87-439: The Reynolds Intellectual Assessment Scales ( RIAS ) is an individually administered test of intelligence that includes a co-normed, supplemental measure of memory . It is appropriate for individuals ages 3–94. The RIAS intelligence subtests include Verbal Reasoning (verbal), Guess What (verbal), Odd-Item Out (nonverbal), and What's Missing? (nonverbal). Memory subtests include Verbal Memory and Nonverbal Memory. Included within
174-485: A table to avoiding plagiarism and constructing accurate reference citations. "The General Format of APA is most commonly used to cite sources within the social sciences. General guidelines for a paper in APA style includes: typed, double-spaced on standard-sized paper (8.5" x 11") with 1" margins on all sides. The font should be clear and highly readable. APA recommends using 12 pt. Times New Roman font." The seventh edition of
261-468: A " hypersurface in a multidimensional space" to compare systems that are good at different intellectual tasks. Some skeptics believe that there is no meaningful way to define intelligence, aside from "just pointing to ourselves". American Psychological Association The American Psychological Association ( APA ) is the main professional organization of psychologists in the United States, and
348-647: A ban on same-sex marriage. In August 2011, the APA clarified their support of same-sex marriage in light of continued research suggesting that the same community benefits accepted as result of heterosexual marriage apply to same-sex couples as well. Clinton Anderson, then associate executive director of the APA and director of the Office on Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender Concerns, said that, prior to this research, "We knew that marriage benefits heterosexual people in very significant ways, but we didn't know if that would be true for same-sex couples." Anderson also put forward
435-452: A fairly high degree of intellect that varies according to each species. The same is true with arthropods . Evidence of a general factor of intelligence has been observed in non-human animals. First described in humans , the g factor has since been identified in a number of non-human species. Cognitive ability and intelligence cannot be measured using the same, largely verbally dependent, scales developed for humans. Instead, intelligence
522-434: A fundamental quality possessed by every person is the theory of General Intelligence, or g factor . The g factor is a construct that summarizes the correlations observed between an individual's scores on a range of cognitive tests. Today, most psychologists agree that IQ measures at least some aspects of human intelligence, particularly the ability to thrive in an academic context. However, many psychologists question
609-638: A given person's intellectual performance will vary on different occasions, in different domains, as judged by different criteria. Concepts of "intelligence" are attempts to clarify and organize this complex set of phenomena. Although considerable clarity has been achieved in some areas, no such conceptualization has yet answered all the important questions, and none commands universal assent. Indeed, when two dozen prominent theorists were recently asked to define intelligence, they gave two dozen, somewhat different, definitions. Psychologists and learning researchers also have suggested definitions of intelligence such as
696-525: A justification." In November 2014, the APA ordered an independent review into whether it cooperated with the government's use of torture of prisoners during the George W. Bush administration , naming Chicago attorney David H. Hoffman to conduct the review. On July 2, 2015, a 542-page report was issued to the special committee of the board of directors of the APA relating to ethics guidelines, national security interrogations, and torture. The report concluded that
783-465: A publishing operation, offices that address administrative, business, information technology, and operational needs, and five substantive directorates: APA policy on the use of the title psychologist is contained in the Model Act for State Licensure of Psychologists: psychologists have earned a doctoral degree in psychology and may not use the title "psychologist" and/or deliver psychological services to
870-434: A resolution stating that it is unfair and discriminatory to deny same-sex couples legal access to civil marriage and to all its attendant rights, benefits, and privileges. It also filed an amicus brief in the federal court case in which Judge Vaughn Walker struck down California's constitutional ban on same-sex marriage. The APA later praised the decision and denied the existence of any "scientific justification" for
957-517: A set of rules developed to assist reading comprehension in the social and behavioral sciences. Used to ensure clarity of communication, the layout is designed to "move the idea forward with a minimum of distraction and a maximum of precision." The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association contains the rules for every aspect of writing, especially in the social sciences from determining authorship to constructing
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#17328946794631044-470: A supportive resource for ethical practice for psychologists, including those in military and national security roles; prohibits psychologists from participating in national security interrogations; clarifies the intended application of the 2008 petition resolution... and calls for APA letters to be sent to federal officials to inform them of these policy changes and clarifications of existing APA policy. The ban will not "prohibit psychologists from working with
1131-682: A task force presented a report that in part examined the efficacy of so-called " reparative therapy ", or sexual orientation change efforts. The "Resolution on Appropriate Affirmative Responses to Sexual Orientation Distress and Change Efforts" also advises that parents, guardians, young people, and their families avoid sexual orientation treatments that portray homosexuality as a mental illness or developmental disorder and instead seek psychotherapy , social support , and educational services "that provide accurate information on sexual orientation and sexuality, increase family and school support, and reduce rejection of sexual minority youth." The APA adopted
1218-445: A tidal wave of consequences for the APA. On July 14, 2015, the APA announced the retirement of its CEO, Norman B. Anderson , effective the end of 2015, and of Deputy Chief Executive Officer Michael Honaker , effective August 15, 2015, and the resignation of Rhea K. Farberman, APA's executive director for public and member communication. Anderson had been CEO since 2003. For at least a decade, dissident psychologists within and outside
1305-528: A two-year part-time internship). However, there is currently an "internship crisis" as defined by the American Psychological Association, in that approximately 25% of clinical psychology doctoral students do not match for internship each year. This crisis has led many students (approximately 1,000 each year) to re-apply for internship, thus delaying graduation, or to complete an unaccredited internship, and often has many emotional and financial consequences. Students who do not complete an APA-accredited internship in
1392-487: A variety of APA Practice Organization resources, including PHWP Web content, e-newsletter, podcast and blog, and support of local programs currently implemented by 52 state, provincial and territorial psychological associations as a mechanism for driving grassroots change in local business communities. The awards are designed to recognize organizations for their efforts to foster employee health and well-being while enhancing organizational performance. The award program highlights
1479-401: A variety of workplaces, large and small, profit and non-profit, in diverse geographical settings. Applicants are evaluated on their efforts in the following five areas: employee involvement, work-life balance , employee growth and development, health and safety, and employee recognition . Awards are given at the local and national level. American Psychological Association ( APA ) style is
1566-554: Is a history of similar issues with the Canadian Psychological Association . Following are the two relevant ethical standards from the APA Ethics Code, with the amended language shown in bold: 1.02, Conflicts Between Ethics and Law, Regulations, or Other Governing Legal Authority If psychologists' ethical responsibilities conflict with law, regulations, or other governing legal authority, psychologists clarify
1653-560: Is called artificial intelligence . The word intelligence derives from the Latin nouns intelligentia or intellēctus , which in turn stem from the verb intelligere , to comprehend or perceive. In the Middle Ages , the word intellectus became the scholarly technical term for understanding and a translation for the Greek philosophical term nous . This term, however, was strongly linked to
1740-591: Is determined by any particular factor or factors. Many think that nature and nurture both play complex roles; most people experience little or no sense of choice about their sexual orientation. In 1975, APA issued a supporting statement that homosexuality is not a mental disorder. Conversion therapy, also called reparative therapy, is the practice of attempting to change the patient's sexual orientation to heterosexual . The American Psychological Association (APA) task force report on appropriate therapeutic responses to sexual orientation concluded that conversion therapy
1827-450: Is different from learning . Learning refers to the act of retaining facts and information or abilities and being able to recall them for future use. Intelligence, on the other hand, is the cognitive ability of someone to perform these and other processes. There have been various attempts to quantify intelligence via psychometric testing. Prominent among these are the various Intelligence Quotient (IQ) tests, which were first developed in
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#17328946794631914-409: Is important to our mental health and has ties to social intelligence. Social intelligence is the ability to understand the social cues and motivations of others and oneself in social situations. It is thought to be distinct to other types of intelligence, but has relations to emotional intelligence. Social intelligence has coincided with other studies that focus on how we make judgements of others,
2001-782: Is measured using a variety of interactive and observational tools focusing on innovation , habit reversal, social learning , and responses to novelty . Studies have shown that g is responsible for 47% of the individual variance in cognitive ability measures in primates and between 55% and 60% of the variance in mice (Locurto, Locurto). These values are similar to the accepted variance in IQ explained by g in humans (40–50%). It has been argued that plants should also be classified as intelligent based on their ability to sense and model external and internal environments and adjust their morphology , physiology and phenotype accordingly to ensure self-preservation and reproduction. A counter argument
2088-457: Is sometimes defined as the "capacity to learn how to carry out a huge range of tasks". Mathematician Olle Häggström defines intelligence in terms of "optimization power", an agent's capacity for efficient cross-domain optimization of the world according to the agent's preferences, or more simply the ability to "steer the future into regions of possibility ranked high in a preference ordering". In this optimization framework, Deep Blue has
2175-788: Is that intelligence is commonly understood to involve the creation and use of persistent memories as opposed to computation that does not involve learning. If this is accepted as definitive of intelligence, then it includes the artificial intelligence of robots capable of "machine learning", but excludes those purely autonomic sense-reaction responses that can be observed in many plants. Plants are not limited to automated sensory-motor responses, however, they are capable of discriminating positive and negative experiences and of "learning" (registering memories) from their past experiences. They are also capable of communication, accurately computing their circumstances, using sophisticated cost–benefit analysis and taking tightly controlled actions to mitigate and control
2262-450: Is thought to be the ability to convey emotion to others in an understandable way as well as to read the emotions of others accurately. Some theories imply that a heightened emotional intelligence could also lead to faster generating and processing of emotions in addition to the accuracy. In addition, higher emotional intelligence is thought to help us manage emotions, which is beneficial for our problem-solving skills. Emotional intelligence
2349-677: The Bush administration instituted "enhanced" interrogation techniques, stating publicly that reported abuses were isolated incidents, and not standard practice. Internal memos from the Federal Bureau of Investigation revealed that an executive order by George W. Bush had sanctioned certain interrogation techniques, such as playing loud music, depriving prisoners of sleep, and stripping prisoners of their clothing. The CIA reportedly required involvement from health professionals to continue its practice of "enhanced" interrogations on detainees, to maintain
2436-517: The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (and a concise version titled Concise Rules of APA Style ), which is the official guide to APA style ; the APA Dictionary of Psychology ; an eight-volume Encyclopedia of Psychology ; and many scholarly books on specific subjects such as Varieties of Anomalous Experience . The APA has also published children's books under
2523-471: The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association was published in October 2019. APA maintains a number of databases, including PsycINFO , PsycARTICLES, PsycBOOKS, PsycEXTRA, PsycCRITIQUES , PsycTESTS, and PsycTHERAPY. APA also operates a comprehensive search platform, PsycNET, covering multiple databases. PsycINFO is a bibliographic database that contains citations and summaries dating from
2610-653: The metaphysical and cosmological theories of teleological scholasticism , including theories of the immortality of the soul, and the concept of the active intellect (also known as the active intelligence). This approach to the study of nature was strongly rejected by early modern philosophers such as Francis Bacon , Thomas Hobbes , John Locke , and David Hume , all of whom preferred "understanding" (in place of " intellectus " or "intelligence") in their English philosophical works. Hobbes for example, in his Latin De Corpore , used " intellectus intelligit ", translated in
2697-459: The validity of IQ tests as a measure of intelligence as a whole. There is debate about the heritability of IQ , that is, what proportion of differences in IQ test performance between individuals are explained by genetic or environmental factors. The scientific consensus is that genetics does not explain average differences in IQ test performance between racial groups. Emotional intelligence
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2784-473: The "Distinguished Contributions" awards; these awards are the highest honors given by the APA. The American Psychologist is the association's flagship, peer-reviewed journal. APA also publishes over 70 other journals encompassing most specialty areas in the field; APA's Educational Publishing Foundation (EPF) is an imprint for publishing on behalf of other organizations. Its journals include: The APA has published hundreds of books. Among these books are:
2871-460: The 19th century, including journal articles, book chapters, books, technical reports, and dissertations within the field of psychology. As of January 2010 , PsycINFO has collected information from 2,457 journals. The APA was founded in July 1892 at Clark University by a small group of around 30 men; by 1916 there were over 300 members. The first president was G. Stanley Hall . During World War II,
2958-547: The 2008 Membership Vote to Remove Psychologists from All Settings That Operate Outside of International Law (NBI #23B) Council is asked to approve the substitute main motion below that includes a revised resolution with a new title, Resolution to Amend the 2006 and 2013 Council Resolutions to Clarify the Roles of Psychologists Related to Interrogation and Detainee Welfare in National Security Settings, to Further Implement
3045-566: The 2008 Petition Resolution, and to Safeguard Against Acts of Torture and Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment in All Settings . This resolution further aligns the APA policy definition for "cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment" (in the 2006 and 2013 Council resolutions) with the United Nations (UN) Convention Against Torture and ensures that the definition applies broadly to all individuals and settings; offers APA as
3132-523: The APA Position Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, the APA condemns the use of any of the following practices by military interrogators trying to elicit anti- terrorism information from detainees, on the ground that "there are no exceptional circumstances whatsoever, whether induced by a state of war or threat of war, internal political instability or any other public emergency, that may be invoked as
3219-462: The APA council of representatives met at the association's 123rd annual convention in Toronto , Ontario . At that meeting, the APA council passed Resolution 23B, which implemented the 2008 membership vote to remove psychologists from settings that operate outside international law , and banning the participation of psychologists in unlawful interrogations. With 156 votes in favor and only one vote against,
3306-493: The APA in United States and Canada requires doctoral training whereas associate membership requires at least two years of postgraduate studies in psychology or approved related discipline. The minimal requirement of a doctoral dissertation related to psychology for full membership can be waived in certain circumstances where there is evidence that significant contribution or performance in the field of psychology has been made. American Psychological Association Services, Inc. (APASI)
3393-498: The APA merged with other psychological organizations, resulting in a new divisional structure. Nineteen divisions were approved in 1944; the divisions with the most members were the clinical and personnel (now counseling) divisions. From 1960 to 2007, the number of divisions expanded to 54. Today the APA is affiliated with 60 state, territorial, and Canadian provincial associations. Due to the dominance of clinical psychology in APA, several research-focused groups have broken away from
3480-530: The APA secretly collaborated with the Bush administration to bolster a legal and ethical justification for the torture of prisoners. Furthermore, the report stated that the association's ethics director Stephen Behnke and others had "colluded with important Department of Defense officials to have the APA issue loose, high-level ethical guidelines that did not constrain" the interrogation of terrorism suspects at Guantanamo Bay. The association's "principal motive in doing so
3567-496: The APA to require its members to refuse participation in military conducted interrogations of any kind. After the abuses were made public, the APA created a task force called Psychological Ethics and National Security (PENS) and released a report stating that the APA Code of Ethics applies to psychologists working in any setting, and that psychologists do not facilitate or participate in any degrading or cruel behavior, referring back to
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3654-530: The APA to take action by regulating graduate training programs. A year after the establishment of the Human Resources Research Organization by the U.S. military in 1951, the CIA began funding numerous psychologists (and other scientists) in the development of psychological warfare methods under the supervision of APA treasurer Meredith Crawford . Donald O. Hebb , the APA president in 1960 who
3741-406: The APA's 1986 Resolution Against Torture. The report also called on psychologists to report any suspected or observed inhumane treatment to the appropriate authorities and obey federal law. In February 2010, the APA's Council of Representatives voted to amend the association's Ethics Code to make clear that its standards can never be interpreted to justify or defend violating human rights. There
3828-477: The APA's view that merely allowing same-sex civil unions is an inadequate option: "Anything other than marriage is, in essence, a stigmatization of same-sex couples. Stigma does have negative impacts on people." In 2024, evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins and physicist Alan Sokal co-authored an op-ed in The Boston Globe criticizing the use of the terminology "sex assigned at birth" instead of "sex" by
3915-468: The APA, including the group WithholdAPAdues, had protested the involvement of psychologists "in interrogations at CIA black sites and Guantánamo." Prior to the release of the Hoffman report, which undermined the APA's repeated denials and showed that some APA leaders were complicit in torture, the dissidents were ignored or ridiculed. On August 7, 2015, just weeks following the release of the Hoffman report,
4002-599: The APA, the American Medical Association , the American Academy of Pediatrics , and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention . Dawkins and Sokal argued that sex is an "objective biological reality" that "is determined at conception and is then observed at birth," rather than assigned by a medical professional. Calling this " social constructionism gone amok," Dawkins and Sokal argued that "distort[ing]
4089-521: The American Psychological Association in 1977. The APA has 56 numbered divisions, 54 of which are currently active: The APA states the following: There is no consensus among scientists about the exact reasons that an individual develops a heterosexual, bisexual, or homosexual orientation. Although much research has examined the possible genetic, hormonal, developmental, social, and cultural influences on sexual orientation, no findings have emerged that permit scientists to conclude that sexual orientation
4176-490: The Coalition for an Ethical Psychology, has been very harsh in its criticism of the APA stance on its refusal to categorically prohibit members from participating in any phase of military interrogations. They stated their continuing disagreement with APA leadership in an open letter posted on their website on October 31, 2012, in which they reiterated their condemnation of torture and enhanced interrogation techniques, and called for
4263-484: The English version as "the understanding understandeth", as a typical example of a logical absurdity . "Intelligence" has therefore become less common in English language philosophy, but it has later been taken up (with the scholastic theories that it now implies) in more contemporary psychology . There is controversy over how to define intelligence. Scholars describe its constituent abilities in various ways, and differ in
4350-570: The Magination Press imprint, software for data analysis, videos demonstrating therapeutic techniques, reports, and brochures. The Psychologically Healthy Workplace Program (PHWP) is a collaborative effort between the American Psychological Association and the APA Practice Organization designed to help employers optimize employee well-being and organizational performance. The PHWP includes APA's Psychologically Healthy Workplace Awards,
4437-678: The RIAS is the Reynolds Intellectual Screening Test ( RIST ), a quick screener that consists of two RIAS subtests (Guess What and Odd-Item Out) and takes less time to complete than the RIAS. The test is currently in its second edition, published in 2015. Both editions are suitable for evaluation of intellectual giftedness , and high scores are accepted as qualifying evidence for high IQ societies such as Intertel (min. IQ ≥ 135) and American Mensa (min. IQ ≥ 130). Intelligence Intelligence has been defined in many ways:
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#17328946794634524-421: The U.S. are barred from certain employment settings, including VA hospitals, the military, and cannot get licensed in some states, such as Utah and Mississippi. Additionally, some postdoctoral fellowships and other employment settings require or prefer an APA-accredited internship. The APA has been criticized for not addressing this crisis adequately and many psychologists and graduate students have petitioned for
4611-779: The UN Convention Against Torture and the Geneva Conventions) or the U.S. Constitution (where appropriate), unless they are working directly for the persons being detained or for an independent third party working to protect human rights." The resolution became official APA policy in February 2009. However, the APA has refused to sanction those members known to have participated in and, in some cases, designed abusive interrogation techniques used in Guantanamo Bay, Iraq, and Afghanistan interrogation centers. The APA directive
4698-429: The accuracy with which we do so, and why people would be viewed as having positive or negative social character . There is debate as to whether or not these studies and social intelligence come from the same theories or if there is a distinction between them, and they are generally thought to be of two different schools of thought . Moral intelligence is the capacity to understand right from wrong and to behave based on
4785-404: The capacity for abstraction , logic , understanding , self-awareness , learning , emotional knowledge , reasoning , planning , creativity , critical thinking , and problem-solving . It can be described as the ability to perceive or infer information ; and to retain it as knowledge to be applied to adaptive behaviors within an environment or context. The term rose to prominence during
4872-521: The cognitive abilities to learn , form concepts , understand , and reason , including the capacities to recognize patterns , innovate, plan , solve problems , and employ language to communicate . These cognitive abilities can be organized into frameworks like fluid vs. crystallized and the Unified Cattell-Horn-Carroll model, which contains abilities like fluid reasoning, perceptual speed, verbal abilities, and others. Intelligence
4959-691: The degree to which they conceive of intelligence as quantifiable. A consensus report called Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns , published in 1995 by the Board of Scientific Affairs of the American Psychological Association , states: Individuals differ from one another in their ability to understand complex ideas, to adapt effectively to the environment, to learn from experience, to engage in various forms of reasoning, to overcome obstacles by taking thought. Although these individual differences can be substantial, they are never entirely consistent:
5046-870: The diverse environmental stressors. Scholars studying artificial intelligence have proposed definitions of intelligence that include the intelligence demonstrated by machines. Some of these definitions are meant to be general enough to encompass human and other animal intelligence as well. An intelligent agent can be defined as a system that perceives its environment and takes actions which maximize its chances of success. Kaplan and Haenlein define artificial intelligence as "a system's ability to correctly interpret external data, to learn from such data, and to use those learnings to achieve specific goals and tasks through flexible adaptation". Progress in artificial intelligence can be demonstrated in benchmarks ranging from games to practical tasks such as protein folding . Existing AI lags humans in terms of general intelligence, which
5133-431: The early 1900s. Most psychologists believe that intelligence can be divided into various domains or competencies. Intelligence has been long-studied in humans , and across numerous disciplines. It has also been observed in the cognition of non-human animals . Some researchers have suggested that plants exhibit forms of intelligence, though this remains controversial. Intelligence in computers or other machines
5220-400: The early 20th century to screen children for intellectual disability . Over time, IQ tests became more pervasive, being used to screen immigrants, military recruits, and job applicants. As the tests became more popular, belief that IQ tests measure a fundamental and unchanging attribute that all humans possess became widespread. An influential theory that promoted the idea that IQ measures
5307-507: The effectiveness of the " enhanced interrogation techniques ", the APA called on the U.S. government to prohibit the use of unethical interrogation techniques and labeled specific techniques as torture. Critics pointed out that the APA declined to advise its members not to participate in such interrogations. In September 2008, the APA's members passed a resolution stating that psychologists may not work in settings where "persons are held outside, or in violation of, either international law (e.g.,
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#17328946794635394-617: The following: "Intelligence is a force, F, that acts so as to maximize future freedom of action. It acts to maximize future freedom of action, or keep options open, with some strength T, with the diversity of possible accessible futures, S, up to some future time horizon, τ. In short, intelligence doesn't like to get trapped". Human intelligence is the intellectual power of humans, which is marked by complex cognitive feats and high levels of motivation and self-awareness . Intelligence enables humans to remember descriptions of things and use those descriptions in future behaviors. It gives humans
5481-705: The human rights of prisoners in Abu Ghraib Prison and American detention camps, and the role of the United States and the United Kingdom in enacting these abuses. The reports called on the occupying powers to protect the human rights of any detained civilians by giving them a fair and timely trial, not detaining civilians arbitrarily, and treating all people ethically while in detention. Amnesty International also called for justice, by trying individual perpetrators of abuse for their crimes. Despite these reports,
5568-423: The importance of learning through text in our own personal lives and in our culture, it is perhaps surprising how utterly dismissive we tend to be of it. It is sometimes derided as being merely "book knowledge", and having it is being "book smart". In contrast, knowledge acquired through direct experience and apprenticeship is called "street knowledge", and having it is being "street smart". Although humans have been
5655-424: The language-using Kanzi ) and other great apes , dolphins , elephants and to some extent parrots , rats and ravens . Cephalopod intelligence provides an important comparative study. Cephalopods appear to exhibit characteristics of significant intelligence, yet their nervous systems differ radically from those of backboned animals. Vertebrates such as mammals , birds , reptiles and fish have shown
5742-460: The largest psychological association in the world. It has over 157,000 members, including scientists, educators, clinicians, consultants, and students. It has 54 divisions, which function as interest groups for different subspecialties of psychology or topical areas. The APA has an annual budget of around $ 125 million. The APA has task forces that issue policy statements on various matters of social importance, including abortion , human rights ,
5829-567: The lawfulness of their practices. Psychiatrists and medical doctors were reluctant to participate in interrogations, however some psychologists participated. A report by a group of psychologists alleges the same, implicating a number of APA officials as well. When it emerged that psychologists, as part of the Behavioral Science Consultation Team , were advising interrogators in Guantánamo and other U.S. facilities on improving
5916-645: The nature of the conflict , make known their commitment to the Ethics Code and take reasonable steps to resolve the conflict consistent with the General Principles and Ethical Standards of the Ethics Code. Under no circumstances may this standard be used to justify or defend violating human rights. 1.03, Conflicts Between Ethics and Organizational Demands If the demands of an organization with which psychologists are affiliated or for whom they are working are in conflict with this Ethics Code, psychologists clarify
6003-407: The nature of the conflict, make known their commitment to the Ethics Code, and take reasonable steps to resolve the conflict consistent with the General Principles and Ethical Standards of the Ethics Code. Under no circumstances may this standard be used to justify or defend violating human rights. In its 2013 "Policy Related to Psychologists' Work in National Security Settings and Reaffirmation of
6090-587: The organization. These include the Psychonomic Society in 1959 (with a primarily cognitive orientation), and the Association for Psychological Science (which changed its name from the American Psychological Society in early 2006) in 1988 (with a broad focus on the science and research of psychology). Theodore H. Blau was the first clinician in independent practice to be elected president of
6177-477: The police or prisons in criminal law enforcement interrogations". In 2013 a class action lawsuit was brought against APA on behalf of approximately 60,000 of its 122,000 members who were licensed clinicians. Those members paid an additional $ 140 practice assessment fee as part of their membership dues every year beginning in 2001 to fund the lobbying arm of APA, the APA Practice Organization (APAPO). The lawsuit accused APA of using deceptive means by representing that
6264-431: The power to "steer a chessboard's future into a subspace of possibility which it labels as 'winning', despite attempts by Garry Kasparov to steer the future elsewhere." Hutter and Legg , after surveying the literature, define intelligence as "an agent's ability to achieve goals in a wide range of environments". While cognitive ability is sometimes measured as a one-dimensional parameter, it could also be represented as
6351-438: The primary focus of intelligence researchers, scientists have also attempted to investigate animal intelligence, or more broadly, animal cognition. These researchers are interested in studying both mental ability in a particular species , and comparing abilities between species. They study various measures of problem solving, as well as numerical and verbal reasoning abilities. Some challenges include defining intelligence so it has
6438-434: The public, unless the psychologist is licensed or specifically exempted from licensure under the law. State licensing laws specify state specific requirements for the education and training of psychologists leading to licensure. Psychologists who are exempted from licensure could include researchers, educators, or general applied psychologists who provide services outside the health and mental health field. Full membership with
6525-411: The recommended changes can be found in the document "Good Governance Project Recommended Changes to Maximize Organizational Effectiveness of APA Governance". The suggested changes would change APA from a membership-based, representational structure to a corporate structure. These motions were discussed and voted upon by the council on July 31, 2013, and August 2, 2013. APA comprises an executive office,
6612-685: The resolution passed with the near unanimous approval of council members. The adoption of Resolution 23B aligned the APA's policy with that of the American Psychiatric Association and that of the American Medical Association by prohibiting psychologists from participating in interrogations deemed illegal by the Geneva Conventions and the United Nations Convention against Torture . Implementation of
6699-407: The same meaning across species, and operationalizing a measure that accurately compares mental ability across species and contexts. Wolfgang Köhler 's research on the intelligence of apes is an example of research in this area, as is Stanley Coren's book, The Intelligence of Dogs . Non-human animals particularly noted and studied for their intelligence include chimpanzees , bonobos (notably
6786-399: The scientific facts in the service of a social cause" risks undermining trust in medical institutions. The APA is the main accrediting body for U.S. clinical and counseling psychology doctoral training programs and internship sites. APA-accredited clinical psychology PhD and PsyD programs typically require students to complete a one-year full-time clinical internship in order to graduate (or
6873-489: The torture of prisoners, arguing that their presence was to "add value and safeguards" to interrogations. Former APA president Gerald Koocher argued, referring to allegations of continuing systemic abuse by psychologists, that such allegations were originating from "opportunistic commentators masquerading as scholars." During the Iraq War , Amnesty International released a series of reports, calling attention to violations of
6960-617: The value that is believed to be right. It is considered a distinct form of intelligence, independent to both emotional and cognitive intelligence. Concepts of "book smarts" and "street smart" are contrasting views based on the premise that some people have knowledge gained through academic study, but may lack the experience to sensibly apply that knowledge, while others have knowledge gained through practical experience, but may lack accurate information usually gained through study by which to effectively apply that knowledge. Artificial intelligence researcher Hector Levesque has noted that: Given
7047-453: The welfare of detainees, human trafficking , the rights of the mentally ill , IQ testing, sexual orientation change efforts , and gender equality. APA is a corporation chartered in Washington, D.C. APA's bylaws describe structural components that serve as a system of checks and balances to ensure democratic process. The organizational entities include: The Good Governance Project (GGP)
7134-659: Was "unlikely to be successful" and involved "some risk of harm". In the task force's report, the APA recommends that therapists adopt an affirmative, supportive approach for clients who present for therapy to change their sexual orientation rather than attempting to convert their sexual orientation. The APA adopted a resolution in August 2009 stating that mental health professionals should avoid telling clients that they can change their sexual orientation through therapy or other treatments. The approval, by APA's governing Council of Representatives, came at APA's annual convention, during which
7221-701: Was awarded the APA Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award in 1961, defended the torture of research subjects, arguing that what was being studied was other nations' methods of brainwashing . Former APA president Martin Seligman spoke upon the invitation of the CIA on his animal experimentation where he shocked a dog unpredictably and repeatedly into total, helpless passivity. Former APA president Ronald F. Levant , upon visiting Guantanamo Bay , affirmed that psychologists were present during
7308-593: Was formed in 2018 and is a 501(c)(6) entity, which engages in advocacy on behalf of psychologists from all areas of psychology. Its predecessor was the American Psychological Association Practice Organization (APAPO). APASI contains the Psychology Political Action Committee (PAC), which engages in lobbying on behalf of psychologists at the federal level. Each year, the APA recognizes top psychologists with
7395-893: Was in contrast to the American Psychiatric Association ban in May 2006 of all direct participation in interrogations by psychiatrists, and the American Medical Association ban in June 2006 of the direct participation in interrogations by physicians. An independent panel of medical, military, ethics, education, public health, and legal professionals issued a comprehensive report in November 2013 that "charged that U.S. military and intelligence agencies directed doctors and psychologists working in U.S. military detention centers to violate standard ethical principles and medical standards to avoid infliction of harm." One group of psychologists in particular,
7482-553: Was initiated in January 2011 as part of the strategic plan to "[assure] APA's governance practices, processes, and structures are optimized and aligned with what is needed to thrive in a rapidly changing and increasingly complex environment." The charge included soliciting feedback and input stakeholders, learning about governance best practices, recommending whether the change was required, recommending needed changes based on data, and creating implementation plans. The June 2013 GGP update on
7569-475: Was to align APA and curry favor with DOD." An APA official said that ethics director Stephen Behnke had been "removed from his position as a result of the report" and indicated that other firings or sanctions might follow. Ultimately, the findings of the Hoffman Report revealed that the APA had an unfair bias towards prisoners due to the organization's relationship with the federal government. This resulted in
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