August 2001, he chaired the Arms Control and Nonproliferation Advisory Board of the U.S. Department of State . From 1966 to 1969 he served on the Defense Science Board . He also served on the Commission to Assess the Ballistic Missile Threat to the United States in 1998. He

2890-742: The 1996 reorganization, the Administrator of the US Agency for International Development (USAID), while leading an independent agency, also reports to the secretary of state, as does the US ambassador to the United Nations . From 1790 to 1800, the State Department was headquartered in Philadelphia , the national capital at the time. It occupied a building at Church and Fifth Street. In 1800, it moved from Philadelphia to Washington, D.C., where it briefly occupied

2975-579: The 19th century. Many physicists contributed to the development of quantum mechanics in the early-to-mid 20th century. New knowledge in the early 21st century includes a large increase in understanding physical cosmology . The broad and general study of nature, natural philosophy , was divided into several fields in the 19th century, when the concept of "science" received its modern shape. Specific categories emerged, such as "biology" and "biologist", "physics" and "physicist", "chemistry" and "chemist", among other technical fields and titles. The term physicist

3060-698: The 2015–16 cycle, 17% and 24% of American applicants were successful in securing research and English Teaching Assistance grants, respectively. However, selectivity and application numbers vary substantially by country and by type of grant. For example, grants were awarded to 30% of Americans applying to teach English in Laos and 50% of applicants to do research in Laos. In contrast, 6% of applicants applying to teach English in Belgium were successful compared to 16% of applicants to do research in Belgium. The US Department of State's Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs sponsors

3145-564: The Committee of Correspondence that was used by the colony of Massachusetts to communicate with the other colonies. The Committee of Secret Correspondence was renamed the Committee of Foreign Affairs in 1777. In 1781, the Department of Foreign Affairs was established as a permanent body to replace the Committee of Foreign Affairs, and the office of secretary of foreign affairs was established to lead

3230-899: The Congress , White House , and executive branch agencies, including the Department of Defense , Department of Commerce , and Department of Homeland Security . The program is named in honor of Benjamin Franklin , and aims to attract mid-career professionals to enrich and expand the department's capabilities. Unlike the Jefferson Science Fellows Program, a Franklin Fellowship is a year-long volunteer position for which one may obtain sponsor support or participate out of personal resources. Participation areas assigned to Franklin Fellows are determined by several factors, including issues of priority to

3315-709: The Consular Bureau; the Home Bureau; and the Keeper of the Archives, Translator, and Disbursing Agent. The office of Commissioner of Patents was created in 1836. In 1842, the Department of State was required to report to Congress on foreign commercial systems, and a clerk within the department was assigned the responsibility of arranging this information. This position was established as the Superintendent of Statistics in 1854 and

3400-405: The Department of State was the fourth most desired employer for undergraduates according to BusinessWeek . From 2009 to 2017, the State Department launched 21st Century Statecraft, with the official goal of "complementing traditional foreign policy tools with newly innovated and adapted instruments of statecraft that fully leverage the technologies of our interconnected world." The initiative

3485-469: The Department of State/USAID, to help with its daily operations. The program is applied for, follows a process starting in August, and takes about a year to learn a candidate's ranking results. Awards are not solely achievement based, but intelligence and writing skills should support one's suitability for the position as the committee determines. A candidate applies for the program online, which entails submitting

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3570-719: The Diplomatic Bureau; the Consular Bureau; the Home Bureau; the Bureau of Archives, Laws, and Commissions; the Bureau of Pardons and Remissions, Copyrights, and the Care of the Library; the Disbursing and Superintending Bureau; and the Translating and Miscellaneous Bureau. His successor John Forsyth reduced this number to just four the following year, overseen by a chief clerk: the Diplomatic Bureau;

3655-501: The Executive Branch, the Department of State is the lead US foreign affairs agency, and its head, the secretary of state, is the president's principal foreign policy advisor. The department advances US objectives and interests in the world through its primary role in developing and implementing the president's foreign policy. It also provides an array of important services to US citizens and to foreigners seeking to visit or immigrate to

3740-484: The Fulbright Program from an annual appropriation from the U.S. Congress . Additional direct and in-kind support comes from partner governments, foundations, corporations, and host institutions both in and outside the US The Fulbright Program is administered by cooperating organizations like the Institute of International Education . It operates in over 160 countries around the world. In each of 49 countries,

3825-566: The Fulbright Program, competitively selected US citizens may become eligible for scholarships to study, conduct research, or exercise their talents abroad; and citizens of other countries may qualify to do the same in the United States. The program was established to increase mutual understanding between the people of the United States and other countries through the exchange of persons, knowledge, and skills. The Fulbright Program provides 8,000 grants annually to undertake graduate study, advanced research, university lecturing, and classroom teaching. In

3910-426: The Secretary through the Assistant Secretaries are nominated by the President and confirmed by the Senate. Under the Obama administration, the website of the Department of State had indicated that the State Department's 75,547 employees included 13,855 foreign service officers; 49,734 locally employed staff, whose duties are primarily serving overseas; and 10,171 predominantly domestic civil service employees. Since

3995-652: The Soviet Union in the subsequent Cold War. Consequently, the number of domestic and overseas employees grew from roughly 2,000 in 1940 to over 13,000 in 1960. In accordance with the 1984 Act to Combat International Terrorism, the U.S. State Department established the Rewards for Justice program . The Rewards For Justice program offered money as an incentive for information leading to the arrest of leaders of terrorist groups, financiers of terrorism, including any individual that abide in plotting terror attacks by cooperating with extremist groups. The Rewards For Justice program offered money as an incentive for information leading to

4080-524: The State Department spending time in the United States and interacting with their American colleagues, leadership and counterparts. Notable alumni of Professional Fellows include Edmond Fernandes , Anoka Abeyratne . The Fulbright Program, including the Fulbright–Hays Program , is a program of competitive, merit-based grants for international educational exchange for students, scholars, teachers, professionals, scientists and artists, founded by United States Senator J. William Fulbright in 1946. Under

4165-401: The Statistical Office was created within the department. In 1853, the office of Assistant Secretary of State was created to oversee the heads of each bureau. A Commissioner of Immigration existed between 1864 and 1868. An Examiner of Claims was established in 1868 to address claims by American citizens against foreign nations, but it was abolished in 1868 and then reestablished in 1870 under

4250-475: The United States' highest honor for the fields of science and engineering (award year 2002), for "his research and discoveries in physics and related fields, and of his longstanding service to the Nation by providing valuable scientific advice on important questions of national security over a half a century." He also received the equivalent, La Grande Médaille de l'Académie des Sciences, from France for his role in discovering parity violation in pion decay. He

4335-449: The United States. All foreign affairs activities—US representation abroad, foreign assistance programs, countering international crime, foreign military training programs, the services the department provides, and more—are paid for out of the foreign affairs budget, which represents little more than 1% of the total federal budget. The department's core activities and purpose include: The Department of State conducts these activities with

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4420-456: The age range of 18 to 35 years old from the 10 member-states of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations and Timor Leste . YSEALI's programs include competitive exchange fellowship programs to the United States , virtual and on-ground workshops within Southeast Asia , and seed grant funding opportunities. The programs fall under the key core themes of civic engagement , sustainable development , economic development , governance , and

4505-399: The approach to problem-solving) developed in your education or experience as a physicist, in all cases regardless of whether the experience is in academia, industry, government, or elsewhere. Management of physics-related work qualifies, and so does appropriate graduate student work. The South African Institute of Physics also delivers a certification of Professional Physicist (Pr.Phys). At

4590-430: The arrest of leaders of terrorist groups , financiers of terrorism, including any individual that abide in plotting terror attacks by cooperating with extremist groups . In 1997, Madeleine Albright became the first woman appointed Secretary of State and the first foreign-born woman to serve in the Cabinet. The 3rd millennium saw the department reinvent itself in response to the rapid digitization of society and

4675-538: The bureau was replaced by an office to facilitate the transfer of information between consular offices and the new department. The Passport Bureau was restored the same year, and its name was changed to the Bureau of Citizenship in 1907. The department underwent a major reform in 1909 when Congress expanded its funding. Separate divisions were established within the Department for Latin American Affairs, Far Eastern Affairs, Near Eastern Affairs, Western European Affairs, and Information. An additional Division of Mexican Affairs

4760-506: The country as well as a candidate's degree of career seniority and personal interests. See also Young Southeast Asian Leaders Initiative The Young Southeast Asian Leaders Initiative (YSEALI) (pronounced / w aɪ s iː ˈ l iː / ) is a program of the DoS for emerging leaders from Southeast Asia . The program was launched by President Barack Obama in Manila in December 2013 as a way to strengthen leadership development, networking, and cultural exchange among emerging leaders within

4845-426: The decision. Reflecting the fledgling status of the US at the time, the Department of State under Secretary Jefferson comprised only six personnel, two diplomatic posts (in London and Paris), and 10 consular posts. When Jefferson took charge of the department, one clerk oversaw The Foreign Office and another oversaw the Home Office. Congress authorized the department hire a chief clerk for each office in June 1790, but

4930-412: The department the first federal agency to be created under the new Constitution. This legislation remains the basic law of the Department of State. In September 1789, additional legislation changed the name of the agency to the Department of State and assigned it a variety of domestic duties, including managing the United States Mint , keeping the Great Seal of the United States , and administering

5015-425: The department. The U.S. Constitution , drafted September 1787 and ratified the following year, gave the president responsibility for conducting the federal government's affairs with foreign states. To that end, on July 21, 1789, the First Congress approved legislation to reestablish the Department of Foreign Affairs under the new government, which President George Washington signed into law on July 27, making

5100-433: The departments of Defense, Treasury, and Commerce. The department also consults with Congress about foreign policy initiatives and policies. The most senior official in the Department is the Secretary of State. The Secretary is the chief executive officer of the Department of State and a member of the Cabinet who answers directly to, and advises, the president of the United States . The Secretary organizes and supervises

5185-471: The designation of Professional Engineer (P. Eng.). This designation was unveiled at the CAP congress in 1999 and already more than 200 people carry this distinction. To get the certification, at minimum proof of honours bachelor or higher degree in physics or a closely related discipline must be provided. Also, the physicist must have completed, or be about to complete, three years of recent physics-related work experience after graduation. And, unless exempted,

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5270-407: The early 1600s. The work on mechanics , along with a mathematical treatment of physical systems, was further developed by Christiaan Huygens and culminated in Newton's laws of motion and Newton's law of universal gravitation by the end of the 17th century. The experimental discoveries of Faraday and the theory of Maxwell's equations of electromagnetism were developmental high points during

5355-456: The end of the nineteenth century, the department consisted of the Chief Clerk's Bureau, the Diplomatic Bureau, the Consular Bureau, the Bureau of Accounts, the Bureau of Foreign Commerce, the Bureau of Appointments, and the Bureau of Archives. Other offices, such as that of translator, also operated separately from the bureau system. In 1903, the Bureau of Foreign Commerce was transferred to the newly created Department of Commerce and Labor , and

5440-439: The entire department and its staff. Immediately subordinate to the Secretary are the Deputy Secretary and the Deputy Secretary for Management and Resources , the second- and third-highest ranking officials in the department. Ranking below the two Deputy Secretaries are six Under Secretaries , who each oversee several bureaus and offices tasked with specific areas of policy and administration. Each bureau or office, in turn,

5525-440: The federal government's chief diplomat and representative abroad, and is the first Cabinet official in the order of precedence and in the presidential line of succession . The position is currently held by Antony Blinken , who was appointed by President Joe Biden and confirmed by the U.S. Senate on January 26, 2021, by a vote of 78–22. As of 2024 , the State Department maintains 271 diplomatic posts worldwide, second only to

5610-429: The final months of World War I, the Bureau of Citizenship was split into the Division of Passport Control and the Visa Office. Other changes made during World War I include the conversion of the Division of Information into the Division of Foreign Intelligence in 1917 and the establishment of the Correspondence Bureau in 1918. The Division of Russian Affairs was established in 1919, and the Division of Political Information

5695-420: The financial means to sustain their work abroad. Combined with the common practice of appointing individuals based on politics or patronage, rather than merit, this led the department to largely favor those with political networks and wealth, rather than skill and knowledge. In 1833, Secretary of State Louis McLane oversaw a major restructure of the Department of State into a formal collection of seven bureaus:

5780-432: The global economy. In 2007, it launched an official blog, Dipnote , as well as a Twitter account of the same name, to engage with a global audience. Internally, it launched a wiki , Diplopedia ; a suggestion forum called the Sounding Board ; and a professional networking software, "Corridor". In May 2009, the Virtual Student Federal Service (VSFS) was created to provide remote internships to students. The same year,

5865-528: The increasing expectations and requirements for which any profession must take responsibility". Chartered Physicist is considered to be equal in status to Chartered Engineer, which the IoP also awards as a member of the Engineering Council UK, and other chartered statuses in the UK. It is also considered a "regulated profession" under the European professional qualification directives. The Canadian Association of Physicists can appoint an official designation called Professional Physicist ( P. Phys. ), similar to

5950-1112: The largest employer being the last. Physicists in academia or government labs tend to have titles such as Assistants, Professors , Sr./Jr. Scientist, or postdocs . As per the American Institute of Physics , some 20% of new physics Ph.D.s holds jobs in engineering development programs, while 14% turn to computer software and about 11% are in business/education. A majority of physicists employed apply their skills and training to interdisciplinary sectors (e.g. finance ). Job titles for graduate physicists include Agricultural Scientist , Air Traffic Controller , Biophysicist , Computer Programmer , Electrical Engineer , Environmental Analyst , Geophysicist , Medical Physicist , Meteorologist , Oceanographer , Physics Teacher / Professor / Researcher , Research Scientist , Reactor Physicist , Engineering Physicist , Satellite Missions Analyst, Science Writer , Stratigrapher , Software Engineer , Systems Engineer , Microelectronics Engineer , Radar Developer, Technical Consultant, etc. The majority of Physics terminal bachelor's degree holders are employed in

6035-459: The newly established Law Bureau. In 1870, Secretary of State Hamilton Fish reorganized the department into twelve bureaus: the Chief Clerk's Bureau, two Diplomatic Bureaus, two Consular Bureaus, the Law Bureau, the Bureau of Accounts, the Statistical Bureau, the Bureau of Translations, the Bureau of Pardons and Commissions, the Bureau of Domestic Records, and the Passport Bureau. The bureaus of law, translations, and domestic records each consisted of

6120-483: The offices were consolidated under a single clerk the following month. In 1793, responsibility over patents was transferred from the cabinet to the Department of State. The office of superintendent of patents was created to carry out this responsibility, but the office was not recognized by Congress until 1830. In the 19th century, the U.S. State Department was responsible for administering the consular services and Diplomatic Security Service (DSS). The Department of State

6205-622: The oldest U.S. civilian intelligence agency, the Bureau of Intelligence and Research , and maintains a law enforcement arm , the Diplomatic Security Service (DSS). The Articles of Confederation did not designate a separate executive branch of the government. Foreign affairs were delegated to the Committee of Secret Correspondence by the Congress of the Confederation in 1775, based on

6290-433: The private sector. Other fields are academia, government and military service, nonprofit entities, labs and teaching. Typical duties of physicists with master's and doctoral degrees working in their domain involve research, observation and analysis, data preparation, instrumentation, design and development of industrial or medical equipment, computing and software development, etc. The highest honor awarded to physicists

6375-699: The renovation of the buildings on the 11.8 acres (4.8 ha) Navy Hill campus, which housed the World War II headquarters of the Office of Strategic Services and was the first headquarters of the Central Intelligence Agency . In June 2022 the State Department launched a new transnational association , the Minerals Security Partnership . The Executive Branch and the Congress have constitutional responsibilities for US foreign policy. Within

6460-501: The world. In the United States, about 5,000 professional, technical, and administrative employees work compiling and analyzing reports from overseas, providing logistical support to posts, communicating with the American public, formulating and overseeing the budget, issuing passports and travel warnings , and more. In carrying out these responsibilities, the Department of State works in close coordination with other federal agencies, including

6545-521: Was a major proponent of internationalism and diplomacy. As the DOS is located in the Foggy Bottom neighborhood of Washington, it is sometimes metonymically referred to as "Foggy Bottom". The US Department of State has in the recent years rolled out Professional Exchange Fellows who have risen to professional ranks in their lives and are chosen by the US Embassies worldwide to be a professional fellows of

6630-738: Was coined by William Whewell (also the originator of the term "scientist") in his 1840 book The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences . A standard undergraduate physics curriculum consists of classical mechanics , electricity and magnetism , non-relativistic quantum mechanics , optics , statistical mechanics and thermodynamics , and laboratory experience. Physics students also need training in mathematics ( calculus , differential equations , linear algebra , complex analysis , etc.), and in computer science . Any physics-oriented career position requires at least an undergraduate degree in physics or applied physics, while career options widen with

6715-417: Was composed of two primary administrative units: the diplomatic service, which staffed US legations and embassies, and the consular service, which was primarily responsible for promoting American commerce abroad and assisting distressed American sailors. Each service developed separately, but both lacked sufficient funding to provide for a career; consequently, appointments to either service fell on those with

6800-539: Was designed to utilize digital technology and the Internet to promote foreign policy goals; examples include promoting an SMS campaign to provide disaster relief to Pakistan, and sending DOS personnel to Libya to assist in developing Internet infrastructure and e-government. Colin Powell , who led the department from 2001 to 2005, became the first African-American to hold the post; his immediate successor, Condoleezza Rice ,

6885-566: Was established in 1915. The Bureau of Trade Relations was abolished in 1912 and replaced by an Office of Foreign Trade Advisers, and the Office of the Adviser on Commercial Treaties was split from this office in 1916. During World War I , the Bureau of Citizenship was tasked with vetting every person who entered or departed from the United States to ensure public safety. New branches of the Bureau of Citizenship were opened in New York and San Francisco. In

6970-538: Was established in 1920. The Department of State underwent its first major overhaul with the Rogers Act of 1924 , which merged the diplomatic and consular services into the Foreign Service , a professionalized personnel system under which the secretary of state is authorized to assign diplomats abroad. An extremely difficult Foreign Service examination was also implemented to ensure highly qualified recruits, along with

7055-450: Was established in 2003 by the DoS to establish a new model for engaging the American academic science, technology, engineering and medical communities in the formulation and implementation of US foreign policy. The Fellows (as they are called, if chosen for the program) are paid around $ 50,000 during the program and can earn special bonuses of up to $ 10,000. The program's intent is to equip Fellows with awareness of procedural intricacies of

7140-651: Was named one of the ten founders of national reconnaissance. While at IBM, his work on spin-echo magnetic resonance laid the foundations for MRI ; he was the catalyst for the discovery and publication of the Cooley–Tukey FFT algorithm , today a staple of digital signal processing; he worked on gravitational waves ; and played a crucial role in the development of laser printers and touch-screen monitors. He has been granted 47 patents and has published over 500 papers. In December 1952, he joined IBM's Watson laboratory, where he worked continuously until his retirement in 1993. He

7225-684: Was the second female secretary of state and the second African-American. Hillary Clinton became the third female secretary of state when she was appointed in 2009. In 2014, the State Department began expanding into the Navy Hill Complex across 23rd Street NW from the Truman Building. A joint venture consisting of the architectural firms of Goody, Clancy and the Louis Berger Group won a $ 2.5 million contract in January 2014 to begin planning

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