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77-714: The source of the Rhumel river is in the Ferdjioua (Mila) mountains. From there it meanders through the Constantine plateau, then narrows considerably north of Aïn Smara where it forms an almost complete oxbow before infiltrating, in a SW/NE orientation, the Djebel El Hadjar limestone tables and the Aïn El Bey plateau. From here, it flows into a narrow ravine near Boussouf , goes through several curves, and becomes very narrow again at

154-565: A bill to distribute farmland to his veterans, and landless members of the urban poor. A similar measure had been rejected in 63 BC, which arguably made the Senate over confident in their ability to control popular unrest. Although Pompey could not overcome optimate opposition on his own, the situation changed when Marius' nephew Julius Caesar sought his endorsement for the consulship in 59 BC. A skilled, unscrupulous, and ambitious politician, Caesar used this alliance to harness Pompey's influence with

231-545: A centre of piracy, along with other inland areas and reorganised into six parts. These actions significantly increased Roman state income and presented Pompey with multiple opportunities to increase his personal wealth and patronage base. Before his return to Italy in 62 BC, Pompey paid his troops bonuses totalling around 16,000 talents , but despite fears he intended to follow Sulla's example, they were dismissed upon arrival at Brundisium. His journey to Rome drew huge crowds wherever he stopped, showing that although opinion in

308-507: A deep ravine and has a dramatic appearance. In 1911, Baedeker described it as "resembling the Kasba of Algiers , the picturesque charm of which has so far been marred by the construction of but a few new streets." Nearby are The topography of the city is unique and it determines the need for bridges. At the end of the 19th century, Guy de Maupassant wrote: "Eight bridges used to cross this ravine. Six of these bridges are in ruins today." Today

385-672: A fresh revolt in Caucasian Albania forced him to retrace his steps. Victory at the Abas enabled him to impose terms on the Albanians and agree truces with other tribes on the northern side of the Caucasus. Pompey then wintered in Armenia, settling minor border contests and raids between his allies Phraates and Tigranes. Relying on his naval blockade to wear down Mithridates, Pompey spent 64 BC annexing

462-526: A place called "the Roman arches". This leads to the entrance to the Kheneg gorges , whose huge eastern pillar, called "Tiddis mountain", is the site of Tiddis , a significant Berber and Roman city that was explored by the archaeologist André Berthier . Not far away is the village of Messaoud Boudjriou (previously Aïn-Kerma) and its old antimony mine. The lower Rhumel (or Oued-el-Kebir) passes through deep gorges in

539-417: A population of about 450,000 (938,475 with the agglomeration), making it the third largest city in the country after Algiers and Oran . There are several museums and historical sites located around the city. Constantine is often referred to as the "City of Bridges" because of the numerous picturesque bridges connecting the various hills, valleys, and ravines that the city is built on and around. Constantine

616-688: A rebellion in Gallia Narbonensis , after which his army entered winter quarters near Narbo Martius . In early 76 BC, he crossed the Col de Portet and entered the Iberian peninsula, where he would remain for the next five years. His arrival boosted the morale of Metellus' troops, while some rebels changed sides, but soon after he was defeated by Sertorius at the Battle of Lauron , losing one third of his army while inflicting next to no losses on Sertorius' army. This

693-563: A series of measures, one of which was to appoint Pompey to a military command. While Lepidus continued south, Pompey raised troops from among his veterans in Picenum, and moved north to besiege Mutina , capital of Cisalpine Gaul. The town was held by Lepidus' ally Marcus Junius Brutus , who surrendered after a lengthy siege, and was assassinated next day, allegedly on Pompey's orders. Catulus then defeated Lepidus outside Rome, while Pompey marched against his rear, catching him near Cosa. Lepidus and

770-401: A significant role in the transformation of Rome from republic to empire . Early in his career, he was a partisan and protégé of the Roman general and dictator Sulla ; later, he became the political ally, and finally the enemy, of Julius Caesar . A member of the senatorial nobility, Pompey entered into a military career while still young. He rose to prominence serving Sulla as a commander in

847-418: A special senatorial decree. Plutarch suggests Pompey supported Crassus as his co-consul in order to put him under an obligation. The two men were elected consuls for 70 BC, but allegedly differed on almost every measure, rendering their term "politically barren and without achievement." However, their consulship did see the plebeian tribune recover powers removed by Sulla. One of the most significant

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924-412: Is now the largest African university under the name of "Université Salah Boubnider" known as "Université Constantine 3". Constantine is served by Mohamed Boudiaf International Airport . Constantine also owns its 14.7 km-long tram network serving the city centre at the airport and the main neighbourhoods of the metropolis Constantine tramway . Constantine is twinned with: Constantine has been

1001-430: Is one of the biggest Islamic universities with many faculties covering religious studies, foreign languages, and literature. Constantine's new town "nouvelle ville ali mendjeli" has two big universities: Université Constantine 2 known as "lella nsoumer" offers maths, computer and economy majors, and the new university is actually a university pole with more than 20,000 students, 17 faculties and more than 40,000 residents. It

1078-590: Is the capital of Constantine Province in northeastern Algeria . During Roman times it was called Cirta and was renamed "Constantina" in honour of Emperor Constantine the Great . Located somewhat inland, Constantine is about 80 kilometres (50 miles) from the Mediterranean coast , on the banks of the Rhumel River . Constantine is regarded as the capital of eastern Algeria and the commercial centre of its region and has

1155-410: Is the railhead of a prosperous and diverse agricultural area. It is also a centre of the grain trade and has flour mills, a tractor factory, and industries producing textiles, wool, linen and leather goods. Algeria and Tunisia serve as its markets. Constantine has a Mediterranean climate ( Köppen climate classification Csa ), with hot, dry summers and mild, moist winters. The city is framed by

1232-588: The Anti-Lebanon Mountains and capturing Pella, Jordan and Damascus . Pompey's incursion further south, into Judea , was occasioned on account of its inhabitants, under the leadership of Hyrcanus II and Aristobulus II , having ravaged Phoenicia and Pompey wanting to bring a stop to it. The initial onslaught was disrupted by the Hasmonean Civil War , in which Pompey backed Hyrcanus II over his brother Aristobulus II. When he compelled

1309-519: The Battle of Italica . Pompey faced Sertorius in the indecisive Battle of Sucro , in which Sertorius defeated Pompey's right flank and nearly captured Pompey himself, but his legate Lucius Afranius defeated the Sertorian right. Sertorius withdrew inland, then turned to fight at Saguntum , where Pompey lost 6,000 men, including his brother-in-law Memmius, reputedly his most effective subordinate. Sertorius himself suffered 3,000 casualties, one of whom

1386-518: The Battle of the Colline Gate . Pompey, who was pursuing the government forces, arrived just after the battle. By the end of 82 BC, Sulla had expelled his opponents from Italy, and engineered his nomination as Dictator by the Senate. Either through admiration of his abilities, or concern at his ambition, Sulla sought to consolidate his alliance with Pompey by persuading him to divorce Antistia, and marry his stepdaughter Aemilia. Plutarch claims she

1463-468: The First Triumvirate , an informal political alliance designed to counter-balance the optimates . Pompey's influence was based on his reputation as a military commander, and popularity with the Roman people. Crassus' wealth allowed him to construct extensive patronage networks, but he lacked the military clout essential for political success in the late Republican era . Once elected, Caesar secured

1540-528: The Muslim architecture still visible today. During the Ottoman reign of Constantine, merchants traded a variety of goods such as; agricultural products, animals, embroidered textiles, leather, precious metals, swords, and pistols. In 1826 the last bey, Ahmed Bey ben Mohamed Chérif , became the new head of state. He led a fierce resistance against French forces, which invaded Algeria four years later. By 13 October 1837,

1617-662: The Roman Senate . Sulla's return in 83 BC sparked a civil war within the Roman world. In the year prior to Sulla's return Pompey had raised and equipped a full legion from amongst his father's old clients and veterans in Picenum . In the spring of 83 Sulla landed in Brundusium . As he marched north-west towards Campania , Pompey led his own legion south to join him. The government in Rome sent out three separate armies in an attempt to prevent

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1694-529: The Social War (91–87 BC) . Strabo died in 87 BC during the short-lived civil war known as the Bellum Octavianum , although sources differ on whether he succumbed to disease, or was murdered by his own soldiers. Prior to his death, Strabo was accused of embezzlement ; as his legal heir, Pompey was held responsible for the alleged crime and put on trial. He was acquitted, supposedly after agreeing to marry

1771-553: The Third Mithridatic War , and in various other military campaigns. Pompey's early success earned him the cognomen Magnus – "the Great" – after his boyhood hero Alexander the Great . His adversaries gave him the nickname adulescentulus carnifex ("teenage butcher") for his ruthlessness. In 60 BC, Pompey joined Crassus and Caesar in the informal political alliance known as the First Triumvirate , cemented by Pompey's marriage with Caesar's daughter, Julia . After

1848-551: The Third Servile War . Pompey returned to Italy just before Crassus defeated the main rebel army in 71 BC, arriving in time to massacre 6,000 fugitives from the battle. His claim to have ended the war by doing so was a long-standing source of resentment for Crassus. Pompey was granted a second triumph for his victory in Hispania, and nominated for the consulship. Since he was both too young and technically ineligible, this required

1925-577: The Vaccaei . Dire straits caused by this stretch of the campaign and Sertorius' guerrilla warfare led Pompey to write a letter to the Senate asking for funds and men, and scolding their lack of support for him and Metellus. Pompey's letter had the effect of galvanizing the Senate into sending him more men and funds. Reinforced by two more legions, in 74 BC he and Metellus began a war of attrition against their enemy. As his chief opponent had lost most of his Roman legionaries and could no longer match him in

2002-511: The judge's daughter, Antistia . One of the main issues at stake in 87 BC was the appointment of the consul Lucius Cornelius Sulla as commander of the Roman army in the ongoing First Mithridatic War , an opportunity to amass enormous wealth. During his absence in the East, his political rivals led by Lucius Cornelius Cinna , Gnaeus Papirius Carbo and Gaius Marius the Younger regained control of

2079-493: The Great of Armenia . Lucullus was a skilled general who won numerous victories, but claims he was protracting the war for "power and wealth" led to a Senate investigation, while by 69 BC his troops were weary and mutinous. In 68 BC, Quintus Marcius Rex replaced Lucullus in Cicilia, while Manius Acilius Glabrio received Bithynia. He also assumed leadership of the war against Mithridates, but failed to respond decisively when

2156-564: The Great , who had defeated Maxentius. During Roman rule, the city exported wheat and was the only population center that lay on both of the Roman roads paved in ancient Algeria. Captured by the Vandals in 432, Constantine returned to the Byzantine Exarchate of Africa from 534 to 697. Following the Arab conquest of the city in the 8th century, it became known as Qacentina . The city was a part of

2233-745: The Mithridatic War, notably Soli , renamed Pompeiopolis, and Dyme in Greece, with others sent to towns in Libya and Calabria . These communities retained a strong attachment to both Rome and Pompey. In 73 BC, Lucius Licinius Lucullus , formerly one of Sulla's chief lieutenants, was made proconsul of Cilicia , and commander in the Third Mithridatic War. The war began in 74 BC, when the last ruler of Bithynia died and left his kingdom to Rome, sparking an invasion by Mithridates VI of Pontus , and Tigranes

2310-627: The Numidian mountains and empties into the sea east of the Gulf of Jijel . The main tributary of the Rhumel is the Oued-Boumerzoug which rises in the region of Aïn M'lila . Its waters are widely used for irrigation, and the important spa of Ain Fesguia is located towards the head of the valley. This tributary supplies drinking water to the city of Constantine, which is highly prone to flooding being situated at

2387-516: The Senate was divided, Pompey remained as popular as ever with the masses. He was awarded a third triumph for his achievements in Asia Minor, celebrated on his 45th birthday in 61 BC. Pompey claimed the new provinces established in the East had increased annual state income from 200 million to 340 million sesterces , plus an additional payment of 480 million sesterces to the treasury. He refused to provide details of his personal fortune, but given

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2464-473: The Senate, Pompey was appointed military commander in Spain with proconsular authority in order to defeat Sertorius. This act was technically illegal as he had yet to hold public office, illustrating Pompey's preference for military glory, and disregard for traditional political constraints. Pompey recruited 30,000 infantry and 1,000 cavalry, evidence of the threat posed by Sertorius. En route to Hispania, he subdued

2541-514: The amounts declared publicly, this must have been enormous. Some of it was used to build one of the most famous structures of Ancient Rome, the Theatre of Pompey . However, the Senate then refused to ratify the treaties agreed by Pompey as part of his settlement of the East. Opposition was led by the optimates Cato the Younger and Metellus Celer , whose sister Mucia had recently been divorced by Pompey, for reasons still disputed. They also defeated

2618-454: The civil war of 83–81 BC . Pompey's success as a general while young enabled him to advance directly to his first consulship without following the traditional cursus honorum (the required steps to advance in a political career). He was elected as consul on three occasions (70, 55, 52 BC). He celebrated three triumphs , served as a commander in the Sertorian War , the Third Servile War ,

2695-517: The confluence of the Boumerzoug and the Rhumel. Another tributary is the Oued Dekri , near the town of Chelghoum Laïd 50 km southwest of Constantine. 36°52′17″N 6°04′59″E  /  36.8713°N 6.0830°E  / 36.8713; 6.0830 Constantine, Algeria Constantine ( Arabic : قسنطينة , romanized :  Qusanṭīnah ), also spelled Qacentina or Kasantina ,

2772-710: The consul Gaius Papirius Carbo in Cisalpine Gaul . During this campaign Pompey acted as Metellus's cavalry commander. Metellus and Pompey defeated Carbo's lieutenant, the praetor Gaius Carrinas , in a six-hour battle at the river Aesis, only to be blockaded by Carbo himself. When word of Sulla's victory at the Battle of Sacriportus reached them, Carbo retreated to his base at Ariminium , severely harassed by Pompey's cavalry. Some time later Metellus defeated Gaius Marcius Censorinus , another of Carbo's lieutenants, Pompey's cavalry caught Censorinus's fleeing troops outside their base at Sena Gallica , defeating them and plundering

2849-472: The deaths of Julia and Crassus (in 54 and 53 BC), Pompey switched to the political faction known as the optimates —a conservative faction of the Roman Senate . Pompey and Caesar then began contending for leadership of the Roman state in its entirety, eventually leading to Caesar's Civil War . Pompey was defeated at the Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BC, and he sought refuge in Ptolemaic Egypt , where he

2926-496: The deposed Hiempsal to the Numidian throne. Around this time, his troops began referring to him as Magnus , or "the Great", after Alexander the Great , a figure much admired by the Romans. Shortly thereafter, Pompey formally made this part of his name . On returning to Rome, he asked for a triumph to celebrate his victories, an unprecedented demand for someone so young. Pompey refused to disband his army until Sulla agreed, although

3003-503: The difficulties Pompey faced came from officials who resented his authority. In Gaul, Piso hampered his recruitment efforts, while in Crete , Quintus Metellus refused to comply with his instructions. Pompey spread his forces throughout the Mediterranean to prevent the pirates escaping a Roman fleet by moving elsewhere. Fifteen legates were given specific areas to patrol, while he secured

3080-551: The end of 66 BC. According to contemporary sources, Mithridates and a small contingent escaped the battle, outstripped their pursuers, and reached Colchis on the Black Sea . While there, he took control of the Cimmerian Bosporus from its Roman-backed ruler, his son Machares , who later committed suicide. Meanwhile, Pompey invaded Armenia supported by Tigranes the Younger , whose father quickly came to terms; in return for

3157-477: The field, Pompey, along with Metellus, gained the upper hand, conquering more and more Sertorian cities, slowly grinding down Sertorius' revolt. By now, Sertorius was being undermined by internal divisions. Discontent in Sertorius' coalition of Iberian and Roman forces came to a head in 72 or 73 BC when Perperna, leading a conspiracy with other prominent Sertorians, had Sertorius assassinated and assumed control of

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3234-611: The government forces made one final effort to march to the relief of Praeneste. They mustered 10,000 legionaries and marched to join forces with the Samnites and the Lucanians , fierce enemies of Sulla, who had campaigned against them in the Social War. Pursued by Pompey they united their forces and made for Praeneste. Unable to break through Sulla's blockade, they marched for undefended Rome, only to be caught just in time and defeated by Sulla at

3311-600: The grain route to Rome. These measures won him control of the western Mediterranean in just 40 days, after which his fleets moved to the east, forcing the pirates back to their bases in Cilicia. Pompey led the decisive assault on their stronghold in Coracaesium , winning the Battle of Korakesion and concluding the war in only three months. Most of his opponents surrendered without fighting, thanks to Pompey's reputation for clemency. They were granted lands in cities devastated during

3388-571: The hometown of many noteworthy people in Algeria and France. Pompey People Events Places Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus ( Latin: [ˈŋnae̯ʊs pɔmˈpɛjjʊs ˈmaŋnʊs] ; 29 September 106 BC – 28 September 48 BC), known in English as Pompey ( / ˈ p ɒ m p i / POM -pee ) or Pompey the Great , was a general and statesman of the Roman Republic . He played

3465-462: The idea. When Sulla died in 78 BC, Lepidus sought to block his state funeral and roll back some of Sulla's laws, then became proconsul of Cisalpine and Transalpine Gaul in January 77 BC. When the Senate ordered him back to Rome, Lepidus refused to comply unless granted another term as consul, a proposal that was rapidly rejected. Assembling an army, he began marching on Rome; the Senate responded with

3542-552: The independent and wealthy cities of Syria , which were incorporated into a new Roman province. In the process, he acquired large amounts of money and prestige, as well as criticism from his opponents in Rome, who argued doing so exceeded his authority. Meanwhile, an ageing Mithridates had been cornered in Panticapaeum by another of his sons, Pharnaces II of Pontus . An attempt to commit suicide by taking poison allegedly failed due to his habit of taking "precautionary antidotes", and he

3619-435: The latter re-occupied much of Pontus in 67 BC, then attacked Cappadocia , a Roman ally. Seeing an opportunity, in 66 BC Pompey used the tribunate to pass the lex Manilia , giving him extensive powers throughout Asia Minor in order to defeat Mithridates, in addition to those granted by the lex Gabinia . The optimates were privately horrified that one man should hold so much influence, but fearful of his popularity allowed

3696-611: The latter to surrender Jerusalem , its defenders took refuge in the Temple , which the Romans first stormed , then looted. Judea became a client kingdom ruled by Hyrcanus, while its northern section was incorporated into the Decapolis , a league of semi-autonomous cities (see map). Both Judea and the League were made subordinate to the new province of Syria. Other organisational changes included creating

3773-543: The latter tried to offset the impact by awarding simultaneous triumphs to Lucius Licinius Murena and Gaius Valerius Flaccus . Sometime during this period, Pompey married Mucia Tertia, a member of the powerful Metellus family. They had three children before their divorce in 61 BC; Pompey the younger , usually known as Gnaeus, a daughter, Pompeia Magna , and a younger son, Sextus . Pompey supported Marcus Aemilius Lepidus as consul for 78 BC; Plutarch claims he did so against Sulla's advice, but most modern historians refute

3850-414: The local Roman administration, showing a lack of animosity towards his former opponents, which extended his patronage throughout Hispania and into southern Gaul. Pompey and his army remained in Hispania for a few years conquering the Sertorian remnants, and then marched back to Rome. During Pompey's absence, Marcus Licinius Crassus was charged with suppressing the slave rebellion led by Spartacus known as

3927-549: The measure to pass. Incensed at being replaced, Lucullus called Pompey a "vulture" who profited from the work of others, a reference both to his new command and claim to have finished the war against Spartacus. Pompey agreed an alliance with Phraates III , king of Parthia , whom he persuaded to invade Armenia. When Mithridates offered a truce, Lucullus argued the war was over, but Pompey demanded concessions which could not be accepted. Outnumbered, Mithridates withdrew into Armenia, followed by Pompey, who defeated him at Lycus near

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4004-588: The most important bridges are: Constantine has in general four universities: two of them are downtown Constantine Mentouri Public University , designed by the Brazilian architect Oscar Niemeyer , and Algerian architect Rashid Hassaine , including Zerzara technical engineering pole, Zouaghi Slimane Geography and Earth Sciences Pole, and in the City of El-Khroub is the Institute of Veterinary Sciences. Emir Abdelkader University

4081-417: The nearby cities of Sétif and Bone as operational bases. Constantine is situated on a plateau at an elevation 640 metres (2,100 ft) above sea level . The city is framed by a deep ravine and has a dramatic appearance. The city is very picturesque with a number of bridges over Rhumel River and a viaduct crossing the ravine. The ravine is crossed by seven bridges, including Sidi M'Cid bridge. Constantine

4158-471: The passage of a new agrarian bill, helped by Pompey's veterans, who filled the streets of Rome and allegedly intimidated the Senate. When Bibulus opposed the measure, he was attacked in the forum , and spent the rest of his consulship under virtual house arrest. Caesar then ensured ratification of Pompey's settlements in the east, while the Lex Vatinia made him governor of Gallia Cisalpina and Illyricum . He

4235-592: The past fifty years, partly because of the decline of traditional naval powers like Rhodes , while previous attempts to subdue them had been unsuccessful. However, Romans routinely referred to their opponents as "pirates" or "brigands", and some historians argue it is more accurate to see them as a conventional enemy, rather than disorganised outlaws. Principally based in Cilicia , in 68 BC they raided as far as Ostia , Rome's port, and kidnapped two senators, to general outrage. Prompted by Pompey, Aulus Gabinius , tribune of

4312-455: The plebs in 67 BC, proposed the Lex Gabinia , giving him a mandate for their suppression. It granted him proconsular authority for three years in any province within 50 miles of the Mediterranean, along with the power to appoint legates and significant financial resources. Concerned by one man holding such wide-ranging powers, the Senate opposed the law but it was passed by the people. Most of

4389-400: The province of Bithynia and Pontus , with the rest of Mithridates' territories distributed among Roman allies. Elsewhere, Ariobarzanes I of Cappadocia was restored to his throne, while Lesser Armenia was taken from Tigranes and incorporated into Galatia , with Pompey's client Deiotarus becoming ruler of the new kingdom. Finally, Cilicia received the coastal region of Pamphylia , previously

4466-403: The rebel army. Pompey engaged Perperna in battle and defeated him swiftly at the Battle near Osca . Perperna was captured and attempted to persuade Pompey to spare him by giving over Sertorius' correspondence, allegedly containing proof of communications between the rebel leader and leading men in Rome. Pompey burned the letters unread and executed Perperna, and then spent some time restructuring

4543-622: The remnants of his army retreated to Sardinia , where he died. The Sertorian War began in 80 BC when Quintus Sertorius , a prominent proscribed Marian general, initiated a rebellion in Hispania , where he was joined by other Roman exiles like Perperna. Supported by local Iberian tribes, he took control of Hispania Ulterior and repeatedly defeated Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius through skillful use of guerrilla warfare . Sertorius defeated other Roman generals sent to oust him and soon conquered Hispania Citerior as well. Backed by his allies in

4620-573: The removal of King Juba I and the remaining supporters of Pompey in Africa ( c.  46 ), Julius Caesar gave special rights to the citizens of Cirta , now known as Colonia Sittlanorum. In 311 AD, during the civil war between emperor Maxentius and usurper Domitius Alexander (a former governor of Africa), the city was destroyed. Rebuilt in 313 AD, it was subsequently named in Latin as "Colonia Constantiniana" or "Constantina", after emperor Constantine

4697-400: The restoration of Armenian territories taken by Lucullus, he paid a substantial cash indemnity and allowed Roman troops to be based on his territory. In 65 BC, Pompey set out to take Colchis, but to do so had first to subdue various local tribes and allies of Mithridrates. After winning a series of battles, he reached Phasis and linked up with Servilius, admiral of his Euxine fleet, before

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4774-565: The territory was captured by France, and from 1848 on until 1962 it was the centre of the Constantine Département. In 1880, while working in the military hospital in Constantine, Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran discovered that the cause of malaria is a protozoan . He observed the parasites in a blood smear taken from a soldier who had just died of malaria. For this, he received the 1907 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine . This

4851-653: The town. While Metellus remained in the north-west, Pompey seems to have transferred to Sulla's command in the south. Pompey advanced south-west along the Via Flaminia towards Spoletium , where he joined Marcus Licinius Crassus, together they defeated Carrinas once again. Pompey laid siege to Carrinas in Spoletium but the latter managed to escape. Pompey resumed his march to join Sulla's command. Not long afterwards Pompey successfully ambushed another large force under Censorinus, which

4928-588: The union between Pompey's and Sulla's army. Pompey attacked one of these armies and routed it. The three enemy commanders, unable to agree on a course of action, withdrew. Soon after Pompey arrived at Sulla's camp. He was greeted by Sulla with the official title of Imperator (General). At some point in 83 BC, it is not clear when but definitely before the onset of winter, Sulla sent Pompey back to Picenum to raise more troops. When fighting broke out once more in 82 Sulla advanced towards Rome, while Metellus (one of his lieutenants), supported by Pompey, campaigned against

5005-440: The urban electorate. With additional support from Crassus, Caesar became one of the two consuls for 59 BC, the other being the optimate Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus . This meant Caesar could help pass legislation sponsored by Pompey and Crassus, while it was in his interest to keep them aligned, an important factor given the rivalry between his two patrons. Despite appearing to be the most junior, Caesar thus became central to

5082-490: The wider region of Ifriqiya . The city recovered in the 12th century and under Almohad and Hafsid rule it was again a prosperous market, with links to Pisa , Genoa and Venice . After taking it from the Hafsids in 1529 it was intermittently part of Ottoman Empire , ruled by a Turkish bey (governor) subordinate to the dey of Algiers . Salah Bey , who ruled the city in 1770–1792, greatly embellished it and built much of

5159-508: Was Hirtuleius. Although Metellus defeated Perperna in a separate battle, Sertorius was able to withdraw to Clunia late in the year, where he repaired the walls to lure his opponents into a siege, while forming garrisons from other towns into a new field army. Once this was ready, he escaped from Clunia and used it to disrupt Roman logistics on land and by sea. Lack of supplies forced Metellus to quarter his troops in Gaul , while Pompey wintered among

5236-472: Was a serious blow to Pompey's prestige, who spent the rest of the year re-organising his army. Metellus' failure to dislodge Sertorius and Pompey's defeat meant the senatorial generals made no progress in the year. In 75 BC, Sertorius led the campaign against Metellus, while Pompey defeated his subordinates Perperna and Gaius Herennius outside Valencia . When Sertorius took over operations against Pompey, Metellus defeated his deputy Lucius Hirtuleius at

5313-489: Was already pregnant by her former husband, and died in childbirth soon after. The surviving Marians escaped to Sicily, where their ally Marcus Perperna was propraetor . They were supported by a fleet under Carbo, while Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus occupied the Roman province of Africa . Perperna abandoned Sicily after Pompey landed on the island with a large force, while Carbo was captured and later executed. Pompey claimed this

5390-529: Was also assigned Gallia Transalpina after its governor died in office, before leaving Rome to launch the Gallic Wars in 58 BC. His alliance with Pompey was strengthened when the latter married Caesar's daughter Julia. Senatorial opposition to the triumvirate was led by Cicero , a long-standing Pompeian ally. Despite this, the latter supported the populist politician Publius Clodius Pulcher in an attack on Cicero for executing Roman citizens without trial during

5467-550: Was assassinated by the courtiers of Ptolemy XIII . Pompey was born in Picenum on 29 September 106 BC, eldest son of a provincial noble called Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo . Although the dominant family in Picenum, Strabo was the first of his branch to achieve senatorial status in Rome ; he completed the traditional cursus honorum , becoming consul in 89 BC, and acquired a reputation for greed, political duplicity, and military ruthlessness. Pompey began his career serving with his father in

5544-410: Was justified by Carbo's alleged crimes against Roman citizens, but his opponents nicknamed him adulescentulus carnifex , or "young butcher", as a result. Pompey now sailed for Africa, leaving Sicily in the hands of his brother-in-law, Gaius Memmius . After defeating and killing Ahenobarbus at the Battle of Utica , Pompey subdued Numidia and executed its king Hiarbas , a Marian ally. He restored

5621-592: Was killed by the rebels. Pharnaces sent his embalmed body to Pompey, in return for which he was granted the Bosporan Kingdom and made an ally of Rome. The final collapse of the Seleucid Empire allowed Pompey to annex Syria in 64 BC, but its dissolution destabilised the region, while many of its cities had used the power vacuum to achieve independence. In early 63 BC, Pompey left Antioch and marched south, occupying coastal cities like Apamea , before crossing

5698-538: Was named the Arab Capital of Culture in 2015. In antiquity, the city was originally called Cirta and served as the capital of the Berber kingdom of Numidia . In 112 B.C., the city was the capital of the Numidian king Jugurtha , who defeated his half-brother Adherbal . The city later served as the base for Roman generals Quintus Caecilius Metellus Numidicus and Gaius Marius in their war against Jugurtha . Later, with

5775-516: Was the ability to veto Senatorial bills, an act often seen as a turning point in the politics of the late Republic. Although popular with the people, the measure must have been opposed by the optimates , and thus passing it required support from both consuls, although most extant sources barely mention Crassus. Pirates operated throughout the Mediterranean, while their fleets often formed temporary alliances with enemies of Rome, including Sertorius and Mithridates. Their power and range had increased over

5852-516: Was the first time that protozoa were shown to be a cause of disease. His work helped inspire researchers and veterinarians today to try to find a cure for malaria in animals. In 1934, Muslim anti-Jewish riots, the 1934 Constantine Pogrom , caused the death of 23 local Jews and 3 local Muslims, 81 people were injured on both sides of the conflict. During World War II , during the campaign in North Africa (1942–43), Allied forces used Constantine and

5929-522: Was trying to get through to Praeneste where Carbo's consular colleague, Marius the Younger (who was the figurehead of the struggle against Sulla), was blockaded. It was the failure of these attempts to get through the Sullan blockade in Umbria and Etruria , added to Metellus's success in winning control of the north, which broke the back of the government's resistance. At the end of the campaigning season of 82,

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